Our understanding of the world around us in the heyday of the technological era is all this, and much more, the result of the work of numerous scientists. We live in a progressive world that is developing at a tremendous pace. This growth and progression is the product of science, numerous studies and experiments. Everything we use, including cars, electricity, health care and science, is the result of the inventions and discoveries of these intellectuals. If not the greatest minds humanity, we would still be living in the Middle Ages. People take everything for granted, but it is still worth paying tribute to those thanks to whom we have what we have. This list features ten of the greatest scientists in history whose inventions have changed our lives.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Sir Isaac Newton - English physicist and mathematician, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Newton's contribution to science is wide and unique, and the laws he derived are still taught in schools as the basis of scientific understanding. His genius is always mentioned along with funny story- allegedly, Newton discovered the force of gravity thanks to an apple that fell from a tree on his head. True story about the apple or not, but Newton also approved the heliocentric model of the cosmos, built the first telescope, formulated empirical law cooling and studied the speed of sound. As a mathematician, Newton also made a lot of discoveries that influenced the further development of mankind. 
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Albert Einstein - physicist German descent. In 1921 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering the law of the photoelectric effect. But the most important achievement greatest scientist in history - the theory of relativity, which, along with quantum mechanics forms the basis modern physics. He also formulated the equivalence relation mass energy E=m, which is named as the most famous equation in the world. He also collaborated with other scientists on works such as Bose-Einstein Statistics. Einstein's letter to President Roosevelt in 1939, alerting him to a possible nuclear weapons, is supposed to be a key stimulus in the development atomic bomb USA. Einstein believes that this is the most big mistake his life. 
James Maxwell (1831-1879)
Maxwell - Scottish mathematician and physicist, introduced the concept electro magnetic field. He proved that light and electromagnetic field travel at the same speed. In 1861 Maxwell made the first color photograph after research in the field of optics and colors. Maxwell's work on thermodynamics and kinetic theory also helped other scientists to make whole line important discoveries. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is another major contribution to the development of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. 
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
Louis Pasteur, French chemist and a microbiologist whose main invention was the process of pasteurization. Pasteur made a number of discoveries in the field of vaccination, creating vaccines against rabies and anthrax. He also studied the causes and developed methods for preventing diseases, which saved many lives. All this made Pasteur the "father of microbiology". This greatest scientist founded the Pasteur Institute to continue Scientific research in many areas.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Charles Darwin is one of the most influential figures in human history. Darwin, English naturalist and zoologist, put forward evolutionary theory and evolutionism. He provided a basis for understanding the origin human life. Darwin explained that all life came from common ancestors and that development took place through natural selection. This is one of the dominant scientific explanations diversity of life. 
Marie Curie (1867-1934)
Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911). She became not only the first woman to receive the award, but also the only woman who has done this in two fields and the only person who has achieved this in different sciences. Her main field of research was radioactivity - isolation techniques radioactive isotopes and the discovery of the elements polonium and radium. During World War I, Curie opened the first radiology center in France and also developed a mobile field x-ray that helped save the lives of many soldiers. Unfortunately, prolonged exposure to radiation led to aplastic anemia, from which Curie died in 1934. 
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Nikola Tesla, Serbian American, best known for his work in the field modern system power supply and research alternating current. Tesla on initial stage worked for Thomas Edison - developed engines and generators, but later quit. In 1887 he built an induction motor. Tesla's experiments gave rise to the invention of radio communication, and special character Tesla gave him the nickname "mad scientist". In honor of this greatest scientist, in 1960, the unit of measurement of magnetic field induction was called "tesla". 
Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
The Danish physicist Niels Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922 for his work on quantum theory and the structure of the atom. Bohr is famous for discovering the model of the atom. In honor of this greatest scientist, the element ‘Borium’, formerly known as hafnium, was even named. Bohr also played important role at the base of CERN - European organization for nuclear research. 
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Galileo Galilei is best known for his achievements in astronomy. Italian physicist, astronomer, mathematician and philosopher, he improved the telescope and made important astronomical observations, among which are the confirmation of the phases of Venus and the discovery of the satellites of Jupiter. The frantic support of heliocentrism became the reason for the persecution of the scientist, Galileo was even subjected to house arrest. During this time he wrote The Two New Sciences, for which he was called the "Father of Modern Physics". 
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Aristotle is a Greek philosopher who is the first real scientist in history. His views and ideas influenced scientists in later years as well. He was a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His work covers a wide variety of subjects - physics, metaphysics, ethics, biology, zoology. His views on the natural sciences and physics were innovative and became the basis for further development humanity. 
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834 - 1907)
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev can be safely called one of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind. He discovered one of the fundamental laws of the universe - periodic law chemical elements to which the entire universe is subject. History of this amazing person deserves many volumes, and his discoveries have become the engine of the development of the modern world.
Abroad, two reports of reputable analysts on the state of Russian science. Thomson Reuters published their data (by the way, the owners of the Web of Science portal, where all scientific publications are indexed) and the US National Science Foundation ( NSF). Both reports are disappointing: despite the conventional wisdom about the improvement in the situation in Russian science (especially in the field of funding) compared to the 1990s, the situation is worsening in a number of key indicators.
NSF notes a steady decline in the number scientists in Russia: in 1995 there were about 600,000 of them, and in 2007 - only about 450,000. In China, the number of scientists increases by almost 9% every year, while in Russia it decreases by 2%. Moderately but steadily increase the number of scientific personnel in the US, the EU, Japan and South Korea. If the current trend continues, then in 10 years the number of scientists in Russia and South Korea will be equal. Think about this figure: even without taking into account data on the area of the country and “ cultural heritage she is amazing. The population of South Korea is more than three times smaller than the population of Russia.
Well, we say, quantity does not always translate into quality. Perhaps a small number of scientists are able to work efficiently and productively.
But even here Russia has nothing to boast of. According to a Thomson Reuters report, Russian scientists have published 127,000 papers over the past five years, accounting for 2.6% of the world's total. This is more than in Brazil (102 thousand works, or 2.1%), but less than in India (144 thousand, or 2.9%), and significantly less than in China (415 thousand works, or 8.4%). In addition, the trend in the number of publications is disappointing. “While other countries are building up their scientific potential, Russia is barely keeping up and even slipping back in areas in which it has historically been strong, such as physics and space exploration,” the report says.
"Russia throughout long period was the intellectual leader of Europe and one of the flagships of world science. Now the fall of its share in world science is not just surprising, but a real shock, ”
- analysts of the British company are amazed. Even 20 years ago (perestroika was already in full swing), Russian scientists published scientific articles more than scientists from China, India and Brazil combined, and already in 2008 there were fewer articles from Russia than from India or Brazil.
foreigners see main reason the decline of Russian science in its insufficient funding. Leading Budgets Russian institutions make up only 3-5% of material support similar institutions in the United States,” the report notes. The thesis about the "fat zero" is completely refuted, for example, in 2010, funding domestic science decreased by 7.5 billion rubles and fell below the level of 2009.
The main discovery of recent years, of course, is China. Over the past 30 years, China has increased the number of scientific results by 64 times and by 2020 may overtake the United States in the number of publications. In this case, of course, one cannot refrain from commenting on the numerical characteristics of Chinese science. Many synthetic chemists, for example, seeing a link to a working method from a Chinese article, set themselves up for failure in advance - often it is impossible to repeat the described experience. One can only guess whether there is a deliberate falsification of facts or whether the Chinese colleagues are hiding working methods to protect their "know-how". Either way, this is an indication low level scientific ethics which is unacceptable in the world scientific community. Unfortunately, China is famous for this, which adds a fly in the ointment to the honey dynamics of development.
But back to Russia. One of the obvious shortcomings of our system should be considered the "ostrich policy" of scientific management and leadership. For example, in September last year, Russian scientists sent a letter to President Medvedev, which stated that "Russia has 5-7 years left for qualified scientists and teachers of the older generation to have time to pass on their experience and knowledge to young people", otherwise "about plans for building an innovative economy will have to be forgotten.”
However, representatives Russian Academy Sciences then stated that the authors of the letter "excessively dramatize the situation." This position was indirectly confirmed by RAS President Academician Yury Osipov. Asked by a Gazeta.Ru correspondent to comment on a letter written by prominent scientists (each of them has very high citation index and Hirsch index) about the state of Russian science, which was made public last week, Osipov said:
In this context, the thesis of Thomson Reuters that Russia is a promising scientific partner sounds almost bitter. It seems that foreigners hope to spend the next 5-7 years to save the Russian scientific heritage and experience for the world community, since Russia itself does not want to keep this experience for itself. “For partners, the benefits of cooperation should be attractive, at least based on the historical role of Russia. However, potential partners must bring resources to enable Russia to participate in the research,” the report says.
Publication statistics in scientific journals indeed shows that Russian scientists work quite a lot in collaboration with foreign colleagues, especially for authors of serious publications in highly cited journals. However, let's not pretend - often these scientists are Russians only formally. Many of them have several "ports of registry" (institutions where they work), and the institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences are not the first on the list. Often, in order to contact such a “compatriot” and get a comment on an article, you have to call Paris or San Diego.
The Russian affiliation is indicated "in case I suddenly return."
In addition, this situation is also beneficial for the dying Russian institutions: the “dead soul” actively working abroad makes it possible to report on grants and create the appearance of activity. Indirectly, this nature of "cooperation" is also evidenced by the fact that it is implemented mainly with two countries - the United States and Germany. Accordingly, the United States is generally Mecca and Medina for scientific immigration, and Germany is the most popular among European countries in the same sense.
However, if foreign analysts use quantitative characteristics to assess the effectiveness of scientists, the quality of which may be questioned, then in Russia quantitative characteristics simply no. Here, for example, are the principles for selecting young scientists for the award of the Russian President's Prize, which will be awarded today (through the mouth of the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Academician Osipov).
“It is given for a significant contribution to the development of domestic science and innovative activity by young scientists and specialists. 111 independent specialists worked on the examination of the works. The best four entries were determined by secret ballot. The competition even at the last stage was very high. It was very difficult to select these works. There was a lot of controversy and different opinions. As a result, world-class works were selected. We have established scientists who are recognized not only in Russia, but also abroad.”
With all due respect to the award winners, this description it is difficult or impossible to evaluate their merits. After a row recent events and the statements of high-ranking members of the Russian Academy of Sciences, it is very, very difficult to consider their expertise as independent. Trying to give numbers instead beautiful words leaders just don't want to.
It is understandable. For example, the citation index of the journal "Proceedings of the Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics" in Yekaterinburg, which the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences called , for 2008 is 0.315. Even taking into account the fact that the average citation indexes of mathematical journals are noticeably lower than, for example, physical or biological ones, this is a very low figure. Authors from foreign names in the rooms for 2009 simply did not show up. As they say, judge for yourself.
The effectiveness of science in a given country is difficult to assess just by reading the news about the latest scientific discoveries. The Nobel Prize is given, as a rule, not for discoveries, but for the results of these discoveries. In the same way, it is not easy to understand how advanced science is: what, for example, does the number of young researchers in the country say? Does the number of publications in international scientific journals determine credibility? national science? How can one interpret the amount of spending on science in the state? NRU Higher The School of Economics and the Ministry of Education and Science published data on the dynamics of science development indicators in Russia. The editors of ITMO.N sorted out the most interesting figures EWS.
Source: depositphotos.com
How much do the state and business spend on research
In 2015, domestic spending on research and development in Russia amounted to 914.7 billion rubles, and the annual growth rate (in constant prices) was 0.2%. As a percentage of GDP, this figure is 1.13%. According to this value, Russia ranks ninth in the world, according to the collection "Science Indicators". At the same time, in terms of specific gravity spending on science in GDP Russia significantly lags behind the leading countries of the world, occupying 34th place. The top five includes the Republic of Korea (4.29%), Israel (4.11%), Japan (3.59%), Finland (3.17%) and Sweden (3.16%).
What do these numbers mean? How much or little is spent on science in Russia, when compared with other countries? What factors should be kept in mind in order to correctly assess the amount of a country's spending on science?
« These values show, firstly, how intensively, on an absolute scale, science is developing in the country and, secondly, what place it occupies in the economy. GDP here acts as a denominator and allows us to normalize indicators, that is, we estimate what, relatively speaking, is the size of the research and development sector on a scale national economy. However, we do not compare economies different countries, and it would be wrong to say that a large economy will necessarily have a large research sector. It turns out that on an absolute scale we spend as much on science as the UK, but on the scale of the country's economy, this is quite a bit.”, — commented the head of the department of the Institute statistical studies and Knowledge Economy HSE Konstantin Fursov.
He added that, in addition to the scale, it is important to understand the cost structure by sources of funding. Almost everywhere in the world, except for highly centralized countries political system, business (business sector) pays for science. This indicator characterizes how science is integrated into the economy of the civil sector. In Russia, the state mostly pays for science.
For comparison, in 1995 the state in Russia sponsored 67% of research, in 2014 this figure is 60%. The share of entrepreneurial investments remained approximately the same - about 27%. Over the period 2000–2015, the share of business as a source of funding for science decreased from 32.9% to 26.5%. At the same time, 64% of research organizations are state-owned, and 21% are privately owned.
What research is more in the country
The most ambitious in terms of costs are research in the field of transport and space systems(219.2 billion rubles), according to the Bulletin "Science, Technology, Innovation" HSE. This is more than a third (34.9%) of domestic spending on science. In the direction of "Energy efficiency, energy saving, nuclear energy» accounts for 13.7%, for the Information and Telecommunication Systems direction — 11.9%. Such a rapidly developing direction in the world as the "Industry of Nanosystems" accumulates only 4.1% of the costs.
At the same time, Russia can still be called a country of technologists. In 2005, the number of researchers employed in technical sciences was about 250 thousand people, in 2014 this figure fell by only 20 thousand. At the same time, there were 30-40% more scientists studying the humanities, but there are not many of them: no more than 13 thousand people. Three thousand more researchers devote their activities to medicine. There are quite a lot of people in Russia who study natural science disciplines - about 90 thousand.
Concerning scientific publications in journals, here too the statistics reflect the current situation: about 56% of materials are published in the natural and exact sciences, about 30% in technical sciences, and 7.7% in the field of medicine.
What does the publication activity of Russian scientists say
Between 2000 and 2014, journals indexed in international base data from Web of Science, about 144,270 articles were published by Russian scientists. On average, each article was cited just over three times. In Australia, for example, the number of citations per publication was twice as high, and the number of publications was half as many. In Switzerland, there were two times less publications, but three times more citations of one article. Chinese scientists published six times more articles than Russian ones, but one Chinese article was cited only 1.5 times more than one Russian one. The situation is similar in Scopus journals, but one example can be given for comparison: Russian scientists published about 689 thousand articles there, each of which had 6.5 citations. Danish scientists have published 245 thousand materials there, but the number of citations per article is 25.
In this regard, questions arise. What really determines a country's scientific potential on the world stage: the number of publications or the number of citations per publication?
« Indeed, the number of citations is more important. But not only for onearticle, but also the total citation of all articles of the state (otherwise the leader may be a dwarf country). Citation is a natural indicator, but it should not be the only one. The dominance of this indicator is already a concern in scientific world. The quotation is distributed according to the principle “you - me, I - you”. Russia is indeed lagging behind in terms of citation. There are several reasons. The first is the “subsidence” of Russian science for about 15 years since the beginning of the 90s. As a result, the most productive generation for scientific results at the age of 35–50 years is “strongly thinned out” in our science. Now there is a renaissance of science, but the potential is not quickly restored. The second is that citations are taken into account only by two main indexes (WoS, Scopus), in which there are very few Russian journals. Most refer to their own. Americans refer to Americans while ignoring the rest of the world, Europeans refer to Europeans and Americans while ignoring the East and Russia, etc. So we are at a disadvantage here. In addition, leading Russian magazines are translated into English, and it is the translated versions that are included in the indexes (they are considered a separate publication), so if a reference is made not to the translated version, but to the main journal, then it is not taken into account. By the way, this is one of the main reasons why we have our Russian magazine „Nanosystems: physics, chemistry, maths “ made purely English, and did not create a translated version”, - said the head of the Department of Higher Mathematics at ITMO University, editor of the journal “Nanosystems: Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics” Igor Popov.
He also named other reasons why Russia lags behind other countries in the “citation race”. So, the problem is that citation is counted in total, but it is different in different sciences. Mathematicians and programmers are traditionally strong in Russia, but in these areas the lists of references in articles are usually short (respectively, the citation rate is low), but in biology and medicine, where Russian scientists are not currently in the lead, the number of references is usually huge. In this case, you can not "go in cycles" on citation. When the USSR launched a man into space, the country also lost to the United States in terms of citation, but there was no doubt about the potential of Soviet science in the world, Igor Popov added. Another expert agrees with him.
« In our opinion, the issue of assessing the influence of one or several scientists cannot be correctly solved using one quantitative parameter (for example, the number of publications or citations). In such an assessment, at least two quantitative parameters must be used, taking into account the period of assessment, the scientific field, the type of publications being compared, and others. At the same time, it is desirable to combine a quantitative assessment with an expert', said the consultant for key information solutions Elsevier S&T in Russia Andrey Loktev.
At the same time, HSE experts emphasize that in last years there has also been a trend change: for a long time the share of articles authored by Russian scientists in Web of Science has been declining, reaching a minimum of 2.08% in 2013. However, in 2014-2015, the indicator increased to 2.31%. But so far, the average annual growth rate of Russian publishing activity over a fifteen-year period is 2.3% and still lags far behind the global rate (5.6%). Data Scopus bases similar to web data of Science.
Who is engaged in science in Russia
Gradually, but the number of researchers employed in all public, private and university research centers (meaning not only researchers, but also support staff), is increasing: in 2008 there were about 33,000 people, in 2014 - about 44,000 people. At the same time, the share of young researchers under 29 years of age is slowly increasing by 3% since 2008, as well as the share of researchers under 39 years of age – by 7% since 2008. In its turn, average age of all researchers became two years older - from 45 to 47 years.
« In my opinion, the average age of researchers is increasing because the influx of young scientists into science is objectively not so fast and is smaller in volume compared to natural process aging. Young people tend to be more mobile, both geographically and professionally, especially in the rapidly changing world that we are seeing now. Older generation much less likely to change professional path. Including for these reasons, the current younger generation, in principle, later decides on a professional vector. Also, let's not forget that people 24-29 years old are people born in 1988-1993. We all know well what our country was going through then. Therefore, when we talk about this age interval, we are talking about the consequences of the demographic gap of those years. People up to 39 years old (born in 1978 and later) at the time of the collapse of the Union studied at school. Then the default of 1998: there was no opportunity to consciously professionally self-determine. And if you look at what happened to science on state level, I suppose that there were no incentives to engage in it”, - the head of the Department for Human Resource Management and Fundraising Activities at ITMO University outlined the situation Olga Kononova.
She added that the first non-classical university is actively taking measures to keep young scientists within the walls of the alma mater. Firstly, the material and technical base of laboratories is constantly updated so that researchers can implement their scientific projects. Secondly, the system of interaction between laboratories and the center is built in such a way that it gives researchers a certain freedom of action and opportunities for self-realization. Thirdly, outstanding scientists from all over the world are constantly attracted to the university so that young researchers can learn from their experience, and working with the best is always interesting and motivating. In addition, the university allocates funds for advanced training and academic mobility of employees, and work with future research personnel begins with a bachelor's degree.
Working with young scientists is extremely important, especially since the number of graduate students in Russia has increased significantly, the HSE report notes: in 1995 there were 11,300 graduates, and in 2015 there were more than 26,000. At the same time, the number of young scientists with a Ph.D. who successfully defended their thesis almost doubled. So, 20 years ago, 2.6 thousand people received the degree of candidate of science, and in 2015 - more than 4.6 thousand. At the same time, young scientists are most interested in Technical science, physics, IT, and least of all - environmental management, architecture, nanotechnology and aerospace instrumentation and design.
We decided to find out in which countries the most smart people. But what is the main indicator of the mind? Perhaps the ratio mental development person, better known as IQ. Actually, based on this quantification and made our rating. We also decided to take into account Nobel laureates living in a particular country at the time of receiving the award: after all, this indicator indicates what place the state occupies in the intellectual arena of the world.
place
ByIQ: administrative region
In general, far from one study has been conducted on the relationship between intelligence and peoples. So, according to the two most popular works - “Intelligence Quotient and Global Inequality” and “Intelligence Quotient and Wealth of Nations” - people are ahead of the planet. East Asia.
Hong Kong has an IQ of 107. But here it should be taken into account that administrative region very high density population.
The United States leads other countries in the number of Nobel Prize winners by a huge margin. 356 laureates live (and lived) here (from 1901 to 2014). But it is worth saying that the statistics here are not entirely related to nationality: in institutes and research centers, scientists from different countries are very good support, and they often have much in the States more possibilities, than in home state. So, for example, Joseph Brodsky received a prize in literature, being a citizen.
place
IQ: South Korea
South Koreans have an IQ of 106. However, being one of the smartest countries is not easy. For example, the education system in the state is one of the most technologically advanced, but at the same time complex and strict: they graduate from school only at the age of 19, and when entering a university, there is such terrible competition that many simply cannot withstand such mental stress.
Number of Nobel laureates:
In total, the British have received 121 Nobel Prizes. According to statistics, residents of the United Kingdom receive awards every year.
place
Well, as for the winners of the prestigious award, it is in third place. It is home to 104 people who received the award in various fields.
place
By IQ: Taiwan
In fourth place is again an Asian country - Taiwan, an island controlled by a partially recognized Republic of China. A country known for its industry and productivity, today it is one of the main suppliers high technology. The local government has great plans for the future: they want to turn the state into a “silicon island”, an island of technology and science.
Average level IQ of residents - 104 points.
Number of Nobel laureates:
There are 57 people in France who have received the Nobel Prize. First of all, they are leading humanities: there are a lot of laureates in philosophy, literature and art in the country.
place
The average IQ of the inhabitants of this city-country is 103 points. As you know, one of the leading commercial centers in the world. And one of the most prosperous and wealthy states, even the World Bank called the best country for doing business.
Number of Nobel laureates:
Well, finally, the birthplace of Nobel himself got into the rating. There are 29 people awarded in different areas.
place
Three countries at once have an average IQ of 102 points. Well, there’s even nothing to say here: in Germany there has never been a shortage of philosophers and scientists, in Austria there is a very disciplined and well-developed education system, but the geniuses of Italy can be counted from the time ancient rome.
By number of Nobel laureates: Switzerland
Switzerland accounts for 25 Nobel Prizes, they are mainly in the field exact sciences. The country is known throughout the world for its private schools and universities with excellent indicators of the level of education.
place
Partly for this reason, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) monitors degrees in the 40 most developed countries in the world.
The OECD has published its Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015 report. It presents a ranking of countries based on the percentage of people who received degree in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM disciplines) per capita. So it's a fair comparison between countries with different populations. For example, Spain ranked 11th with 24% of degrees in the field natural sciences or engineering.
Photo: Marcelo del Pozo/Reuters. Students take entrance examination in a university lecture hall in the Andalusian capital of Seville, southern Spain, September 15, 2009.
10. In Portugal, 25% of graduates earn a degree in STEM sciences. This country has the highest percentage of PhDs among all 40 countries surveyed - 72%.
Photo: José Manuel Ribeiro/Reuters. Students listen to a teacher in an aeronautics class at the Employment Institute and vocational training in the city of Setúbal, Portugal.
9. Austria (25%) has the second highest number of PhDs among the working population, with 6.7 female and 9.1 male PhDs per 1,000 people.
Photo: Heinz-Peter Bader/Reuters. Student Michael Leuchtfried from Team virtual reality in Vienna technological university puts the quadrocopter on a map with symbols.
8. In Mexico, the rate rose from 24% in 2002 to 25% in 2012, despite the removal of government tax incentives for investment in research and development.
Photo: Andrew Winning/Reuters. Medical students practice resuscitation during a class at the National Autonomous University School of Medicine in Mexico City.
7. Estonia (26%) has one of the highest percentages of women with a degree in STEM sciences, 41% in 2012.
Photo: Reuters/Ints Kalniņš. Teacher Kristy Ran helps first grade students during computer lesson at a school in Tallinn.
6. Greece spent only 0.08% of its GDP on research in 2013. This is one of the lowest rates among developed countries. Here, the number of graduates with a scientific degree in STEM sciences has decreased from 28% in 2002 to 26% in 2012.
Photo: Reuters/Yannis Berakis. Amateur astronomers and students use a telescope to observe partial solar eclipse in Athens.
5. In France (27%), the majority of researchers are employed by industry rather than government agencies or universities.
Photo: Reuters/Regis Duvignau. A member of the Rhoban project team tests the functions of a humanoid robot at a LaBRI workshop in Talence, southwest France.
4. Finland (28%) publishes the most research in the field of medicine.
Photo: Reuters/Bob Strong. Students in a nuclear engineering class at Aalto University in Helsinki.
3. Sweden (28%) lags slightly behind Norway in the use of computers at work. Three quarters of workers use computers at their workplaces.
Photo: Gunnar Grimnes/Flickr. Campus of Stockholm University in Sweden.
2. Germany (31%) ranks third in the average annual number of graduates with degrees in STEM sciences - about 10,000 people. It is second only to the US and China.
Photo: Reuters/Hannibal Hanschke. German Chancellor Angela Merkel (right) and Education Minister Annette Schavan (behind second from left) observe the work of laboratory assistants during a visit to the Center molecular medicine named after Max Delbrück in Berlin.
1. South Korea was among the countries with the largest decline in the number of recipients of scientific degrees from 39% in 2002 to 32% in 2012. But this country has maintained its leading position and tops the ranking of the smartest countries according to the OECD.
Photo: Reuters/Lee Jae Won. A student in Seoul at a "white hacker" competition jointly organized by the Korean Military Academy and the Ministry of Defense and the National Intelligence Service.
In general, the ranking of countries developed in the field of science looks like:
OECD
