The population of Russia watched with great interest the course of events in France. N.M. Karamzin, who was a direct eyewitness to the revolutionary events, later wrote that they "determine the fate of people for a long series of centuries."

crash French feudalism enraptured and encouraged the advanced people of Russia, who at that time fought for the abolition of serfdom. Contemporaries noted that “the French Revolution had many adherents in Russia, as well as in other places”, that “free speech about autocratic power (became) almost universal, and the feeling rushing towards unbridled liberty was inflamed by the example of France”.

On January 1, 1790, the Political Journal began to be published at Moscow University. It described in detail the course of events in revolutionary France. In an address to the readers of the journal, Professor P.A. new era of the human race - an era of oppression of spontaneous power and correction of the fate of the so-called low states. A whole stream of French revolutionary publications went to Russia. Contemporaries noted: "Everything that only books are printed in France can be bought here secretly." They were translated by professional translators and students and then sold under the counter as handwritten lists.

The ideas of the French Revolution had a great influence on the best minds of Russia, including the revolutionary thinker A.N. Radishchev, the satirist and educator N.I. Novikov and many other figures of Russian culture. The tsarist government of Catherine II ruthlessly suppressed all manifestations of freethinking: Radishchev was exiled, Novikov was thrown into prison. But they were replaced by new adherents of freedom. One of these people was F. V. Krechetov, who called for “ the greatest rebellion like never before." He demanded "to overthrow the power of the autocracy, to create either a republic, or otherwise something else, so that everyone would be equal."

After the death of Catherine II, the new Emperor Paul I (1796 - 1801) came to the throne. He tried by all means to strengthen the dominance of the nobility in society. His government mercilessly suppressed peasant unrest, which swept as many as thirty-two provinces. During the years of his reign, serfdom not only was not abolished, but was further extended to Novorossia, the Don and Ciscaucasia - about 600 thousand state peasants were given to the landowners.

Frightened by the scale of the peasant unrest, Paul I tried to somehow improve their situation. In 1797, he issued a decree in which he recommended that the landlords limit corvée to three days a week, but this decree did not receive any practical application.

Progressive thinkers who opposed the autocracy continued to be subjected to harsh punishments - V.V. Passek, F.V. Krechetov, I. Rozhnov and others. Strict censorship was introduced in the country, travel abroad for the purpose of obtaining an education was prohibited, and private printing houses and educational institutions were closed everywhere.

To strengthen the autocratic system, Paul I strove for further political centralization. To this end, he limited the self-government of the nobility and abolished some noble privileges. From now on, for example, it was difficult for the nobles to retire from public service. In 1797, he restored the order of succession to the throne by birthright, that is, from father to eldest son, and in the absence of direct heirs - to the eldest of the brothers. The policy of Paul I was entirely aimed at strengthening the serfdom feudal system. Nevertheless, even those few and half-hearted measures that he tried to take to alleviate the situation of the common people caused dissatisfaction with some circles of the nobility, and especially the nobility of the capital, as well as senior officers. In principle, this dissatisfaction was directed not so much at the actions as at the very personality of Paul I, at the tyranny and whims of the emperor.

Despite the fact that Russia did not take part in the First Anti-French Coalition, Catherine II was worst enemy French Revolution. As mentioned above, Russia abandoned the war with France, as it fought in the East and with the rebels led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. As soon as the uprising in Poland and Belarus was suppressed, Russia immediately began to prepare for a campaign in France.

As you know, Paul I did almost everything contrary to the decisions of his mother. At the beginning of his reign, he entered into negotiations with France, but there were serious contradictions between the two states in Germany, the Middle East and the Polish question. Expedition French army under the command of General Bonaparte to Egypt, his capture of Malta and the Ionian Islands ran counter to the interests of Russia's policy in the East. This led to Russia joining the Second Anti-French Coalition. At the beginning of 1799, an alliance was concluded between Russia and Turkey, thanks to which the Russian navy received the right to free passage through the straits controlled by the Ottoman Porte. Combined Russian-Turkish fleet, commanded by F.F. Ushakov, soon liberated the Ionian Islands from the French. Admiral Ushakov contributed to the fact that a progressive constitution for that time was introduced on these islands. According to the Russian-Turkish convention of 1800, the “Republic of the Seven United Islands” was created, which was under the dual protectorate of Russia and Turkey, although the Turkish Sultan was formally its overlord.

It should be noted that subsequently the Ionian Republic played an important role in the development of the Greek national liberation movement.

After Suvorov's army came to northern Italy, it inflicted a number of major defeats on the French. Then in Italy it was abolished Republican government and feudalism was restored.

The second coalition was short-lived. In Russia, dissatisfaction was caused by the policy of Austria, because of which the Russian troops in Italy found themselves in a difficult situation. By this time, Russian-English contradictions in the Middle East and the Mediterranean had also become aggravated. The British tried in every possible way to destroy the union of Russia and Turkey, to oust Russia from the Ionian Islands. Having mastered Malta, they were not going to let it out of their hands, while Paul I himself wanted to make Malta a stronghold of the Russian fleet in the Mediterranean.

All this led to the fact that Paul I withdrew Russian troops from the theater of operations and in 1800 broke off relations with England, sequestering those who were in Russia English goods and ships. After that, he concluded an alliance with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, directed against England. Russia once again resumed the rules of armed neutrality. At the same time, Paul I began negotiations with France on peace, an alliance against England and a joint campaign in India. Thus, England and Russia found themselves in a state of war. English fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson, he defeated the allied Russian Danish fleet in the raid in Copenhagen and moved on to Kronstadt and Revel.

The policy of Paul I, directed against England, was extremely unpopular in the noble circles of Russia, since England was the most important market for goods exported by Russian landowners. Rapprochement with France also did not find supporters among the nobility, who hated the French Revolution and the Republic. That's why foreign policy The tsar intensified the growing discontent among the nobles and served as an impetus for the organization of a palace conspiracy. It was attended by prominent courtiers and officers from the capital. The heir to the throne Alexander Pavlovich himself knew about the conspiracy. Maintained contact with the conspirators and exiled by Paul I from Russia, the English ambassador in St. Petersburg Ch. Whitworth. On March 12, 1801, Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Palace, Alexander I (1801 - 1825) became his successor.

No, you will not be oblivious, the century is insane and wise! ..
A.N. Radishchev

In a series of centuries European history 18th century occupies special place. There were times of more grandiose accomplishments, but there was no era more complete in style, more, so to speak, "whole." The famous art critic N. Dmitrieva calls him last century dominance of aristocratic culture. Hence its refinement and this very “stylishness”, sometimes to the detriment of depth. And at the same time, this is the era of affirmation of new values ​​in the life of Europeans, values ​​that are still alive today and which, in fact, determine the current face of European civilization.
Under the melodious chimes of harpsichords and harps, several revolutions took place simultaneously in the life, heads and hearts of Europeans, of which only two we usually call proper “revolutions”: the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence of the United States of America. Meanwhile, they only put full stops in the sentences that smelled of blood and gunpowder, which Europe diligently wrote throughout the 18th century.
So, first a little about the revolutions.

Revolution on the tables

The main achievement of the "eighteenth century" is that it basically ended the famine in the main countries of Europe. Let the “bread riots” in Paris not really bother us: more often they rebelled because of the lack or high cost of the already familiar white bread. So the frivolous phrase of Marie Antoinette (“If the people have no bread, let them eat cakes”) is somewhat not so frivolous. Yes, interruptions in the supply of bread in big cities happened, however, in terms of absolutely famine, Europe shot back in full at the very beginning of the 18th century, when during a crop failure, even black bread began to be served at the table of Madame Maintenon.
In the 18th century, the European menu changed dramatically. The old triad (bread meat wine) is complemented by new foods: potatoes, corn, spinach, green peas, tea, coffee and chocolate (which are becoming more and more popular delicacies). Yes, and the former three "whales" of the European diet are significantly changing their "face". Since the middle of the 18th century in France, rye bread has been replaced by wheat bread in milk (the famous "French booths" were brought to Europe on their bayonets by Napoleon's soldiers).
With the improvement of animal husbandry, the market for meat is gradually saturated, extremely constrained by the powerful increase in population in the previous three centuries. Of course, for most Europeans, meat is not yet available in the useful form: in the form of corned beef and all kinds of smoked meats. However, with fish it was still more difficult: they said that the poor could only enjoy the aroma of fresh fish.
Finally, the climate taste preferences determined the characteristics of the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The south and southwest of Europe chose wine, the north and northwest beer, and the most dashing and cold northeast , of course, vodka.
The influx of sugar (generally speaking, while very expensive) made it possible to harvest fruits and berries (and vitamins for the winter) for the future. True, at the beginning of the 18th century, jam was still such a rare and valuable product that, for example, the Parisians presented it as a gift to Peter the Great.
All these seemingly purely culinary innovations have made a real revolution. Suffice it to say that Britain, which did not know the shortage of meat products, owes much to this powerful population growth in the 18th century, without which, in fact, it would not have happened. british empire. And the love of American colonists for tea led to their indignation at the rise in duties on tea introduced by English officials (the so-called " boston tea party"). Figuratively speaking, the United States of America was born from a cup of spilled tea.
The revolution on the tables moved forward the development of society. Without it, Europe and North America would not have become the hegemon of the rest of the world in the 19th century.
(By the way, the 18th century came to grips with the laying of the European table, which was greatly facilitated by the production of porcelain, gourmetism instead of gluttony and an increase in hygiene standards. The rules of conduct at the table, dishes and cutlery came to us (at least at the level of embassy and restaurant banquets) from there, from "the eighteenth century").

Revolution in the mind

The 18th century is usually called the Age of Enlightenment, although this word itself is too sluggish and approximately defines the processes that went on in the minds of Europeans between 1700 and 1804 (I indicate the year of I. Kant's death).
European thinkers break with theology and delimit the realm of philosophy proper from natural science. According to the Newtonian mechanistic picture of the world, God is needed only as the one who gave the first impetus to the development of nature, and beyond the world rolled away from him completely already separately.
The 18th century is the century of practitioners, which is why thinkers are not satisfied with empty scholastic speculations. The criterion of truth is experience. Any pathos and rhetoric seem out of place under any circumstances. Dying of cancer, the marquise, whom Rousseau served, emits gases, declares that a woman capable of such a thing will still live, and gives her soul to God, one might say, with a boldly careless smile.
Philosophers admire the perfection of the world (Leibniz) and mercilessly criticize it (encyclopedists), sing praises to reason and the progress of civilization (Voltaire) and declare progress and reason to be enemies. natural rights man (Rousseau). But all these theories now, at a distance of years, do not seem mutually exclusive. They all revolve around a person, his ability to understand the world and transform it according to your needs and ideas of "the best".
At the same time, for a very long time, philosophers are convinced that a person is reasonable and good by nature, that only “circumstances” are to blame for his misfortunes. Literacy and potatoes are planted by the monarchs themselves. General mood European philosophy of the 18th century can be called "cautious optimism", and its slogan Voltaire's call to everyone "cultivate his own garden."
Alas, the bloody horrors of the French Revolution will force the benevolent delusion of philosophers to be radically reconsidered, but the next century will do this. However, the purely European idea of ​​individual rights will be established then, in the 18th century, will be established as the most basic value.

Revolution in the hearts

The "Age of Reason" would not have taken place in all its splendor without a revolution in the hearts. The individual is gradually emancipated, aware of his inner world as important and valuable. The emotional life of Europeans is becoming richer and more refined.
Immortal evidence of this was great music 18th century, perhaps one of the highest achievements in the history of mankind.
The remarkable French composer of the early 18th century, J.F. Rameau was the first to formulate the inherently valuable role of music, which was previously considered only an aid to the word. He wrote: “In order to truly enjoy music, we must completely dissolve in it” (quoted from: G. Koenigsberger, p. 248).
The music expressed the emotions of the time much more accurately and more subtly than the censored word, clamped down by conventions. For the educated European, it has become an urgent need. In the libraries of Czech and Austrian castles, musical folders are crowded on the shelves along with books: musical novelties were read here from the leaf, like newspapers, and just as eagerly!
The music of the 18th century is still full of a lot of conventions, given formulas. It is the presence of these common places allowed composers to be so prolific (over 40 operas by G.F. Handel, more than 200 violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, more than 100 symphonies by I. Haydn!) At the same time, it is still so democratic that it gives even amateurs a chance: J. AND. Rousseau composes an opera, which is a success at court, and the king himself, terribly out of tune, sings his favorite arietta from there.
The music of the 18th century was closely connected with life and everyday life. Bach hoped that his sacred music could be performed by the choir of parishioners in the church, and the most beloved household dance, the minuet, became an integral part of any symphony until the era of Beethoven.
Every country in the 18th century realized its identity through music. German G.F. Handel brought the magnificent Italian opera seria to foggy London. But the ancient stories seemed to the British public too abstract and lifeless. Practically without changing the musical form, Handel proceeds to create oratorios, which, as it were, are the same operas, but only in a concert performance, while they are written to stories from the Bible that the listeners have experienced passionately. And the widest public responds with delight to this, Handel's spiritual oratorios are being made national treasure, their performance results in patriotic demonstrations.
Bottom line musical development The 18th century is the work of V.A. Mozart. Brilliant Austrian introduces into music new topic the theme of the fate of its creator, that is, it introduces the personality of a contemporary with his simple and urgent desires, joys and fears. “In general, Man God's creature” thanks to this turns into a man in music particular era, takes on features real person and fate

Revolution in manners

A strictly hierarchical feudal society always pays Special attention etiquette. It is a means of emphasizing the status (ordered inequality) of social position.
Of course, etiquette continues to dominate relations between people in the 18th century. Ambassadors delay presentation of credentials if papers do not arrive in time to confirm that their nobility dates back to at least the 14th century. Otherwise, during the presentation ceremony in Versailles, the king will not be able to hug and kiss the ambassador's wife, but only greet her! Etiquette dominates the minds of the courtiers to such an extent that some of them quite seriously assure that the French Revolution broke out because Necker, the controller general of finances, appeared to the king in shoes with bows, and not with buckles!
However, the monarchs themselves are already quite tired of all these conventions. Louis the Fifteenth hides from the bonds of etiquette in the boudoirs of his beloved, Catherine the Great in her Hermitage, and Marie Antoinette cannot swallow a bite at the traditional public royal meal and is sated after, already alone.
The court is opposed by the salon, aristocratic and bourgeois, where the owners and guests communicate briefly. The tone is set by the most august persons. The regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans Jr., proclaims at his orgies: "Everything is forbidden here except pleasure!"
But the ice floe of feudal etiquette is melting slowly and unevenly. Back in 1726, the lackeys of a noble lord can beat with sticks the fashionable author de Voltaire for a daring answer to their master. As early as 1730, the church could refuse to bury the famous actress Adrienne Lecouvreur (despite the fact that she was the mistress of the marshal of France), because during her lifetime she was engaged in the “shameful craft of a hypocrite.”
But twenty years later, in the same France, the status of the artist is changing, the artist will literally force the king to respect his human dignity. And it was like that. Offended by Louis the Fifteenth, the famous master of pastel portrait Latour for a long time refused to perpetuate the Marquise de Pompadour. When she managed to persuade the capricious, the artist undressed in front of her almost to the shirt. During the session, the king entered. “How, madam, you swore to me that we would not be disturbed!” yelled Latour and rushed to collect the crayons. The king and his master barely persuaded the pastel virtuoso to continue the session.
Of course, in a feudal society, everything is determined by rank, not by talent. Mozart writes that at the table of the Salzburg archbishop his place is higher than a lackey, but lower than a cook. But at about this time already bourgeois England was burying the "actor", the great actor D. Garrick, in Westminster Abbey!
A crisis feudal society gives rise to a new concept of man. Now the ideal is not a feudal lord or a court noble, but a private person, " kind person in France, a gentleman in England. By the end of the century in these countries, not nobility, but success, talent and wealth determine the status of an individual in society.
Here is a typical anecdote on the subject. Napoleon hated the composer Cherubini. Once, at a reception in the palace, after the introduction of all those present, the emperor again defiantly inquired about the name of "this gentleman." "Still Cherubini, sire!" The maestro answered him sharply.
In other countries, the emancipation of the individual will take almost half of the next century.

Peter discovers Europe

In the 18th century, another great country Russia. The "presentation" of the new political giant took place in the spring and summer of 1717, when the embassy of the still mysterious, but already slightly Europeanized "Muscovites" visited a number of European capitals.
Alas, neither in Paris nor in Berlin were they fascinated by the Russian heroes, led by Tsar Peter.
And now the details.
At the end of April of that year, the Russians appeared on the French border. Versailles sent one of his most elegant courtiers, the Marquis de Mailly-Nesle, to meet them. The marquis found the Russians, of course, in a tavern, snoring and throwing up. Only Peter spoke with his tongue.

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century, which decided in short time change, the time of the archery riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period is characterized by the development of enlightenment, the discovery of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital.

The end of the 18th century - the heyday of the work of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, he dies, and his son Fedor Alekseevich takes the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became emperor, will become king in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the suggestion of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, marries Evdokia Lopukhina, which means that he reaches the age of majority, as it was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in, and the throne passes to Peter, although until 1696 his brother Ivan Alekseevich was Peter's formal co-ruler.

He had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his close associates had to not only follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and in the future it is these two amusing regiment- Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar's favorite pastime was shooting the boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had "favorite" close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of a palace groom, who, from the position of the royal orderly, became the most illustrious prince, the richest man; "German" (Dutch), who became the main adviser to the king after his accession to the throne.

It was he who advised Peter to fix foreign trade, but the problem was one of the two well-known Russian troubles - roads; Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes, the second of which was successful and ended with the foundation of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Taganiy Rog).

The war with Turkey that began in 1697 showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this, the Great Embassy is sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Peter Alekseevich. He was the first Russian tsar to visit Europe.

Returning from a trip, and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely redo it, and, as you know, he succeeds.

The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

• army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in an almost European uniform and puts at the head of foreign officers.
• He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old was conducted from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate the New Year.
• He ordered every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result, Russia received a large fleet.
• - self-government was introduced in the cities, burmisters were put at the head of the cities. Although this "Europeanization" of cities was completed.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. It started unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army. Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, cannons were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are poured onto them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical enterprises operated in the country, which fully met the country's needs for pig iron, almost half of the products were exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so arms factories are being built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing. Galleys are being built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat.

Peter introduces military service - recruitment - from 20 households 1 person went to serve for 25 years; also for 25 years, he introduces compulsory service to the nobility. These measures made it possible to quickly create new army- 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscal officers were assigned to monitor them; created a number technical universities(Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers.

In order to encourage not only nobles to study, but also ordinary people Peter issues a decree, according to which, everyone who graduates from the gymnasium will know foreign languages, will receive the nobility.

To raise the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a poll tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people. This has led to an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, tk. everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders not only the suspect, but his entire family to be hanged on the rack. A number of additional fees are introduced - a fee for a beard, for wearing a Russian dress, those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduces serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, artisans were assigned to cities. By a decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and were called "eternally given." This form of labor hindered the development of Russia, got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I seeks to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods much more than on exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf.

The time of Peter's reign is the time of transformations in Russia, the time of reforms. In addition to those listed above, Peter conducted administrative reforms, social, they also changed the judicial system.

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, the governor-general was at the head of the provinces, the only form whose punishment was the death penalty;
2. Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the collegium was appointed by the king "according to the mind, and not according to the nobility of the family", i.e. a good education was necessary for the service;
3. Supreme government agency in 1711, the Senate becomes, which, in the absence of the king, performed his functions;
4. At the head of everything state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank was the ensign. Those who rose to the 8th category received the nobility. The judicial system was changed - "they were judged not with a word, but with a pen", i.e. all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.
In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettled about 1000 nobles in St. Petersburg.

In 1725, along with the death of Peter I, began. During the years of the reign, from 1725 to 1727, and from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of the emperor. During the reign, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, were in power different kind German adventurers.

When, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Razumovskys, the favorites of the empress, played a prominent role. He became Elizabeth's heir. He pursued a policy that was not accepted by the Russian nobility. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, his wife, Catherine II, ascended the throne at the age of 33. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "accidentally".

34 years of reign went down in history as the "golden age of the nobility", because. she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following my husband Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, spent General Survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. There was an opportunity to buy and sell a pledge, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on the side of Catherine.

In addition, she gave the nobles for their service, 600 thousand serfs, for example, got several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, she deprives the peasants last rights- under the fear of hard labor it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to trade in serfs "at retail", i.e. Families were mercilessly divided.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of favorites, brought up a whole galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was sick of the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own way, in an original way.

She believed that education should affect only the upper strata of society, did not give freedom to the peasants, because. this would lead to a riot. Catherine II (1773-1775) was especially frightened, which was attended by serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, Kalmyks. The peasant war was defeated, but Catherine learned from it main lesson- You can not give freedom to the peasants, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
2. Created whole line training educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. So, in the Free Economic Society, they studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (for each invention they gave prizes), potatoes are being introduced through the efforts of this society (the initiator is Andrey Bolotov).
3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories increased by 2 times, while they were not only serfs, but also hired, i.e. the first workers from the peasantry appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investment.
3. Development of new lands. To develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, South Ukraine), she gives them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites "foreigners" - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians - the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians bring viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who run away and settle in new lands will be free.
4. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but rented it out for 100 years so that the Americans would master it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son (1796-1801) becomes emperor. With him domestic politics was also pro-noble and pro-serf. Serfdom is becoming more widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense, after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul forbade noble assemblies in the provinces, he, at his whim, could exile some nobles and exalt others. In addition, the rupture of relations with England hit the income of the landowners, because. agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy, Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. Thus ended the 18th century in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Ever since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
2. The modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up version, and we take from the West what we like.
3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of their own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

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The most comprehensive reference table of key dates and events history of Russia in the 18th century. This table it is convenient to use for schoolchildren and applicants for self-study, in preparation for tests, exams and the exam in history.

Dates	Main events of Russia 18th century
1700	Death of Patriarch Adrian. Appointment of Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky as Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne
1701	Opening of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow
	The siege and storming of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress by Russian troops
	Publication of the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti
	The capture by Russian troops under the command of B.P. Sheremetyev of the Nyenschanz fortress at the mouth of the Neva
	Founding of St. Petersburg
1703	The publication of the textbook "Arithmetic" by L. F. Magnitsky
1704 summer	The siege and capture of the fortresses of Derpt and Narva by Russian troops
1705	Introduction of an annual recruitment duty
1705 – 1706	Streltsy uprising in Astrakhan. Suppressed by B.P. Sheremetev
1705 – 1711	Bashkir uprising
1706, Mar.	The retreat of Russian troops from Grodno to Brest-Litovsk, and then to Kyiv
1707 – 1708	Peasant-Cossack uprising under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin, which engulfed the Don, Left-bank and Sloboda Ukraine, the Middle Volga region
	The invasion of the Swedish army of King Charles XII into Russia, crossing the river. Berezina
	Speech by Hetman I. S. Mazepa on the side of Sweden against Russia
1708, 28 Sept.	The defeat of the Swedish corps near Lesnaya by Peter I
	Administrative Reform. The division of Russia into provinces
	Introduction of civil type
1709	Destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich
	Poltava battle. The defeat of the Swedish troops. Escape Swedish king Charles XII and Mazepa to Turkey (June 30)
	Union of Russia, the Commonwealth, Denmark and Prussia against Sweden
1710	The capture of Riga, Reval, Vyborg by Russian troops
1710	Podvorno-tax census of the population
	Announcement by Turkey, incited Charles XII, wars of Russia
1711, Feb.	institution Governing Senate
	Prut campaign Russian troops under the command of Tsar Peter I
	Encirclement of the Russian army on the river. Rod
	The conclusion of the Prut (Iasi) peace between Russia and Turkey. The return of Azov to Turkey, the obligation to destroy the fortresses in the South and the Azov fleet
1712	Decrees of Tsar Peter I on the creation of the Armory Yard in Tula and the Foundry Yard in St. Petersburg
1712, Mar.	The wedding of Peter I with Marta Elena Skavronskaya (after the adoption of Orthodoxy - Ekaterina Alekseevna)
1713	The offensive of Russian troops in Finland. Capture of Helsingfors and Abo
1714	Decree of Tsar Peter I on single inheritance
	Gangut naval battle. The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedes
1716, Mar.	Adoption of the "military charter"
1716, Sept.	The flight of Tsarevich Alexei abroad

1717	The trip of Tsar Peter I to France
	Return of Tsarevich Alexei to Russia (at the request of Peter I). Manifesto depriving Tsarevich Alexei of the rights to the throne
	The death of Tsarevich Alexei after he was sentenced to death on charges of organizing a conspiracy
1718 – 1721	Liquidation of Orders, establishment of Colleges
1718 – 1731	Construction of the Ladoga Canal
1719	administrative reform. Division of provinces into provinces. "General Regulations" of Peter I (charter of the civil service)
	The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish squadron near Grengam Island
1720 – 1737	Compilation by V. N. Tatishchev "History of Russia from the most ancient times"
	Nishtad peace between Russia and Sweden. End of the Northern War. Assignment to Russia of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia with Vyborg and part of Southern Finland
	The adoption of the imperial title by Peter I
1721	State post office
1721	The beginning of the construction of the Yekaterinburg fortress
1721	Establishment of the Holy Synod (instead of the patriarchate)
	The publication of the "Table of Ranks", the division of all civil servants into 14 ranks (ranks)
1722 – 1723	Russian-Persian war. Persian campaign Peter I
1722	Liquidation of the hetmanate in Ukraine
1723	The capture of Derbent, Baku by Russian troops
1723, 1 Sept.	Russo-Persian peace treaty. Persia's recognition of Russia's rights to Western and South coast Caspian Sea
1724	Establishment of the Academy of Sciences. Grand opening Academy in St. Petersburg (December 27, 1725)
	Treaty of Constantinople between Russia and Turkey on the delimitation of possessions in Transcaucasia
	The death of Peter I. The struggle for power between court factions led by A. D. Menshikov and Dolgoruky. Enthronement by the Menshikov group of Catherine I
1725 – 1727	Reign of Empress Catherine I
	Marriage eldest daughter Peter I Anna Petrovna with Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorn
1725 – 1730	First Kamchatka expedition V. Bering
1726 Feb.	Establishment of the Supreme Privy Council chaired by Catherine I
1726	Opening at the Academy of Sciences Academic Gymnasium and Academic University
1727 – 1730	The reign of Emperor Peter II (son of Tsarevich Alexei)
1727	Restoration of the hetmanship in Ukraine (until 1734)
1727, Sept.	The deposition and arrest of A. D. Menshikov, the elevation of Dolgoruky
	Treaty of Kyakhta between Russia and Kiraly on the establishment of boundaries and conditions for Russian-Chinese trade
	Election to the Russian throne of the widow of the Duke of Courland, daughter of Tsar Ivan V - Anna Ivanovna
1730 – 1740	Reign of Empress Anna Ivanovna. Removal from power Dolgoruky. "Bironovshchina"
1730, Mar.	Cancellation of the decree on single inheritance

1700–1721- The Northern War of Russia (as part of the Northern Alliance - Denmark, Poland and Saxony) with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.

1705–1706- Astrakhan uprising. Archers, soldiers, townspeople and workers took part. Caused by a sharp increase in taxes and duties, increased arbitrariness local authorities and officers of the garrison, a decrease in the monetary and grain salaries of the soldiers. Suppressed by the royal troops.

1705. - introduction of mandatory recruitment.

1707–1708- an uprising led by K. Bulavin. Covered the Don Army Region, the Russian Don region, part of the Volga region and partly the Zaporizhzhya Sich.

Reasons: the introduction of new heavy taxes, the attack of the state on the autonomy and self-government of the Don, the demand for the return of fugitive peasants. The main goal of the movement: the restoration of class privileges of the Cossacks. Suppressed by the royal troops.

1708–1710- reform administration(introduction of provincial administration).

1708., September 28- the defeat at the village. Forest Swedish troops under the command of General Lewenhaupt.

1709., 27th of June- Battle of Poltava. The defeat of the Swedes and the flight of Charles XII to Turkey.

1711. - Establishment of the Governing Senate (directed the work of all state institutions, dealt with the recruitment of the army, the development of trade and industry, controlled finances).

1711. - The Prut campaign of Peter I. Russian troops led by Peter I are surrounded by superior Turkish forces on the river. Prut (Moldova). Under a peace treaty with Turkey, Russia was forced to abandon Azov.

1711–1765– years of life of M.V. Lomonosov. 1714. - Decree of Peter I on single inheritance (equalized estates and estates).

1714., July 27- the victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut in the Baltic. Allowed to move fighting on Swedish territory, significantly strengthened the positions of Russian troops in Finland.

1718–1721- Establishment instead of orders of collegiums. Holding judicial reform(deprivation of the governor of judicial powers). tax reform(introduction of a poll tax instead of a household tax).

1720., July 27- the victory of the Russian fleet near the island of Grengam in the Baltic. It made it possible for the Russian troops to strengthen in the region of the Aland Islands and accelerated the conclusion of the Nystadt peace.

1721., August 30- the conclusion of the Nystadt peace treaty between Russia and Sweden. Russia received Livonia with Riga, Estonia with Revel and Narva, part of Karelia with Kexholm, Ingermanland (Izhora land), the islands of Ezel, Dago and other lands from Vyborg to the Kurland border. She returned to Sweden Finland, occupied by Russian troops, and paid her 2 million efimki as compensation.

1721. - Establishment of the Spirit of the Sheep College (future Holy Synod). The abolition of the patriarchy.

1721. - the proclamation of Peter I the emperor, Russia - the empire.

1722. - publication of the "Table of Ranks" - legislative act which determined the procedure for the service of officials.

1722. - issuance of a decree on succession to the throne (the reigning emperor was given the right to arbitrarily appoint an heir).

1722–1723- Caspian campaign. The purpose of the campaign: to ensure trade relations between Russia and Eastern countries, to assist the Transcaucasian peoples in liberation from Iranian domination and to prevent Turkish expansion in the Transcaucasus. It ended with the liberation of Dagestan and Azerbaijan and their annexation to Russia.

1724. – Adoption of the Customs Tariff (introduction of a 75% duty on the import of foreign goods).

1725–1762- the era of palace coups.

1725–1727- reign of Catherine I.

1726. - establishment of the Supreme Privy Council (the highest government agency Russia to solve the most important state issues). Disbanded by Empress Anna Ioannovna.

1727–1730- reign of Peter II.

1730–1740- the reign of Anna Ioannovna. "Bironovshchina".

1740–1741- the reign of Ivan Antonovich, the great-nephew of Anna Ioannov-na, under the regency, first Biron, then - the mother of Anna Leopoldovna.

1741–1761- the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.

1754. - Establishment of the Noble and Merchant Loan Banks. 1756–1763 – Seven Years' War. It was fought by the Prussian King Frederick II in alliance with Great Britain and Portugal against Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, Spain and Saxony. Causes of the war: the aggravation of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies in North America and the East Indies and the clash of Prussian policy with the interests of Austria, France and Russia. The Russian government sought to stop the expansion of Prussia in the Baltic states, to expand the territory towards Poland, to unite trade routes Baltic and Black Seas. The victories of the Russian army near Gross-Jegersdorf (1757), Kunersdorf (1759).

In 1761, Russian troops entered Berlin. It ended with the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty and the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonies and commercial superiority.

1761–1762- reign of Peter III Fedorovich, son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich.

1762. - the adoption by Peter III of the "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility" (liberation of the nobles from compulsory service state).

1762–1796- reign of Catherine II.

1764. - the abolition of the hetman's rule in Ukraine. Transfer of control Left-bank Ukraine Little Russian Collegium.

1764. - issuance of a decree on the secularization of church and monastery lands and the transfer of 2 million monastic peasants to the state category.

1767–1768- the activities of the Legislative Commission in order to develop a new set of laws. Disbanded by Catherine II after the start of the war with Turkey.

1768. - the creation of assignation banks, which began issuing paper money.

1768–1774- Russian-Turkish war. According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty Crimean Khanate passes under the protectorate of Russia. Russia receives the mouths of the Dnieper and the Southern Bug and part of the steppe between them, the cities of Azov, Kerch, Kinburn, the right to free navigation on the Black Sea and the passage of merchant ships through the Black Sea straits.

1772, 1793, 1795- partitions of Poland - the first between Russia, Prussia and Austria, the second - between Russia and Prussia, the third - Russia, Prussia and Austria. Moved to Russia Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus, South Baltic.

1773–1775 – peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev. Participants: peasants, Cossacks, working people, national minorities. embraced Orenburg region, Urals, Urals, Western Siberia, Mean and Lower Volga. Causes of the war: the strengthening of serfdom and exploitation, the restriction of Cossack self-government, the introduction of army orders in the Cossack regiments. Has been defeated.

1775. - held by Catherine II provincial reform(abolition of provinces, separation of administrative, judicial and financial authorities at all levels). 1783. - the entry of Crimea into the Russian Empire.

1783. - Signing of the Treaty of St. George. The transition of Eastern Georgia under the protectorate of Russia.

1785. – edition letters of commendation nobility and cities (fixing the class rights and privileges of the nobility, class structure in cities, the creation of city governments).

1787–1791- Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons: exacerbation Eastern question in connection with the uprising of the Greeks against Turkish rule that broke out in 1821, Turkey's desire to return the Crimea and other territories that had ceded to Russia during Russian-Turkish war 1768–1774 It ended with the Peace of Yassy (confirmed the annexation of the Crimea and Kuban to Russia and established the Russian-Turkish border along the Dniester River).

1796–1801- reign of Paul I.

1797. - the abolition of the order of succession to the throne established by Peter I. Restoration of succession to the throne by birthright in the male line.

1797. - the publication by Paul I of a manifesto on a three-day corvee and a ban on landowners to force peasants to work on Sundays and church holidays.

1799., April-August – italian hike Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov during the war of the second coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Liberation of Italy from French domination.

1799., September October- Swiss campaign of Russian troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov during the war of the II coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Russia's exit from the war, the conclusion of an alliance with Napoleon, the break in relations with England.