AT political economy there is probably not a single subject whose explanation would be as important as needs. No matter how you limit their circle, they will still remain within its framework and, moreover, within those frameworks to which, as to the center, all the conclusions of science will gravitate.

Vladimir Vernadsky

The essence and structure of the economic needs of society

Needs as a determining factor in the expedient behavior of economic entities are one of the fundamental categories of economic science.

A need is a need for something that is objectively necessary to support the life and development of a person, a team, a nation, society as a whole; internal motivator.

Needs reflect the internal motives of people's activities and form complex system, which can be structured according to different criteria. In the very general view determine:

• - physiological needs conditioned by the vital activity and development of a person as a biological being (food, clothing, housing, etc.);
• - social needs conditioned by the social (public) nature of a person (communication, social recognition, self-realization, etc.);
• - spiritual needs conditioned by the development of a person as a person (creativity, self-improvement, self-expression, etc.).

This classification is conditional, since physiological, social and spiritual needs are intertwined and interact with each other, forming an integral system.

According to the criterion of the urgency of needs and the hierarchy of the relationships between them, the models of F. Herzberg, A. Maslow, K. Alderfer are distinguished. Despite certain differences, all three models distinguish lower-order needs (primary) and higher order(secondary). According to this approach higher demands people will not come to the fore until they are satisfied pressing needs. The realization of primary needs gives rise to a desire to satisfy the next (secondary) needs, which turn into driving force conscious activity.

Thus, A. Maslow's "pyramid of needs" illustrates a stable hierarchy of benefits, according to which each next group of needs is determined and satisfied after the needs of the previous level (Fig. 2.1).

“Man is a pyramid of needs with biological at the base and spiritual at the top,” wrote A. Maslow. “Involvement in higher, spiritual values ​​in a strange way elevates both the body and all its needs. If you direct a person to realize all his needs, to their actualization ... then very soon we will be able to observe the flourishing of a new type of civilization. A person will become more responsible for his destiny, will be guided by the values ​​of the mind, will cease to be indifferent to the world around him .., which will mean approaching a society built on spiritual values" .

However, critics of the "hierarchical" classification of needs draw attention to the following:

• - this approach does not take into account individual interests and the needs of the people;
• - the concept of consistent satisfaction of needs is not confirmed in practice;
• - the authors do not define the minimum level of needs that can be considered sufficient to move to the satisfaction of the needs of the next, higher level.

Needs are satisfied in the process of consumption. Means of Satisfaction human needs are called blessings.

Good - any utility (object, phenomenon, process) that satisfies a human need.

There are the following benefits:

• - non-realized ( sunlight, health, communication, knowledge) and materialized (gifts of nature, as well as products of labor: food, clothing, housing, etc.);
• - non-economic (gratuitous, unlimited, provided by nature without human effort; their volumes exceed existing human needs) and economic (limited, resulting from or object economic activity; their volumes are limited compared to existing needs).

Economic needs are the needs for economic goods.

The satisfaction of economic needs is an internal motive for production, distribution, exchange and consumption within a certain system of socio-economic relations.

Economic needs are a structural subsystem of the whole complex of society's needs. Therefore, the level of their development and the degree of satisfaction depend on the development of other subsystems, the cultural, spiritual, moral needs of society.

The carriers of economic benefits are a variety of material goods and services. Among them are distinguished:

• - consumer goods , intended for the direct satisfaction of human needs, and production goods, intended for the creation of consumer goods;
• - wealth (products of the sphere of material production) and intangible benefits (created in the sphere of intangible production);
• - real good(are in the direct use of economic entities) and future benefits (those that economic entities will be able to use in the future), etc.

Comprehensive comprehensive study system of economic needs makes it necessary to classify them according to the following criteria:

I. By the nature of occurrence:

• - primary (basic) ones related to human existence: food, clothing, security, housing, etc.;
• - secondary, the emergence and change of which are due to the development of civilization: fashionable clothes, comfortable housing, information, etc.

II. Means of satisfaction:

• - material (needs for material goods);
• - non-material (spiritual needs).

III. According to the urgency of satisfaction:

• - priority (primary necessities);
• - secondary (luxury items).

IV. Satisfaction opportunities:

• - saturable (have a limit, the possibility of complete satisfaction);
• - non-saturable (cannot be fully satisfied, do not have saturation limits).

V. Depending on participation in the reproduced process:

• - production (needs for economic resources);
• - non-productive (needs for consumer goods).

VI. According to the subjects of manifestation:

• - personal (arise and develop in the process of the life of the individual);
• - collective, group (needs of a group of people, a team);
• - public (needs for the functioning and development of society as a whole).

VII. By quantitative certainty and measure of implementation:

• - absolute (perspective needs, bearing abstract character and being a guideline for economic development);
• - valid (formed depending on achieved level production and are social norm for a specific period)
• - solvent (determined by solvent demand);
• - actual (satisfied with the available economic benefits).

The system of economic needs is complex and constantly evolving. The structure of needs, their volume, methods and level of satisfaction are constantly changing: they are modified, complicated, improved in the process. historical development human civilization.

As noted by the famous Ukrainian researcher N.Kh. Bunge (1823-1895), "needs represent the starting point of political economic research. As an attribute of human nature, as a condition for its development, needs arise from the properties of our physical organism and the spiritual foundations inherent in the latter. As everyday needs are satisfied, mental, moral needs wake up in a person and aesthetic, which in turn become as urgent as the needs physical nature... Thus, a powerful economic engine appears, but the engine is far from the only one, since a person is intended to live in society, and in society not only the needs of people are more or less homogeneous, but the satisfaction of many of them becomes possible only under the conditions of a general joint activities. In other words, along with private needs, public ones appear, next to personal goals, public goals: concern for both material and spiritual existence, and for the development of the entire union.

The concept of "formation of needs" of the population in theory and practice is considered in two aspects: firstly, as an objective process of their development, and secondly, as certain kind activities of society and the state.

In the first sense, it characterizes the objective process of the movement of needs, determined by the law of their elevation; in the second, it acts as a kind of purposeful influence of society and the state on the upbringing of a harmoniously developed personality.

When analyzing the formation of needs as an objective process, it is important to correctly identify the factors that determine it.

Needs formation factors are the conditions and circumstances under the influence of which the needs of the population are formed and developed.

These factors are divided into objective and subjective.

Objective factors include those that act independently of the will and consciousness of people and are external in relation to the person himself as a carrier or subject of needs. These include the socio-economic and cultural conditions of life of the population in a given country, on which the degree of development of needs and the possibility of satisfying them directly depend; level of development of productive forces and industrial relations, which determines the living conditions of the population; level of social production and scientific and technological progress;

the intensity of its penetration in the sphere of personal consumption; natural and climatic conditions; age and sex composition of the population, number of families, their composition, etc.

Subjective factors depend on the individual himself, the psychophysiological characteristics of the personality. These are the opinions, preferences and tastes of a person, his inclinations, habits, etc. However, as is known from sociology, they are formed in a certain social environment, which significantly affects them.

The process of formation and development of personal needs is characterized by certain patterns. Distinguish general patterns formation and development needs and specific.

General patterns of needs formation are inherent in any social order and appear at all stages of development. human society, for example growth overall dimensions needs, their qualitative elevation and improvement.

Specific characterize certain aspects of the development of personal needs, including those that are inherent in certain social

economic formations.

The means of forming needs are the levers with the help of which the state and society purposefully influence the processes of development of needs. These include: educational and promotional activities, promotional activities aimed at arousing and creating a need for a particular product and service. Usage various methods influence on the consumer involves knowledge of the motives of his behavior, tastes preferences.

The specifics of modern demand is such that it is not economically profitable to produce goods designed for a universal level of requirements. It is advisable to create such products that would meet the specific requirements of a certain contingent of consumers, depending on demographic characteristics, living conditions, climatic and household features.

For example, it makes no sense to build a fashion store in the city's slums, or sell air conditioners in Kalyma or Alaska.

Can be used quite effectively differentiated approach to the study, satisfaction and formation of demand various categories consumers on the basis of so-called market segmentation, which considers the market not as homogeneous mass, but as the sum of segments (sectors), in each of which special character demand. Market segmentation involves work on the typology of consumers, i.e. identification the most important types consumers and their specific requirements depending on demographic, socio-economic, psychological and other differences. For example, research in the field of formation of the population's demand for clothing indicates the presence of two main age groups with different requirements for modern clothes. So the first group - the youth group - makes high demands on aesthetic parameters, the appearance of clothing items, its compliance with fashion, etc. The second group is older people - preference is given to the convenience of clothing, the materials used. AT this case you should also take care of the design of the store, age, gender and external data of the seller. That is, it is necessary to calculate everything based on the needs of that part of society with which the store, salon or industry deals.

Some types of needs in any society are formed over the years.

They are passed down from generation to generation and take root in the subconscious of members of society. This is influenced by many factors, including social structure, some Natural resources, ideology. There are traditions and customs. All this refers to non-price factors of changes in demand.

Needs Formation Methods - specific ways use of individual funds for active targeted impact on the needs of the population.

Distinguish between economic, socio-psychological and organizational means and methods of forming needs.

The economic means of forming needs include those that are associated with the economic activities of society, individual enterprises and industries, as well as individuals as carriers of needs.

The main of these means are: the production of goods, especially new ones, which brings to life and forms the need for them; progressive changes in the so-called consumption infrastructure (for example, gasification and electrification of everyday life, development highways, computer networks, and other means of communication that connect residents different districts, and facilitate the transfer of information. This affects both the consumers themselves and their lifestyle in general.

Socio-psychological means of forming needs include those that influence the minds of consumers. With the help of these means, it is possible to stimulate the development of some needs, to limit socially unpromising, irrational needs.

Organizational means are associated with the organization of the process itself. These include sales exhibitions, various kinds of product reviews, exhibitions of new products, demonstration of clothing models. Organizational means are used in close interaction with socio-psychological ones.

There are many methods and factors for the formation of needs.

Business people starting activities aimed at working with society need to study in detail the objective factors in the formation of the needs of this society, otherwise they may become victims of their own shortcomings.

Need- is a need, the need for something for human life.

by the most a prime example human needs are cognitive. A person seeks to know the world not only in his immediate environment, but also in remote areas of time and space, to understand causality phenomena. Need - the state of a living being, expressing its dependence on what constitutes the conditions of its existence.

The state of need for something causes discomfort, psychological feeling dissatisfaction. This tension forces a person to be active, to do something to relieve tension.

Only unsatisfied needs have motivating power.

Satisfying needs is the process of returning the body to a state of equilibrium.

There are three types of needs:

- natural, or physiological or organic needs, which reflect the needs of our body.

- material, or subject-material,

- spiritual- generated by life in society, associated with the development of the individual, with the desire to express through creative activity everything that a person is capable of.

The first who developed and understood the structure of needs, identified their role and significance, was American psychologist Abraham Maslow. His teaching is called the "hierarchical theory of needs" A. Maslow arranged the needs in ascending order, from the lowest - biological, to the highest - spiritual.

This scheme is called the "Pyramid of Needs" or "Maslow's Pyramid"

Physiological needs- food, breath, sleep, etc.

Need in security- the desire to protect their lives.

Social needs- friendship, love, communication.

prestigious needs- respect, recognition by members of society.

Spiritual needs- self-expression, self-realization, self-actualization, self-realization.

Exist various classifications human needs. One of them was developed by the American social psychologist A. Maslow. It is a hierarchy and includes two groups of needs: primary needs (innate)- in particular, physiological needs, the need for security; dependent needs (purchased)- social, prestigious, spiritual. According to Maslow, the need for more high level can appear only if the needs lying on more low levels hierarchy. Only after satisfying his needs of the first level (the most voluminous in terms of content and significance), a person has needs of the second level.

Needs are only one motive for activity. Allocate more:

social settings.

Beliefs.

Interests.

By interests it is customary to understand such an attitude towards an object that creates a tendency to pay attention to it.

Beliefs - stable views on the world, ideals and principles, as well as the desire to bring them to life through their actions and deeds

Consumption and production are interconnected and interdependent. Production influences consumption by stimulating the development of needs for commodities. The energy expended by the consumer is restored in the process of consumption, which contributes to the physical and mental development of producers, which, in turn, is accompanied by a change in the volume and structure of needs, determines the level and structure of consumption, as it creates objects without which the consumption process itself cannot arise; determines the mode of consumption, as beneficial features consumer goods characterizes the levels of realization of these properties, and also determines the differences between producers (physiological, territorial, etc.), which, in turn, causes differentiation in the consumption of certain groups of people.

However, consumption is not a passive factor in relation to production. It affects him in the following ways:

1) reproduces the need as the most important factor in the development of society;

2) turns production products into consumer goods, thus completing the production process;

3) gives the production an expedient character;

4) being continuous process, consumption also imparts a continuous character to production, since the consumed articles of consumption must be replaced by newly produced ones. Thus, consumption turns production into an element of reproduction;

5) in the process of consumption, a real assessment of the use value of products is made, their correspondence to the volume and structure of social needs, therefore, only in the process of consumption are positive and negative properties manufactured products.

Production and consumption take place under certain social conditions. Therefore, needs also depend on social and economic conditions the life of society.

Human needs.

Lack of motivation is the greatest spiritual tragedy that destroys all life foundations. G. Selye.

Need It is a need, a need for something for human life.

The manifestation of needs in animals is associated with a complex of corresponding unconditioned reflexes called instincts (food, sexual, indicative, protective).

The most striking example of human needs are cognitive. A person seeks to know the world not only in his immediate environment, but also in remote areas of time and space, to understand the causal relationships of phenomena. He seeks to explore phenomena and facts, to penetrate into the micro- and macrocosm. AT age development human cognitive needs go through the following stages:

Orientation,

Curiosity

directed interest,

tendencies,

Conscious self-education,

Creative search.

Need - the state of a living being, expressing its dependence on what constitutes the conditions of its existence.

The state of need for something causes discomfort, a psychological feeling of dissatisfaction. This stress forces a person to be active, to do something to relieve stress.

Only unsatisfied needs have motivating power.

Needs Satisfaction- the process of returning the body to a state of equilibrium.

Can be distinguished three types of needs:

Natural, or physiological, or organic needs that reflect the needs of our body.

Material, or subject-material,

Spiritual - generated by life in society, associated with the development of the individual, with the desire to express through creative activity everything a person is capable of.

The first who developed and understood the structure of needs, identified their role and significance, was an American psychologist. Abraham Maslow. His teaching is called hierarchical theory needs ”A. Maslow arranged the needs in ascending order, from the lowest - biological, to the highest - spiritual.

This scheme is called "Pyramid of Needs" or "Maslow's Pyramid"

1. Physiological needs - food, breath, sleep, etc.
2. The need for security is the desire to protect one's life.
3. Social needs - friendship, love, communication.
4. prestige needs - respect, recognition by members of society.
5. Spiritual needs - self-expression, self-realization, self-actualization, self-realization.

There are various classifications of human needs. One of them was developed by the American social psychologist A. Maslow. It is a hierarchy and includes two groups of needs:

primal needs (innate) - in particular, physiological needs, the need for security, dependent needs (purchased) social, prestigious, spiritual. From Maslow's point of view, a need of a higher level can appear only if the needs that lie at lower levels of the hierarchy are satisfied. Only after satisfying his needs of the first level (the most voluminous in terms of content and significance), a person has needs of the second level.

Needs are only one motive for activity. Allocate more:

1. social settings.
2. Beliefs.
3. Interests.

Under interests It is customary to understand such an attitude towards an object that creates a tendency to pay attention to it.
When we say that a person has an interest in cinema, this means that he tries to watch films as often as possible, read special books and magazines, discuss the films he has watched, etc. It should be distinguished from interests inclinations. Interest expresses a focus on a certain subject, and propensity to a certain activity. Interest is not always combined with inclination (much depends on the degree of accessibility of a particular activity). For example, an interest in cinema does not necessarily entail the opportunity to work as a film director, actor, or cameraman.
The interests and inclinations of a person express orientation his personality, which largely determines his life path, nature of activity, etc.

Beliefs- stable views on the world, ideals and principles, as well as the desire to bring them to life through their actions and deeds

German scientist Max Weber notes that differences in actions depend on wealth or poverty. personal experience, education and upbringing, the originality of the spiritual make-up of the individual.

§ 2 The needs of society and ways to meet them

What is a need

A powerful engine of the economy are the needs of society.

Needs- a lack or need for something necessary for the life of people.

Human needs are important distinctive features, which distinguish it from the rest of the animal kingdom. What are they?

First feature. People's Needs change historically quantitatively and qualitatively. These changes are noticeable during the transition from one era of development of the economy and culture of society to another. Take, for example, people who lived at the beginning of the last century.

They did not even imagine in their fantasies that there could be such extraordinary things that have become familiar to our contemporaries - televisions, computers, space stations and much more.

The second feature. Human requests are very change throughout his life. It is one thing for an infant who experiences predominantly physiological needs, and it is completely another for an adult who has mastered a certain specialty.

Third feature. People even of the same age very often have needs, requests, preferences do not match. It is no coincidence that in Russia in use folk sayings and expressions: “There are no comrades for taste and color”, “Tastes do not argue”.

Fourth feature. Modern civilization (the level of material and spiritual culture) knows multiple levels of needs person:

Physiological needs (food, water, shelter, etc.);

The need for security (protection from external enemies and criminals, help in case of illness, protection from poverty);

Need in social contacts(communication with people who have the same interests; in friendship and love);

The need for respect (respect from other people, self-respect, in the acquisition of a certain social position);

The need for self-development (to improve all the capabilities and abilities of a person).

The listed forms of human needs can be visually depicted in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Pyramid of needs of modern man

It is especially important to say about image (external and internal appearance) of the future specialist. Concerning appearance graduate of a technical school, college, then he is usually influenced generally accepted norms culture, fashion and other circumstances. The development of high qualities of his internal image, in which developed needs are manifested, largely depends on the student himself:

erudition (reading, deep knowledge of various fields human activity);

Developed intellect (creative thinking);

High culture of human communication;

Fluency in one or two foreign languages;

Ability to use a computer;

High moral behavior.

The 21st century is characterized comprehensive development needs and high image of specialists.

How does the level of needs of the members of society rise in the course of history? This largely depends on the interaction of social production and the urgent needs of people.

How are demand and production related?

The connection between production and needs is two-way: direct and reverse. Let's consider this connection in more detail.

Production directly and directly affects needs in several ways.

1. The level of production activity determines, in to what extent can it satisfy the demands of people. If, suppose, the country does not produce the required amount of goods (be it bread or cars), then the needs of the people will not be adequately satisfied. In this case, the growth of needs will become impossible.

2. Transfer of production to new level scientific and technological progress radically renews the objective world and the way of life of people, gives rise to qualitatively different needs. Say, the release and sale of VCRs and personal computers makes me want to buy them.

3. production in many ways affects the way people consume useful things and thereby determines a certain household

culture. For example, primitive was quite content with a piece of meat roasted on a fire, which he tore into pieces with his hands. Our contemporary for cooking from the same piece of roast meat requires a gas, electric stove or grill, as well as cutlery.

In turn, needs reverse action for production activities.

1. Needs are a prerequisite and determine the direction of human creative activity. Each farm schedules its production in advance useful products based on identified needs.

2. Rising needs often overtakes production. It is noteworthy that garment factory workers are eager to find out in advance what new clothes are developed in fashion houses, taking into account the new level of needs.

3. The rise of needs gives them lead role in the progressive development of production - from its lowest level to ever higher ones.

The development of needs directly depends in several directions on the level of production. The latter experiences manifold reverse action from the needs of society.

The study of the interaction between production and needs makes it possible to understand the place and role of new needs of people in the circulation of economic goods.

What is the role of needs in the circulation of goods

First of all, it is important to pay attention to the special nature of the development of the economy - its circular traffic.

Just as the cycle of substances is constantly taking place on Earth, in economic activity circulation of economic benefits. Manufactured useful things disappear in the process of their consumption and are re-created in the same or modified form. Such a cycle required condition continuous maintenance and renewal of human life.

The circuit under consideration consists of five main links that are inextricably linked:

Rice. 1.2. Circulation of economic goods

Production;

Distribution;

consumption of goods;

K needs updating.

Now let's look at how the economic cycle works. The chain of inextricable dependencies between its individual links is clearly shown in Fig. 1.2.

Let us consider the cycle of created goods on specific example peasant economy. The producer first grows, for example, vegetables. Then he distributes them: he keeps some for himself and his family, and the rest goes for sale. In the market, vegetables that are superfluous for the family are exchanged for products that are needed in the household (for example, meat, shoes). Finally, material wealth comes to destination- personal consumption. If needs peasant family increase (in connection, say, with an increase in the family), then the production of vegetables will probably expand.

Now we can imagine the circulation of products in the most general form.

The beginning of the cycle is production - the process of creating useful goods. At this time, workers adapt the substance and energy of nature to meet human needs.

Distribution subject to income from industrial activities. The distribution process determines the share of all participants in such activities in the wealth created.

The benefits received from the distribution are often not needed for personal consumption in the amount received. Since people need completely different things, it happens exchange, during which the benefits received are exchanged for other things necessary for a person.

Consumption – The final stage movement of a product that goes to meet the needs of people. As existing needs are met, new ones arise.

Needs are interconnected with all links circulation of blessings. In the process of consumption, there are new requests, which cause a renewal of production.

It may seem that the cycle of goods described here theoretically unambiguously characterizes the relationship between production and needs. However, in practice in many countries there are different variants correlation of production and needs. What are these options?

What are modern options changes in production and the needs of society

Throughout the world economy at the end of the 20th early XXI centuries, there are three main types of relationships between production, on the one hand, and the needs and consumption of the population, on the other.

First option. In some countries, the long decline of the economy leads to a decrease in both consumption and needs. This process can be likened to a spiraling movement with decreasing circles, such as we observe, say, in the funnel of a whirlpool. This plight can be seen, in particular, in selected countries Africa (for example, in the Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia), where at the end of the 20th century. per capita income declined.

Second option. In some African and Asian countries, the output of a relatively limited range of diverse products is growing very slowly. In this case, the needs are traditional and only gradually expand.

The first and second options characterize a clearly abnormal correlation between changes in production and needs.

Third option. It is possible to recognize the simultaneous growth of the production of the national product and the increase in the level of needs and consumption as normal. The natural rise in needs in this case goes in two directions: vertically and horizontally.

The improvement of people's lives is manifested in the growth of needs vertically.

Prolonged economic disruption in a number of Commonwealth countries Independent States in the 1990s had a negative impact on the value of the national product (domestic production) per 1 inhabitant and on household consumption expenditures. For example, in 2002 (as a percentage of 1990) such expenses amounted to: in Belarus - 131%, in Kazakhstan - 60%, in Ukraine - 59%.

Rice. 1. . Elevation of the needs associated with the car

Such a change can be traced in the example of people's attitudes towards buying a car (Fig. 1.3).

Rise of Needs horizontally associated with the expansion of consumption by ever wider sections of the population of products more High Quality. This change becomes more noticeable the longer the period of time under study is. We find confirmation of this in Table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

Provision of the population of Russia with durable goods (per 100 families, pieces)

As the German statistician E. Engel established, if the income of the population grows, then it spends relatively less money on food products, buys more industrial consumer goods (shoes, clothing, etc.), and with a further increase in income, it acquires high-quality items and durable goods.

The most rapid rise in needs vertically and horizontally in the 20th century. characteristic of Western - economically the most developed countries. Here, the growth of production and consumption can be likened to an upward spiral with expanding turnovers.

All considered options for changing production and needs have common feature. They express in one form or another contradiction between what people would like to have and what the real economy gives them.

Contradiction between needs and production - main contradiction economic activity in any society.

In the next section, we will find out in what ways and means the main contradiction of the economy is resolved.

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Step 4: think over possible options meeting the interests of all parties Ask questions that would clarify the hidden interests of each in maintaining or resolving the problem. Explore the paradoxes, contradictions, riddles and poles of the problem. Summarize the unspoken