Geographers of the 19th century. The development of Russian science in the first half of the 19th century and the creation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society

Russian pioneers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries, which became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign, world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to contribute to the training of new personnel for development marine research.

Prerequisites

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out their discoveries largely because in this century there was a need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia's communication with other countries. AT late XVIII - early XIX century, our country finally strengthened its status on international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.

The Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century took place as talented navigators just at the very time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And it is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets, maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under consideration, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.

World expedition plan

Such a project became possible largely due to the successful military operations of our country at the end of XVIII century. At this time, Russia got the opportunity to build its own fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, should have stimulated maritime affairs. Russian navigators at that time seriously thought about laying convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned on the territory North America Alaska. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.

I.F. Kruzenshtern at the end of the 18th century presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, then he was rejected. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He got approved.

Training

I.F. Kruzenshtern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, being his student, took part in the war against Sweden, having proven himself well then. After that, he was sent for an internship in England, where he received an excellent education. Upon his return to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.

His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him back in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be very talented Marine officer in the years Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790. Soon, two ships were equipped under the names "Neva" and "Nadezhda". The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.

Swimming

Russian navigators rounded Cape Horn and, having entered the Pacific Ocean, separated. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk captured by the Indians. During this trip, he also spent the first time in the history of navigation sailing ship around South Africa.

The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern went to the Sea of Japan. The merit of this explorer is that he carefully explored the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to explore what the management was interested in for a long time Pacific Fleet. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.

Kruzenshtern's contribution to science

Travelers of Russia have significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that outlined the results of their research. Krusenstern published Journey Around the World, but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map, carried out valuable studies of the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of the water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.

Social activity

His later career was closely associated with the naval corps, where he was first assigned by the inspector. Subsequently, he began to teach there, and then generally headed it. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Naval Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This has significantly increased quality level maritime teaching.

In addition, he helped organize other expeditions, in particular, contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer, O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian geographical society, which was destined to take one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. Of particular importance for the development of geography was the Atlas of the South Sea he published.

Preparing a new expedition

Krusenstern, a few years after his trip, insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed to equip two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Prior to this, the navigator came very close to Antarctica, but the ice prevented him from passing further. Then he suggested that the sixth continent either does not exist, or it is impossible to get to it.

In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for navigation. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a series of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and water resistant. However, the second, built in the UK, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was led by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.

Journey south

A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, came to the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During the maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries you can call the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the coast, as well as sketches of the animals seen on the new mainland, Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.

During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia has been described. Of particular importance are the descriptions of the new continent. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to observe the earth better, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.

The value of the discoveries

The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent, turned the idea of the geography of the Earth upside down. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the expedition members have collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at Kazan University.

Further activities

Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, commanded Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of the recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects are named after him. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.

Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous trip to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the coast of Russian America from smugglers, with which he successfully coped. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet, participated in which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also make your outstanding contribution to the development of geography.

In the domestic geographical science, to one degree or another, all the same problems that were in the field of attention in foreign countries. But this was not a complete adherence to foreign models of theoretical thought and scientific controversy. In addition to methodological borrowings, noticeable features of originality were formed, associated with their own experience in the development of science, the distinctive features of the natural and socio-economic environment of activity and the mentality of scientists. AT Russian society issues of the development of natural and socio-economic processes, the problems of interaction and interdependence between natural lands and inhabitants, issues of optimizing natural and economic complexes were considered with an enviable sequence; fundamental problems the role of geographical science in natural science and nature management. And there are numerous examples of this.

A talented thinker, who died early, Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev (1840-1868), sharply criticized the conclusions of T. Malthus about the impending troubles of a growing population and the disproportionately slow increase in food products. In Sketches from the History of Labor, he wrote: “The earth and its productive forces appear to Malthus as a chest filled with money ... In human labor, he ... sees the mechanical application of muscular strength and completely forgets the activity of the brain, which constantly triumphs over physical nature and constantly discovering new properties in it" Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) spoke with an understanding of the role of people's productive activity in the transformation of nature: "Only the indefatigable diligence of a person can give nature a new, higher beauty instead of wild, primitive beauty, irrepressibly disappearing under his feet ... Where there is a man, there nature must be recreated by the labor of man. The people bring desolation and savagery into their country, if they do not bring culture into it. A high work culture can be opposed to the destructive influence of rash economic activity. Now, in this case, we are talking about the ecological imperative, that is, the priority of preserving the ecological situation.

Many of our compatriots took ecological positions. On the interaction of forces living and inanimate nature wrote A.T. Bolotov back in the 18th century. K.F. was an ecologist in essence of his ideas. steering wheel. In 1845, he published an article "On the influence of external conditions on the life of animals", in which it was argued that organisms are not only under the influence natural factors, but are influenced by other animals and plants, as well as humans. Under the influence of the ideas of Roulier, the scientific views of N.A. Severtsov. As Yu.G. Saushkin, “none of the scientists of the last century combined geographical and biological ideas so organically as Severtsov did.” In 1855 he published the book "Periodic phenomena in the life of animals, birds and reptiles Voronezh province» with the justification of the influence of the habitat on the life of animals. Severtsov accepted Darwin's ideas about speciation, but noted Darwin's ignorance of the great influence of external conditions as a shortcoming of this doctrine. Severtsov told Darwin about this during their personal meeting in London in 1875. It is possible that, based on these conversations, a year later Darwin admitted: “In my opinion, the greatest mistake I made is that I attached there is too little value for the direct influence of the environment, that is, food, climate, etc., independently of natural selection.”

The works of K.M. Baer, who professed complex approaches to the study of natural objects, including living organisms. IN AND. Vernadsky said: “A great naturalist and a great sage lived in St. Petersburg in the time of Nicholas. it historical fact of great importance in the creation of our culture, although few contemporaries were aware of it. Baer's colleague at the academy, A.V. Nikitenko, in 1866 wrote in his diary: “An excellent scientist, wonderful person, young old man. It has philosophy, poetry, life." On Russian soil, a galaxy of prominent scientists, authoritative in the world scientific community, has developed. In domestic science, they developed as complex geographical directions, and highly specialized studies, in most cases, however, using complex geographical methods for analyzing the source material and synthesizing the results. Geographers, Baer's contemporaries, were distrustful of the accelerated differentiation of natural science. A number of theorists perceived this process as a crisis of geography.

A significant contribution to the implementation of development ideas on the example of natural and natural-social systems was made by Russian scientists P.A. Kropotkin and L.I. Mechnikov, spiritually close to the famous French geographer, Eliza Reclus.

A major role in the organization of geographical expeditions, in the study of the territory of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. played by the Russian Geographical Society (RGO), established in 1845 in St. Petersburg. Its departments (hereinafter - branches) were organized in Eastern and Western Siberia, Central Asia, the Caucasus and other regions. A remarkable constellation of researchers has grown up in the ranks of the Russian Geographical Society who have received worldwide recognition. Among them were F.P. Litke, P.P. Semenov, N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, P.A. Kropotkin, R.K. Maak, N.A. Severtsov and many others. Along with the geographical society, natural scientists' societies that existed in a number of cultural centers of Russia were engaged in the study of nature. A significant contribution to the knowledge of the territory of a vast country was made by such government institutions as the Geological and Soil Committees, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Committee of the Siberian Railway, etc. The main attention of researchers was directed to the study of Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, Central and Central Asia.

Central Asia Studies

In 1851 P.P. Semenov, on behalf of the Council of the Russian Geographical Society, began the translation into Russian of the first volume of Ritter's Geoscience of Asia. The large gaps and inaccuracies that Ritter had necessitated special expeditionary studies. This task was undertaken by Semyonov himself, who personally met Ritter and attended his lectures during his stay in Berlin (1852-1855). Semyonov discussed with Ritter the details of the translation of Asia's Geosciences, and after returning to Russia, in 1855 he prepared the first volume for publication. In 1856-1857. a very fruitful journey of Semenov to the Tien Shan took place. In 1856, he visited the Issyk-Kul basin and went to this lake through the Boom Gorge, which made it possible to establish the insufficiency of Issyk-Kul. After wintering in Barnaul, in 1857 Semenov crossed the Terskey-Alatau ridge, reached the Tien Shan syrts, discovered the upper reaches of the river. Naryn - the main source of the Syr Darya. Further, Semenov crossed the Tien Shan on a different route, went into the basin of the river. Tarim to the river. Saryjaz, saw the Khan-Tengri glaciers. On the way back Semenov explored the Zailiysky Alatau, Dzhungarsky Alatau, Tarbagatai and Alakul Lake ranges. Semenov considered the main results of his expedition to be: a) establishing the height of the snow line in the Tien Shan; b) the discovery of alpine glaciers in it; c) refutation of Humboldt's assumptions about the volcanic origin of the Tien Shan and the existence of the Bolor meridional ridge. The results of the expedition provided rich material for corrections and notes to the translation of the second volume of Ritter's Geoscience of Asia.

In 1857-1879. N.A. was engaged in the study of Central Asia. Severtsov, who made 7 major trips to different areas Central Asia, from desert to high mountains. Severtsov's scientific interests were very wide: he studied geography, geology, studied flora and especially fauna. Severtsov penetrated into the deep regions of the central Tien Shan, where no European had been before him. Comprehensive characteristics altitudinal zoning Tien Shan Severtsov dedicated his classic work "Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Turkestan Animals". In 1874, Severtsov, heading the natural history detachment of the Amu Darya expedition, crossed the Kyzylkum desert and reached the Amudarya delta. In 1877, he was the first European to reach the central part of the Pamirs, gave accurate information about its orography, geology and flora, showed the isolation of the Pamirs from the Tien Shan. Severtsov's work on the division of the Palearctic into zoogeographic regions based on physical and geographical zoning and his "Ornithology and ornithological geography of European and Asian Russia" (1867) allow us to consider Severtsov the founder of zoogeography in Russia.

In 1868-1871. the highlands of Central Asia were studied by A.P. Fedchenko and his wife O.A. Fedchenko. They discovered the grandiose Zaalai range, made the first geographical description of the Zeravshan valley and other mountainous regions of Central Asia. Studying the flora and fauna of the Zeravshan valley, A.P. Fedchenko for the first time showed the faunistic and floristic community of Turkestan with the countries of the Mediterranean. For 3 years of travel, the Fedchenko spouses have collected a large collection of plants and animals, among which there were many new species and even genera. Based on the materials of the expedition, a map of the Ferghana Valley and the mountains surrounding it was compiled. In 1873 A.P. Fedchenko died tragically while descending from one of the Mont Blanc glaciers.

Friend A.P. Fedchenko V.F. Oshanin in 1876 made an expedition to the Alay valley and in 1878 to the valleys of the Surkhoba and Muksu rivers (Vakhsh basin). Oshanin discovered one of the largest glaciers in Asia, which he named the Fedchenko Glacier in memory of a friend, as well as the Darvazsky and Peter the Great ranges. Oshanin owns the first complete physical and geographical description of the Alai Valley and Badakhshan. Oshanin prepared for publication a systematic catalog of the Palearctic hemipterans, published in 1906-1910.

In 1886, Krasnov, on the instructions of the Russian Geographical Society, explored the Khan-Tengri Range in order to identify and substantiate the ecological and genetic relationships of the mountain flora of the Central Tien Shan with the adjacent floras of the Balkhash steppes and sandy deserts of Turan, as well as to trace the process of interaction between the relatively young flora of the Quaternary alluvial plains of the Balkhash region and much more ancient (with an admixture of tertiary elements) flora of the highlands of the Central Tien Shan. This problem, evolutionary in its essence, was developed and the conclusions from it are well stated in Krasnov's master's thesis "Experience in the history of the development of the flora of the southern part of the Eastern Tien Shan".

Fruitful was the expedition led by Berg, who studied in 1899-1902. and in 1906 the Aral Sea. Berg's monograph "The Aral Sea. The experience of a physical-geographical monograph" (St. Petersburg, 1908) was a classic example of a complex regional physical-geographical characteristic.

Since the 80s of the XIX century. much attention was paid to the study of the Central Asian sands. This problem arose in connection with the construction of a railway to Central Asia. In 1912 on railway station Repetek was founded the first permanent integrated research geographical station for the study of deserts. In 1911 and 1913 Expeditions of the Resettlement Administration operated in Central Asia and Siberia. The most interesting geographical information was obtained by Neustruev's detachment, which made the transition from Ferghana through the Pamirs to Kashgaria. Clear traces of ancient glacial activity have been discovered in the Pamirs. Summary results of studies of Central Asia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. are set out in great detail in the publication of the Resettlement Administration " Asian Russia".

Central Asia Studies

The beginning of its research was laid by N.M. Przhevalsky, who from 1870 to 1885 made 4 trips to the deserts and mountains Central Asia. At the beginning of his fifth journey, Przhevalsky fell ill with typhoid fever and died near the lake. Issyk-Kul. The expedition started by Przhevalsky was completed under the leadership of M.V. Pevtsova, V.I. Roborovsky and P.K. Kozlov. Thanks to Przhevalsky's expeditions, reliable data on the orography of Central Asia were obtained and mapped for the first time. During the expeditions, meteorological observations were regularly made, which provided valuable data on the climate of this region. Przhevalsky's writings are replete with brilliant descriptions of landscapes, flora and fauna. They also contain information about the Asian peoples and their way of life. Przhevalsky brought to St. Petersburg 702 specimens of mammals, 5010 specimens of birds, 1200 reptiles and amphibians, 643 fish. Among the exhibits were a previously unknown wild horse (named the Przewalski's horse after him) and a wild camel. The herbarium of the expeditions consisted of up to 15 thousand specimens belonging to 1700 species; among them there were 218 new species and 7 new genera. From 1870 to 1885, the following descriptions of Przhevalsky's travels, written by himself, were published: "Journey in the Ussuri Territory 1867-1869." (1870); "Mongolia and the country of the Tanguts. A three-year journey in East mountainous Asia", vol. 1-2 (1875-1876); "From Kulja beyond the Tien Shan and to Lob-Nor" (Izv. Russk. Geogr. ob-va, 1877, v. 13); "From Zaisan through Khami to Tibet and to the headwaters of the Yellow River" (1883); "Investigations of the northern outskirts of Tibet and the route through Lop-Nor along the Tarim Basin" (1888). Przhevalsky's works were translated into a number of European languages and immediately received universal recognition. They can be put on a par with the brilliant writings of Alexander Humboldt and are read with exceptional interest. The London Geographical Society in 1879 awarded Przhevalsky its medal; in his decision, it was noted that the description of Przewalski's Tibetan journey surpasses everything that has been published in this area since the time of Marco Polo. F. Richthofen called the achievements of Przhevalsky "the most amazing geographical discoveries." Przhevalsky was awarded awards from geographical societies: Russian, London, Paris, Stockholm and Rome; he was an honorary doctorate foreign universities and an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, as well as many foreign and Russian scientific societies and institutions. The city of Karakol, where Przhevalsky died, later received the name Przhevalsk.

G.N. Potanin (who did a lot of ethnography), V.A. Obruchev, M.V. Pevtsov, M.E. Grum-Grzhimailo and others.

Studies of Siberia and the Far East

The development of Russia urgently required the study of all the Asian outskirts, especially Siberia. A quick acquaintance with the natural resources and population of Siberia could only be carried out with the help of large geological and geographical expeditions. Siberian merchants and industrialists, interested in studying the natural resources of the region, financially supported such expeditions. The Siberian Department of the Russian Geographical Society, organized in 1851 in Irkutsk, using the funds of commercial and industrial companies, equipped expeditions to the basin of the river. Amur, on about. Sakhalin and the gold-bearing regions of Siberia. For the most part, enthusiasts from different strata of the intelligentsia took part in them: mining engineers and geologists, gymnasium teachers and university professors, army officers and navy, doctors and political exiles. Scientific leadership was carried out by the Russian Geographical Society.

In 1849-1852. Zabaykalsky Krai explored by an expedition consisting of the astronomer L.E. Schwartz, mining engineers N.G. Meglitsky and M.I. Kovanko. Even then, Meglitsky and Kovanko pointed to the existence of gold and coal deposits in the basin of the river. Aldana.

The real geographical discovery was the results of the expedition to the basin of the river. Vilyui, organized by the Russian Geographical Society in 1853-1854. The expedition was headed by the natural science teacher of the Irkutsk gymnasium R. Maak. The expedition also included topographer A.K. Zondhagen and ornithologist A.P. Pavlovsky. In the difficult conditions of the taiga, with complete impassibility, Maak's expedition examined vast territory Vilyui basin and part of the basin of the river. Olenek. As a result of the research, a three-volume work by R. Maak "Vilyui District of the Yakut Region" (parts 1-3. St. Petersburg, 1883-1887) appeared, in which the nature, population and economy of a large and interesting area Yakutsk region.

After the completion of this expedition, the Russian Geographical Society organized Siberian expedition(1855-1858) in two parties. The mathematical party headed by Schwartz was to determine the astronomical points and form the basis geographical map Eastern Siberia. This task has been successfully completed. The botanist K.I. Maksimovich, zoologists L.I. Shrenk and G.I. Rudd. Reports of Radde, who studied the fauna of the Baikal environs, the steppe Dauria and mountain group Chokondo, were published on German in two volumes in 1862 and 1863.

Another complex expedition - the Amur one - was headed by Maak, who published two works: "Journey to the Amur, made by order of the Siberian Department of the Russian Geographical Society in 1855." (St. Petersburg, 1859) and "Journey through the valley of the Ussuri River", vol. 1-2 (St. Petersburg, 1861). Maak's works contained much valuable information about the basins of these Far Eastern rivers.

The most striking pages in the study of the geography of Siberia were written by the remarkable Russian traveler and geographer P.A. Kropotkin. The journey of Kropotkin and the natural science teacher I.S. Polyakov to the Leno-Vitim gold-bearing region (1866). Their main task was to find ways to drive cattle from the city of Chita to the mines located along the Vitim and Olekma rivers. The journey started on the banks of the river. Lena, ended in Chita. The expedition overcame the ridges of the Olekmo-Charsky highlands: the North-Chuysky, South-Chuysky, Okrainny and a number of hills of the Vitim plateau, including the Yablonovy ridge. The scientific report on this expedition, published in 1873 in the Notes of the Russian Geographical Society (vol. 3), was a new word in the geography of Siberia. Vivid descriptions of nature were accompanied in it theoretical generalizations. In this regard, Kropotkin's "General Sketch of the Orography of Eastern Siberia" (1875) is of interest, summing up the results of the then studied Eastern Siberia. The scheme of the orography of East Asia compiled by him differed significantly from Humboldt's scheme. The Schwartz map served as the topographic basis for it. Kropotkin was the first geographer to pay serious attention to the traces of the ancient glaciation of Siberia. The famous geologist and geographer V.A. Obruchev considered Kropotkin one of the founders of geomorphology in Russia. Kropotkin's companion, the zoologist Polyakov, compiled an ecological and zoogeographic description of the path traveled.

Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Schrenk in 1854-1856. led the expedition of the Academy of Sciences to the Amur and Sakhalin. The range of scientific problems covered by Schrenk was very wide. The results of his research were published in the four-volume work "Travel and Research in the Amur Territory" (1859-1877).

In 1867-1869. studied the Ussuri region Przhevalsky. He was the first to note an interesting and unique combination of northern and southern forms of fauna and flora in the Ussuri taiga, showed the originality of the nature of the region with its harsh winters and wet summers.

The largest geographer and botanist (in 1936-1945, President of the Academy of Sciences) V.L. Komarov began researching the nature of the Far East in 1895 and retained his interest in this region until the end of his life. In his three-volume work "Flora Manschuriae" (St.-P., 1901-1907), Komarov substantiated the allocation of a special "Manchurian" floristic region. He also owns classical works"Flora of the Kamchatka Peninsula", vol. 1-3 (1927-1930) and "Introduction to the floras of China and Mongolia", no. 1, 2 (St. Petersburg, 1908).

Living pictures of the nature and population of the Far East were described in his books by the famous traveler V.K. Arseniev. From 1902 to 1910, he studied the hydrographic network of the Sikhote-Alin ridge, gave a detailed description of the relief of Primorye and the Ussuri Territory, and brilliantly described their population. Arseniev's books "On the Ussuri Taiga", "Dersu Uzala" and others are read with unflagging interest.

A significant contribution to the study of Siberia was made by A.L. Chekanovsky, I.D. Chersky and B.I. Dybovsky, exiled to Siberia after Polish uprising 1863 Chekanovsky studied the geology of the Irkutsk province. His report on these studies was awarded a small gold medal of the Russian Geographical Society. But the main merit of Chekanovsky lies in the study of previously unknown territories between the rivers Lower Tunguska and Lena. He discovered a trap plateau there, described the river. Olenek and compiled a map of the northwestern part of the Yakutsk region. The geologist and geographer Chersky owns the first summary of theoretical views on the origin of the lake depression. Baikal (he expressed his own hypothesis about its origin). Chersky came to the conclusion that the oldest part of Siberia is located here, which has not been flooded by the sea since the beginning of the Paleozoic. This conclusion was used by E. Suess for the hypothesis of the "ancient crown of Asia". Deep thoughts were expressed by Chersky about the erosive transformation of the relief, about leveling it, smoothing out sharp forms. In 1891, already being terminally ill, Chersky began his last great journey to the basin of the river. Kolyma. On the way from Yakutsk to Verkhnekolymsk, he discovered a huge mountain range, consisting of a series of chains, with heights up to 1 thousand meters (later this range was named after him). In the summer of 1892, during a trip, Chersky died, leaving a completed "Preliminary report on research in the area of the Kolyma, Indigirka and Yana rivers." B.I. Dybovsky and his friend V. Godlevsky explored and described the peculiar fauna of Baikal. They also measured the depth of this unique reservoir.

Of great interest are the scientific reports of V.A. Obruchev about his geological research and his special articles on the nature of Siberia. Along with the geological study of gold-bearing placers of the Olekma-Vitim country, Obruchev was engaged in such geographic issues, as the origin of permafrost, glaciation of Siberia, orography of Eastern Siberia and Altai.

Western Siberia, with its flat relief, attracted little attention from scientists. Most of research was carried out there by amateur botanists and ethnographers, among whom N.M. Yadrintseva, D.A. Clemenza, I.Ya. Slovtsov. Of fundamental importance were the studies carried out in 1898 by L.S. Berg and P.G. Ignatov's studies of salt lakes, set out in the book "Salt lakes of Selety-Dengiz, Teke and Kyzylkak of the Omsk district. Physical and geographical sketch". The book contains a detailed description of the forest-steppe and the relationship between the forest and the steppe, essays on flora and relief, and so on. This work marked a transition to a new stage in the exploration of Siberia - from route studies to semi-stationary, integrated, covering wide circle physical and geographical features of the territory.

On the turn of XIX and XX centuries. and in the first decade of the 20th century. geographical research of Siberia was subordinated to two problems of great national importance: the construction of the Siberian railway and the agricultural development of Siberia. The Siberian Road Committee, established at the end of 1892, attracted a large number of scientists to study a wide strip along the Siberian railway route. Studied geology and minerals, terrestrial and ground water, vegetation, climate. Of great importance were the studies of Tanfiliev in the Baraba and Kulunda steppes (1899-1901). In the book "Baraba and the Kulundinskaya steppe" (St. Petersburg, 1902), Tanfilyev, having considered the views of previous researchers, expressed convincing considerations about the origin of the ridge relief of the Baraba steppe, about the regime of numerous lakes West Siberian Lowland, on the nature of soils, including chernozems. Tanfiliev explained why forests in the steppes of European Russia are located closer to river valleys, while in Baraba, on the contrary, forests are avoided river valleys and are placed on watershed manes. Before Tanfilyev, the Baraba lowland was studied by Middendorf. His small work "Baraba", published in 1871 in the "Appendix" to the "Notes of the Imperial Academy of Sciences", is of great interest.

From 1908 to 1914, soil-botanical expeditions of the Resettlement Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture operated in the Asian part of Russia. They were led by an outstanding soil scientist, a student of Dokuchaev, K.D. Glinka. Expeditions covered almost all regions of Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia. The scientific results of the expeditions are set forth in the 4-volume work "Asiatic Russia" (1914).

Studies of European Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus

At the same time, the attention of scientists and the Ministry of Agriculture was attracted by the search for the reasons for the depletion of soils, the drying up of rivers, the decrease in fish catches and the often repeated crop failures in densely populated European Russia. Research for this purpose was carried out in the European part of the country by natural scientists of various specialties: geologists, soil scientists, botanists, hydrologists, who studied individual components of nature. But every time when trying to explain these phenomena, researchers inevitably came to the need to consider and study them on a broad geographical basis, taking into account all natural factors. Soil and botanical research, driven by the need to establish the causes of recurring crop failures, resulted in comprehensive study territory. Studying the Russian chernozems, Academician F.I. Ruprecht proved that the distribution of chernozems is closely related to the geography of plants. He determined that the southern border of spruce distribution coincides with northern border Russian black soil.

A new stage in the field of soil and botanical research was the work of Dokuchaev, who led in 1882-1888. Nizhny Novgorod soil expedition, which resulted in a scientific report ("Materials for the assessment of the lands of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Natural history part ...", issue 1-14. St. Petersburg, 1884-1886) with two maps - geological and soil. This essay discusses the climate, relief, soils, hydrography, flora and fauna of the province. It was the first of its kind comprehensive research large agricultural area. It allowed Dokuchaev to formulate new natural-historical ideas and substantiate the genetic direction in soil science.

Tanfiliev summed up the results of a 25-year study of the swamps of Russia, organized by the Ministry of State Property. In his articles "On the swamps of the St. Petersburg province" (Proceedings of the Free Economic Society, No. 5) and "Swamps and peat bogs of Polesie" (St. Petersburg, 1895), he revealed the mechanism for the formation of swamps and gave their detailed classification, thus laying the foundations scientific marsh science.

In studies conducted in the second half of the XIX century. in the Urals, the main attention was paid to the study of its geological structure and distribution of minerals. In 1898-1900. The Orenburg branch of the Russian Geographical Society organized barometric leveling of the southern part of the Ural Range. The leveling results were published in the "Izvestia of the Orenburg Branch of the Russian Geographical Society" for 1900-1901. This contributed to the emergence of special geomorphological studies. The first such work in the Urals was made by P.I. Krotov. He critically reviewed the history of orographic research in the Middle Urals, gave a general picture of the structure of its relief, described many characteristic forms surfaces and explained geological conditions their occurrence.

A thorough study of the climate of the Urals began in the 80s of the 19th century, when 81 meteorological stations were established there. By 1911, their number increased to 318. The processing of meteorological observation data made it possible to reveal the pattern of the distribution of climatic elements and to determine the general features of the climate of the Urals.

FROM mid-nineteenth in. work began to appear on a special study of the waters of the Urals. From 1902 to 1915, the Department of Inland Waterways and Highways of the Ministry of Communications published 65 issues of "Materials for the Description of Russian Rivers", which also contained extensive information about the rivers of the Urals.

By the beginning of the XX century. the flora of the Urals (except for the Northern and Polar ones) has already been studied quite well. In 1894, the chief botanist of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden S.I. Korzhinsky first drew attention to traces of ancient vegetation in the Urals. An employee of the Petrograd Botanical Garden I.M. Krasheninnikov was the first to express his thoughts on the relationship between the forest and the steppe in the Southern Trans-Urals, thereby posing important botanical and geographical problems. Soil research in the Urals was considerably late. Only in 1913 did Dokuchaev's colleagues Neustruev, Krasheninnikov and others begin a comprehensive study of the soils of the Urals.

In the second half of the XIX century. systematic work began on triangulation and topographic surveys of the Caucasus. Military topographers in their reports and articles reported a lot of general geographical information. Using geodetic data and geological research G.V. Abikha, N. Salitsky in 1886 published "Essay on the Orography and Geology of the Caucasus", in which he outlined his ideas about the geography of this mountainous region. Much attention was paid to the study of the glaciers of the Caucasus. The work of K.I. Podozersky, who gave a qualitative and quantitative description of the glaciers of the Caucasus Range ("Glaciers of the Caucasus Range". - Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society, 1911, book 29, issue I).

Voeikov, studying the climate of the Caucasus, was the first to draw attention to the relationship between the climate and vegetation of the Caucasus, and in 1871 made the first attempt at natural zoning of the Caucasus.

Dokuchaev made an important contribution to the study of the Caucasus. It was during the study of the nature of the Caucasus that his doctrine of latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality finally took shape.

Along with these well-known scientists, dozens of geologists, soil scientists, botanists, zoologists, etc. have studied the Caucasus. A large number of materials about the Caucasus were published in the Izvestia of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society and special trade magazines.

Research in the Arctic

In 1882-1883. Russian scientists N.G. Yurgens and A.A. Bunge participated in research under the program of the First International Polar Year. Russia then organized polar stations on the islands of Novaya Zemlya (South Island, the village of Malye Karmakuly) and in the village. Sagastyr at the mouth of the river. Lena. The creation of these stations laid the foundation for Russian stationary research in the Arctic. In 1886, Bunge and the young geologist Toll explored the New Siberian Islands. Toll characterized the geology of the islands and proved that the north of Siberia was subjected to powerful glaciation. In 1900-1902. Toll led the Polar Expedition of the Academy of Sciences, which tried on the Zarya yacht to find the Sannikov Land, rumors about the existence of which had been kept since 1811. In two summer seasons, Zarya passed from Kara Sea in the area of the Novosibirsk Islands. The first wintering near the Taimyr Peninsula was used to collect geographical materials. After the second wintering at about. Kotelny Toll with three companions on dog sleds went towards about. Bennett. On the way back, the travelers died. The existence of "Sannikov Land" was not confirmed by subsequent searches.

In 1910-1915. hydrographic surveys were carried out on the icebreakers "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" from the Bering Strait to the mouth of the river. Kolyma, which ensured the creation of sailing directions for the seas washing Russia in the north. In 1913 "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" discovered the archipelago, now called Severnaya Zemlya.

In 1912, Lieutenant of the Navy G.L. Brusilov decided to go from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok along the Northern Sea Route. The schooner "Saint Anna" was equipped with private funds. Off the coast of the Yamal Peninsula, the schooner was covered with ice and carried away by currents and winds to the northwest (north of Franz Josef Land). The crew of the schooner died, only the navigator V.I. survived. Albanov and sailor A.E. Konrad, sent by Brusilov to mainland for help. The ship's log, preserved by Albanov, gave rich materials. After analyzing them, the famous polar traveler and scientist V.Yu. Wiese in 1924 predicted the location of an unknown island. In 1930 this island was found and named after Vize.

G.Ya. did a lot for the study of the Arctic. Sedov. He studied approaches to the mouth of the river. Kolyma and Krestovaya Bay on the islands of Novaya Zemlya. In 1912, Sedov reached Franz Josef Land on the ship "Saint Foka", then wintered on Novaya Zemlya. In 1913, the Sedov expedition again came to Franz Josef Land and wintered on about. Hooker in Tikhaya Bay. From here, in February 1914, Sedov, with two sailors on sledges, headed aside North Pole, but did not reach it and died on the way to the pole.

Rich hydrobiological materials were received by the Murmansk scientific and fishing expedition led by N.M. Knipovich and L.L. Breitfuss. During its activity (1898-1908), the expedition on the ship "Andrew the First-Called" carried out hydrological observations at 1,500 points and biological observations at 2,000 points. As a result of the expedition, a bathymetric map of the Barents Sea and a map of currents were compiled. In 1906, Knipovich's book Fundamentals of the Hydrology of the European Arctic Ocean was published. A lot of new information about the Barents Sea was obtained by the scientists of the Murmansk Biological Station, founded in 1881.

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The "grandfather" of Russian geography and the founder of the geographical school is rightfully considered Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914). For more than forty years he headed the work of the Russian Geographical Society. Created by him scientific school was one of the largest geographical schools. It included world-famous scientists: N.M. Przhevalsky, M.V. Pevtsov, V.A. Obruchev, P.A. Kropotkin, N.N. Miklukho Maclay.

The name of P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky is associated with the pioneering study of the nature of the Tien Shan, for which he received the honorary prefix "Tyan-Shansky" to his surname.

Development Russian Empire in the 19th century strengthened the processes of geographical division of labor. What does this mean? And the fact that certain parts of the country acquired an economic appearance and originality different from others.

between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod an industrially oriented area is being formed, where numerous workers from non-chernozem provinces are attracted. The largest mining region in the Urals is being created. On the expanses of the recent Wild Field, an area of commercial grain farming is being formed.

There is a need for the economic zoning of the country, which was done by P. P. Semyonov-Tian-Shansky.

P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky singles out 12 economic areas: 1) Extreme northern; 2) Lakeside; 3) Baltic; 4) Moscow Industrial; 5) Central agricultural; 6) Priuralskaya; 7) Nizhnevolzhskaya; 8) Little Russian; 9) Novorossiysk; 10) Southwest; 11) Belarusian; 12) Lithuanian.

Rice. 6. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky

The proposed zoning reflected the economic reality so faithfully that it was used until the 1920s. The scientist believed that geography should study both the natural features of the earth's surface and the human activity that changes it. the crown geographical study the person remains.

The "fathers" of Russian geography are considered D. N. Anuchina, V. V. Dokuchaeva, A. I. Voeikova who created their authoritative scientific schools.

Remarkable Russian scientist Dmitry Nikolaevich Anuchin (1843-1923) considered the surface of the Earth as an object of geography, serving as an arena of activity various forces— from cosmic to anthropogenic. The author painted a picture of the active change in nature by man: “The mass of plants and factories now consumes such a mass of fuel that a huge amount of gases, including carbon dioxide, enters the atmosphere every day, which can ... affect the composition of the air and the general temperature of the atmosphere” .

Imagine if this statement sounded like a global warming warning at the beginning of the 20th century!

D. N. Anuchin laid the foundations of a new geographical science - lake management in Russia.

On the threshold of the 20th century, the great Russian scientist Vasily Vasilyevich Do-kuchaev (1846-1903) - founder of the science of soil and natural areas- in his pioneering work "To the doctrine of the zones of nature" drew attention to the general connection between inanimate and living nature and human activity. The most important goal the scientist proclaimed the study of the relationship of the age-old and natural connection that exists between the bodies and forces of dead and living nature, on the one hand, and man, his life and even the spiritual world, on the other.

An outstanding scientist-geographer and climatologist received world fame Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov (1842-1916). Deserved fame brought him work on the climates of the globe. The scientist paid much attention to a phenomenon typical of Russia - snow cover and its impact on nature and economy. material from the site

Rice. 7. A. I. Voeikov

To increase productivity, he proposed planting field-protective "forest edges" and other snow retention measures. A. I. Voeikov was also interested in economic and geographical issues - land reclamation and the active use of natural resources, the development of resorts in the Caucasus, and the population. Describing the conditions for the distribution of the population between villages and cities, he introduced the term "cities-millionaires" (cities with a population of more than 1 million people).

The history of the development of the geography of Russia in the 19th century - the development of the theoretical foundations of geography in conjunction with the practical significant character research.

Questions about this item:

MUNICIPAL GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL № 96

KRASNODAR

Methodical development of a multimedia lesson on the history of Russia on the topic:

"Enlightenment and Science in the Second Half of the 19th Century"

Prepared

history teacher secondary school №96

Kultyushnova I.B.

Krasnodar, 2013

Theme of the lesson: "Enlightenment and science in the second half of the XIX century."

(multimedia lesson)

The purpose of the lesson:
- To acquaint students with the achievements of science and the education system in the second half of the 19th century;
- Highlight the features of the development of science and education;
Equipment: multimedia projector, notebooks, textbooks.

During the classes
1. Organizing time.
2. Checking homework. Test poll.
Plan
1. Development of education.
2. Successes in natural sciences.
3. Development of geographical knowledge.
4. Homework.
Test poll

Option 1.

1. "Reinsurance" agreement between Russia and Germany, according to which both parties had to remain neutral in the war with any third great power, and Germany recognized the acquisitions and interests of Russia in the Balkans, was concluded

a) in 1881

b) in 1887

c) in 1891

2. An agreement that provided for military aid and the mobilization of all military reserves in the event of a military threat, was concluded between Russia and

a) Austria-Hungary

b) France

c) England

3. "Union of three emperors" consisted of sovereigns

a) Russia, Germany, France

c) Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary

4. Russia pursued a policy towards Bulgaria

a) non-interference in internal affairs

b) strengthening its own presence in the Balkans

c) sent troops to suppress the uprising in Rumelia

5. The clash of interests in the Far East inevitably brought a military conflict between Russia closer

a) Japan

b) Austria-Hungary

c) France

Option 2.

1. Russia concluded a defensive alliance with France

a) in 1891

b) in 1894

c) in 1895

2. international treaty on a specific issue is called

a) a concession

b) monopoly

c) convention

3. Mark who in question. A statesman of the Russian Empire, who held various diplomatic posts in the Middle East, Switzerland, and Sweden. In 1882 he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. He saw the main means of preserving peace in strengthening the alliance with Germany and Austria.

a) N.Kh. Bunge

b) N.K. Gire

c) A.M. Gorchakov

4. Mark the correct statement.

a) France concluded a convention with Russia providing for military support in case of war in 1881.

b) The Union of Three Emperors broke up in 1885-1886. in connection with the aggravation of the Austro-German-Russian contradictions due to the Bulgarian crisis

c) the Russian-Afghan border was established in 1894.

5. The triple alliance consisted of

a) Russia, England, France

b) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

c) Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia

1. Development of education.

The abolition of serfdom, the successes in the economy in the second half of the 19th century could not but lead to profound changes in all areas of culture. The post-reform period is characterized by the growth of literacy and the development of education. Among men of military age in 1874 there were 21% literate, in 1900 - 40%. great job carried out zemstvo primary schools. By the end of the century, more than 4 million children were studying there.

Verbal counting.

N.P. Bogdanov - Belsky. 1895

But at the same time, 7.5 million children did not receive education. Zemstvo school was the most common type elementary school.

Gymnasiums were the main type of elementary school. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, where 25 thousand people studied. A quarter of a century later, their number has tripled, and there are 70,000 gymnasium students. In the late 60s of the XIX century, the issue of women's education was raised. By the beginning of the 80s, 300 women's secondary educational institutions, up to 75 thousand girls were engaged in them. Women were allowed to attend lectures at universities as volunteers. Soon, higher courses for women began to operate in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

Blagusha workers - Lefortovsky district of Moscow on the tour.

1913

A group of students and teachers of the Prechistensky working courses. Moscow. 1908

According to the 1897 census

For comparison:

At the end of the 60s

The literacy rate of the population of Russia remained the lowest in Europe.

2. Development of science and technology

The successes of industry were closely related to advances in various industries science and technology. Many of the discoveries of Russian scientists were of an applied nature and were widely used for applied purposes, becoming a significant contribution to world technological progress.

Mathematician and mechanic Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev

P.L. Chebyshev

repeatedly emphasized that "sciences find their true guide in practice." Being a member of the artillery branch of the military-scientific committee P.L. Chebyshev connected his scientific interests in the field mathematical analysis with the practical needs of military affairs.

Professor of the Moscow Higher Technical School N.E. Zhukovsky discovered by the end of the century a method for calculating the lift force of an aircraft wing and was deservedly called the "father of Russian aviation."

NOT. Zhukovsky

Petersburg scientist A.S. Popov invented the radio.

A.S. Popov

In 1900, Popov's radio set was used for practical purposes to save fishermen in Gulf of Finland. For his discovery, the scientist was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.

In 1876, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov created an arc electric lamp. Soon, Yablochkov's light bulbs lit up the streets and houses of many cities around the world.

P.N. Yablochkov

Domestic chemical science has achieved great success.

A group of members of the chemical section of the 1st Congress of Russian Naturalists, which passed a resolution on the need to unite Russian chemists in the Chemical Society

The great scientist, Professor of St. Petersburg University Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev made world discovery is the periodic law of chemical elements.

DI. Mendeleev

He was a scientist with versatile knowledge and interests. He is the author of over 500 major research papers in chemistry, physics, meteorology, aeronautics, agriculture, economy, education.

Great successes have been achieved by scientists - naturalists. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby bringing about a revolution in biological science.

I.I. Sechenov

He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity nothing more than the result of the work of the brain.

Research in this area was continued by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.

I.P. Pavlov

His theory of conditioned reflexes served as the basis contemporary ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, the result of the accumulation of their individual life experience.

The outstanding Russian scientist V.M. Bekhterev devoted his works to revealing the role of the nervous system in the activity of the organs of higher animals and humans.

V.M. Bekhterev

The great scientist Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky made a number of major discoveries in aerodynamics, rocket technology and the theory of interplanetary communications.

K.E. Tsiolkovsky among the models of metal airships he made. 1913

In 1887, in his work "Theory and Experience of the Aerostat", he gave a justification for the design of an airship with a metal shell. Tsiolkovsky achieved the greatest achievements in the field of rocket movement. He was the author of the idea of creating extraterrestrial stations, proposed ways to return the rocket to earth.

3. Development of geographical knowledge

Russian geographical science has achieved success thanks to the activities of the Russian Geographical Society, one of the founders of which was Vladimir Ivanovich Dal.

IN AND. Dal

He became widely known after the publication in 1861-1867 of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. Of great interest is his collection "Proverbs of the Russian people". In 1863 Dahl was elected an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Russian geographical science stepped forward thanks to the expeditions of outstanding scientists. Among them N.M. Przhevalsky.

N.M. Przhevalsky

Nikolai Mikhailovich was opened whole line mountain ranges and large mountain lakes of Central Asia unknown to Europeans. For the first time, descriptions of some animals (wild horse, wild camel, Tibetan bear) were given.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay devoted his life to the study of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

N.N. Miklukho Maclay

For two and a half years (1871-1872; 1876-1877, 1883) he lived on the coast of New Guinea. He won the trust of its inhabitants. In 1881, he developed a project to create in New Guinea independent state- The Papuan Union, designed to resist the colonialists. In 1886, Miklukho-Maclay unsuccessfully sought permission from the Russian government to organize a "Free Russian colony" in New Guinea.

4. Development of the humanities

Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philosophy, and then Rector of Moscow University, Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov created the 29-volume History of Russia from Ancient Times.

CM. Solovyov

His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the reformer, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. Solovyov was a supporter of comparatively - historical method research, pointing to the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.

A student of Solovyov S.M. was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky.

IN. Klyuchevsky

In 1882 he brilliantly defended his thesis " Boyar Duma Ancient Russia". He was the author of many historical research and the "Course of Russian History", which he read at Moscow University. The scientist paid much attention to the study of the socio-economic causes of events and phenomena.

Domestic science in the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom. They contributed to the growth of the initiative and the scientific search of the Russian people.

5. Fixing

name names eminent figures in the field of education and science in the second half of the 19th century.

6. Homework

Make a table "Achievements of science in the second half of the 19th century" in a notebook.

A table is drawn in the notebook:

THE SCIENCE

DISCOVERIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

(Who? What? When?)

maths

physics

chemistry

biology

geography

story