§one. Syntax Subject

Syntax - linguistic discipline, which studies the syntactic connections of words in a phrase and sentence, as well as the connections of simple sentences as part of complex ones. Accordingly, three units of syntax are distinguished. Each has its own nature and characteristic features.

Syntax is the level of structure of the language.

§2. Syntax units

Syntax units:

• phrase
• simple sentence
• difficult sentence

It is important to understand that sentences and phrases are units of different levels. Why do they deal with one linguistic discipline - syntax? Because for syntax it is important how different words are created based on syntactic links. syntactic constructions.
Words are combined into phrases, and phrases are combined into sentences. A sentence is a syntactic construction high level than a phrase. It is organized differently: each sentence has a grammatical basis. Simple sentences have only one grammatical basis. If there is more than one grammatical basis in a sentence, then this sentence is complex.

lie on the stove

phrase

Emelya was lying on the stove.

simple sentence, grammatical basis: Emelya lay

While Emelya was lying on the stove, the buckets themselves went to the river for water.

a complex sentence consisting of two simple ones that have grammatical foundations: Emelya lay and buckets went down

test of strength

Find out how you understood the contents of this chapter.

Final test

1. What does syntax study?

   • phonetic word structure
   • morphemic word structure
   • parts of speech
   • syntactic links of words in a phrase and sentence, as well as links of simple sentences in complex

2. Is it correct to believe that syntactic constructions are created on the basis of syntactic links?

3. What units of language does syntax study?

   • word and phrase
   • phrase, simple sentence and compound sentence
   • morphemes

4. Is there a phrase in the sentence: The holidays are over.?

5. How many grammatical bases are in the sentence: Smile even if you don't smile back.?

6. Whether the sentence is simple or complex: What do you need to be happy?

   • simple sentence
   • difficult sentence

SYNTAX AND ITS SUBJECT. BASIC SYNTAX CONCEPTS

The term "syntax" is used primarily to refer to the syntactic structure of the language, which, together with the morphological structure, constitutes the grammar of the language. At the same time, “syntax” as a term is also applicable to the doctrine of the syntactic structure, in which case syntax is a section of linguistics, the subject of which is the syntactic structure of the language, i.e. its syntactic units and connections and relations between them.

The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.

Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraverbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms arising in combination with other verbal forms, values ​​defined the laws of word combination and building sentences, are the subject of syntax. Therefore, in broad sense words syntax (gr. syntaxis - compilation) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.

If morphology studies words in the totality of all possible forms, then syntax studies the functioning of a separate form of a word in various syntactic associations. The minimum unit of communication is the sentence. However, the syntactic properties of words are manifested not only in the sentence, the structure of which is entirely subordinated to the tasks of communication. The syntactic properties of words are also found at a lower level of the language system - in phrases that are a semantic and grammatical union of words. Therefore, syntax studies the sentence - its structure, grammatical properties and types, as well as the phrase - the minimum grammatically associated association words. In this sense, we can talk about the syntax of a sentence and the syntax of a phrase.

Shows the syntactic properties of individual words and establishes rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined grammatical features words as a particular part of speech. Thus, the possibility of phrases like the red flag is determined by the grammatical properties of combined names: a noun, as a part of speech, has the property of grammatically subordinating an adjective, and an adjective, as the most consistent part of speech, is able to take a form determined by the form of a noun, which is externally revealed in its inflection; phrases like write a letter also rely on the grammatical properties of the combined words: it is interesting that in this case even the very grammatical property of the verb (transitivity) is associated with the need to combine with certain form name, transitive verbs are not only capable of subordinating names to themselves, but also need it to express their own semantics. The syntax of the phrase in general language system is a transitional step from the lexical-morphological level to the actual syntactic level. This transitivity is due to the duality of the nature of the phrase, which is as follows. The phrase is built from individual lexical items, i.e., like the proposal, it is structurally formalized. The functional significance of these units is different - it does not rise above the significance of lexical units.

A qualitatively new stage in the general language system, which determines the linguistic essence, the communicative and functional significance of the language. The syntax of the sentence is based on the study of units of the communicative plan. Connections and relations of word forms and phrases in a sentence are subject to the goals of communication, therefore they are different from connections and relations between the components of a phrase. However, even at this linguistic level, the general linguistic systemicity manifests itself quite clearly. For example, many even complex syntactic units are constructively based on morphological-syntactic relations, in particular complex sentences with conditional dependence: with an explanatory clause with transitive verb, with a definitive substantive part and others, since such clauses do not distribute the entire subordinating part of the sentence, but single word in it (or a phrase) as a lexical-morphological unit. The presence of attributive clauses is dictated by the grammatical properties of the name, and the same properties that determine the possibility of an agreed adjective or participle, as well as an inconsistent form of denoting a feature in a phrase or the presence of an agreed separate definition in a simple complicated sentence; the same is true in sentences with a verbal dependency: the adverbial clause that extends the verb is determined by the lexical and grammatical properties of the verb. Wed, for example: Dagny felt a rush of air from the music and forced herself to calm down. - Dagny felt a rush of air from the music and forced herself to calm down.(Paust.); Around the clearing on which the guys were sitting, birch, aspen and alder grew magnificently!(Pan.). - Around the clearing, with the guys sitting on it, birch, aspen and alder grew luxuriantly.; Passing through the courtyard, Seryozha saw that the shutters on his windows were also closed.(Pan.). - Seryozha saw the closed shutters...

The general linguistic consistency is emphasized by the presence of interconnectedness and interpenetration of the phenomena of different language levels. This is the foundation on which the building of a common language system is firmly based and which does not allow its individual links to crumble.

So, the phrase and the sentence stand out as syntactic units different levels: phrase - pre-communicative level, sentence - communicative level, and the phrase into the system communication tools included only through the offer. However, the selection of these syntactic units is insufficient to judge the ultimate unit of syntactic articulation. So, it is impossible, for example, to recognize the phrase as a minimal syntactic unit. The very concept of a phrase contradicts this, since it presupposes a certain union of components. As a minimal syntactic unit, one cannot recognize the word as such, as an element vocabulary language, since when combined in syntactic units, not words in general are combined, in the aggregate of their morphological forms, and certain, necessary for the expression given content word forms (naturally, with the possibility of shaping). For example, in combination autumn foliage combine two forms of the word - form female singular nominative case noun and the same adjectival form. Therefore, the primary syntactic unit can be recognized as the form of a word or the syntactic form of a word. This also applies to those combined components when words are devoid of the sign of formation, for example: very fruitful, very nice.

The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. However, its role and purpose is not limited to this. The syntactic form of a word can act as a “building element” not only as part of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in building its basis, for example: It's damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive attire. It follows that syntactic form words participate in the construction of a sentence either directly or through a phrase. The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the syntactic form of a word is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On the boat, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers - a lot of Russian men and women(Boon.). The syntactic form of a word and a phrase, on the one hand, and a sentence, on the other hand, are syntactic units of different functional significance and different syntactic levels, but the units are interconnected and interdependent, units of the general syntactic system of the language. However, even a sentence, being a unit of a message, is significant in the language only as a small private link, which is structurally, semantically, and accentologically subordinate to common tasks communications, i.e. acquires its specificity only in connection with other links (proposals). This is how complex whole syntax, coherent speech syntax, text syntax, which studies units larger than a single sentence, units that have their own rules and laws of construction.

The definition of a set of syntactic units is by no means sufficient to describe the syntactic system of a language, since a system is not only a set of elements, but also their connections and relationships. So, syntactic link serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence and forms syntactic relations, i.e. those varieties of syntactic correspondence that are regularly revealed in syntactic units, regardless of their level. For example: as a result of the subordinate connection of agreement in the combination stone house, attributive relations are born between the forms of words in a given syntactic unit; management communication has become the basis for object relations combined to buy a book .

Predicative relations arise as a result of the syntactic connection of the main members of the sentence. At the level of a complex sentence different types syntactic connection (subordinating, coordinating, non-union) also form syntactic relations - causal, temporal, target, comparative-adversative, enumerative, etc. This means that syntax studies the syntactic units of a language in their connections and relationships. Content syntactic relations two-dimensional: on the one hand, it reflects the phenomena real world, in which it draws its information content (relationships between the subject and its attribute, action and object, etc.); on the other hand, it is based on the interaction of the components of the actual syntactic units (dependence, for example, of the controlled form of the word on the control, the one that is consistent on the one that determines this agreement, etc.), i.e. based on syntactic link. This duality of the content of syntactic relations is the essence of syntactic semantics in general and the semantics of syntactic units in particular. Syntactic semantics(or syntactic meaning) is inherent in any syntactic unit and represents its content side; semantic structure however, naturally, only units that can be decomposed into components (phrases, sentences) can have. If we turn to the main syntactic unit - the sentence, then, based on what has been said, it is possible to find a meaningful side in it (reflection real items, actions and features) and formal organization (grammatical structure). However, neither one nor the other reveals another side of the sentence - its communicative significance, its purpose. So, the content (what is transmitted), the form (how it is transmitted) and the purpose (for what it is transmitted) - these are the three conditionally singled out (they exist in unity) sides of the sentence, which served as the basis different approach to the study of the sentence - semantic, structural and communicative. All three sides of the same phenomenon have "deep analogy and parallelism." For example, in the simplest sentence Bird flies, the semantic structures (the real carrier of the sign and the sign), syntactic, or formal grammatical (subject and predicate), and communicative (given, i.e. the initial moment of the statement, and new, i.e. . what is reported about the given, or, in other terminology, the theme and rheme). However, this relationship can be violated, and it is this possible mismatch between the components of the syntactic, semantic and communicative structure of the sentence that justifies the thesis about the existence and independence of all three levels of sentence division. For example, in the sentence It's fun, a coincidence can be found only with respect to the function of the component fun: it is both a syntactic predicate, and a semantic predicate, and a rheme of the message, while the component to him is the semantic subject of the state and at the same time the subject of the message, but it is not the subject.

Syntactic science knows all three aspects of the study of a sentence, as a result of which an opinion has been formed about the need to distinguish accordingly a sentence in a language (taking into account its syntactic semantics and formal organization) and a sentence in speech, i.e. a sentence implemented in a context, in a specific speech situation (taking into account its communicative orientation). The latter is usually called a statement, although the same term is often used - a sentence, meaning its speech content.

The set of syntactic units that are singled out in the language forms it syntactic means. Like any other, syntactic means have their own specific purpose, i.e. exist not on their own, but for the sake of certain functions. Particular functions of syntactic units are determined by the general communicative function of syntax. If the communicative function is performed by a sentence (statement) as a syntactic unit, then the role of this unit in the construction of a sentence (as a component of a phrase or a member of a sentence) can be recognized as the function of any syntactic unit of the pre-communicative level (syntactic form of a word, phrase). The concept of a function is often identified with the concept syntactic meaning and hence directly related to syntactic semantics. With a differentiated use of these terms, the meaning is understood as an expression of extralinguistic relations, i.e. relations of reality, in this case, the content of the term "function" remains the actual syntactic indicators - the functions of "construction", associative.

To designate syntactic units that are divided into components, there is also the term "syntactic construction", which is used both in relation to an abstract language model and in relation to a specific one. language unit built on this model.

In the general language system, the syntactic side occupies special place is a phenomenon higher order, because for the expression of thought it is not enough only selection lexical material, it is necessary to establish a correct and clear connection between words, groups of words. No matter how rich vocabulary language, in the end, it always lends itself to inventory. But "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words." It is in the structure of the language, i.e. in its grammar (and first of all in syntax), the basis of its national specificity is laid. It is known that many words of the Russian language have foreign origin, however, they calmly coexist with native Russian words. Time has made completely Russian such, for example, words as beetroot, bed, money, etc., and precisely because they obeyed the rules of compatibility of words in the Russian language. In the grammatical arrangement of a word, the syntactic side always comes first: for example, many morphological properties words appear as a result of the specifics of its functioning in a sentence, a prime example to that - the history of the formation and development of adverbs.

The syntactic structure of the Russian language is enriched and improved. As a result of the constant interaction of individual elements in the general syntactic system of the language, parallel syntactic constructions appear to express the same content. Structural variability leads, in turn, to stylistic differentiation.

The stylistic possibilities of modern Russian syntax are quite tangible and wide enough. The presence of options in the ways of expressing thoughts and, consequently, in the syntactic organization of speech allows you to develop a whole system syntactic means adapted to function in various types communication, in different speech situations(in different functional styles speech).

The study of syntactic units and their stylistic properties creates the possibility of targeted selection means of expression language, their conscious use in different speech contexts. The choice of syntactic units corresponding specific purposes speech communication, is always associated with the search for the best option. And this best option must satisfy the requirements of not only the desired meaning, but also the desired emotional sound. And this one is clean emotional side utterances are very often created by means of syntax. In particular, constructions of expressive syntax have not only an informational function, but also a function of influence. From this it is clear what great value has a purposeful study of the syntactic system of the language.

Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that illuminates the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units.

Syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of a language allows you to build and show a system of syntactic units, connections and relationships between them, from what and how they are composed, by what means the components are connected into syntactic units.

Basic concepts of syntax:

syntactic position. There is only one definite syntactical position for the definite form in the sentence. (Sasha saw Katya, incompatibility).

Syntactic relations are relations of coordination (correlation). Subject and predicate - there is no main thing, they coordinate.

Relationship composition (equality).

Relationships of subordination (dependence).

· Hierarchy as a type of relationship, inclusion relationship, one level is included in another, more complex. + relationships of subordination (relations of one-man command), the vertex node and the dependent node.

Syntax addiction

4 aspects of syntax.

1) Formal-structural (refers to the plan of expression). Categories of syntactic form (simple/complex, types of clauses, etc.).

2) Semantic aspect. From a content point of view, in the syntactic structure, a surface structure (form structure) and a deep structure (subtextual meaning, author's intentions) are distinguished. From the point of view of semantic syntax, the sentence performs a nominative function, is also a name. Proposition - constitutes the structure and meaning of the situation. In each suggestion - 2 types of nominative meaning proposition (that part of the meaning that conveys the state of affairs in the world, the objective content of the sentence) and modus (that part of the meaning that shows the attitude of the speaker to the reported, the subjective principle). Mode: explicated (verbalized) + non-explicited (non-verbalized).

Elements of the semantic structure of the sentence: agent-producer of the action; predicate - what is reported about the subject of speech; object - an element of action, situation, what the action is aimed at; instrumental - instrument of action; mediative - with the help of which, means; destination; the counterparty is a participant in a symmetrical relationship.

3) Communicative aspect. Implied actual articulation speech, theme-rhematic articulation.

4) Pragmatic aspect. The subject of the characteristic is the communicative goal, for which we pronounce. The basis is theory speech acts, the idea of ​​John Austin, Searle monograph - 2 Speech acts, Arutyunova, Zvegintsev.

The syntax deals with the following main questions:

1. connection of words in phrases and sentences;

2. consideration of types of syntactic connection;

3. definition of types of phrases and sentences;

4. definition of the meaning of phrases and sentences;

5. connecting simple sentences into complex ones.

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Language is a system that consists of closely interacting levels: phonetic, morphemic, morphological, lexical, syntactic. The latter combines all the previous ones and forms a separate complex subsystem.

What is syntax in Russian. Syntax is the science that studies the structure of writing and oral speech. Wikipedia gives this definition: it is a part of grammar that indicates the rules for connecting words within phrases and sentences.

What does syntax study: texts, individual sentences and phrases, their structure, composition, functions, role in oral and writing.

The subject of science is the rules for combining words, word forms and phrases, their analysis from the point of view of communicative orientation.

To achieve this goal, researchers in this field of linguistics need to:

• form a definition for the concepts of "syntactic units", determine their structure, functions and meaning;
• study grammatical forms and categories of syntactic units, establish connections and dependencies between them;
• describe the structure and types of units of this level, determine their role;
• analyze the structural-semantic types of syntactic units;
• identify, describe and compare the means that are used for communication, explore ways of expressing relationships within and between elements.

Note! The purpose of science is to explore grammatical form and the meaning of syntactic units.

Sections

Syntax as a branch of the science of language includes three sections that systematically study different structural elements speech. Syntax sections form their tasks, goals, object and subject.

Offer

The subject of study is a unit of speech that speakers and listeners perceive as a grammatical whole. It serves to verbalize thinking.

Its structure includes:

• subject;
• predicate.

The signs of a sentence are grammatical and ideological integrity, logical completeness, predicativity (presence of at least one main member), semantic formalization.

Syntax explores the typology of these units, the ways of communication in them, the types of their elements.

Note! Distinguish between simple and compound sentences.

phrase

The doctrine of the phrase seeks answers to such questions:

• Does a phrase exist outside of contexts, or is it always secondary, isolated from a finished statement?
• Is it possible to single out predicative phrases (subject plus predicate) into a separate class?
• Can it be separated into a separate class? homogeneous members suggestions?

What is a phrase

Researchers of the phrase differently understand its nature. Someone singles out this unit as a syntactic unity that we isolate from a sentence. Others call this term any words that are related grammatically and in meaning.

The syntax of the phrase deals with the study of these views.

Text

This section linguistic science studies the organization of the text, the connections between individual sentences.

Text: definition of the concept

The object of study of this section are:

• block diagrams of simple and complex sentences;
• schemes of a complex syntactic whole;
• the structure of the text;
• between sentences of a complex syntactic whole.

The syntax of the text helps to evaluate structural features text, establish a connection between them and communicative orientation each unit of this level. This is necessary for carrying out linguistic analysis text.

Basic Level Units

Sections of linguistics operate with their own units. For example, in phonetics it is a sound, in lexicology it is a lexeme.

Syntax units

In syntax, the main elements are:

• phrase - two or more words that are connected by subordinating relations. Main function- nominative;
• sentence - a particle of speech that is used to form, express and convey thoughts. Performs communicative, nominative functions;
• syntaxeme - a word in its syntactic functioning as a carrier syntactic function. For example, in the statement “Evening has fallen on the city”, the word “evening” is a syntaxeme that plays the role of a predicate.

Each of them is the object of study of the corresponding section of this science.

History of study

Throughout the development of linguistics this section Linguistics was studied from the standpoint of the following aspects:

• logico-grammatical (beginning and end of the 17th century). It is based on the idea that a sentence is a complete analog of a logical proposition;
• psychological. Representatives - O. Potebnya, A. Fortunatov. They drew parallels between sentence and psychological judgment;
• formal grammatical (A. Peshkovsky). Language was seen as a system that operates in its own way. internal laws, studied the formal indicators of sentences;
• structural and grammatical. Representatives of this trend separated logic and psychology from this level and argued that all its units should be studied on the basis of their own knowledge, without reference to logical categories;
• communicative. This view of science and its units remains relevant to this day. The study of the sentence and its elements is carried out on the basis of their role in oral and written speech.

Syntactic units

These aspects are compared with the main stages of the study of this section of science:

1. Greco-Roman period, Middle Ages (logical and grammatical campaigns).
2. Classical linguistics, "traditional" (formal-grammatical and structural-grammatical approaches).
3. Modern linguistic approaches.

On the present stage the study of this section of science in the center of research are issues related to the active development of the Internet and virtual communication: media syntax, transformation of texts and their elements under the influence social networks, non-linear syntax (means of graphical selection of words and phrases: variations of fonts, small and capital letters).

Syntax in literature

In the literature there are syntactic ways expressions.

Exist separate term- “poetic syntax”, which combines all the means associated with the use of phrases and sentences in order to realize a certain artistic goal.

Examples of funds:

• - the use of "dissected" punctuation and intonation statements in order to focus on emotions, events, elements of the narrative. For example: “He gave me a long-awaited ring. Golden. with a huge stone. From white gold. How I dreamed";
• syntactic anaphora is the repetition of the same constructions in prose or poetry. For example: “I will hear your words. Will I hear an apology? I will only hear the rain and I will hear my broken dreams.
• epiphora - repetition identical words at the end of short speeches. Characteristic for folklore, folk songs;
• parallelism - the arrangement of elements similar in syntactic structure in adjacent poetic or prose elements of the text;
• oxymoron - a phrase in which logically uncombinable lexemes are combined (“living corpse”, “bitter sugar”, “sharp stupidity”);
• asyndeton - deliberate omission of all types of communication: unions connecting words. This gives the text dynamism, swiftness;
• polysyndeton - a deliberate increase in the amount connecting words and unions in a sentence. This creates additional pauses, slows down the pace of the work. For example: “What about me? But what about everything that happened? But what about the days? weeks? How is everything? With this tool, you can give the text additional tragedy and emotionality;
• rhetorical figures - questions (not requiring an answer), exclamations (transmission of emotions) and appeals (generalized);
• - violation of word order poetic language this is taken as the norm. Using inversion, you can create rhythmic text, highlight the right words and phrases to convey emotions;
• ellipsis - omission of a linguistic element, ignoring the predicate or subject. For example, together “And I sent you a postcard” - “And I sent you a postcard.”

These funds are also called poetic figures speech. They are used for artistic expressiveness, conveying expressiveness.

AT poetic syntax any experiments and "language" games are allowed, which are defined as erroneous in ordinary speech:

• repetitions;
• violation of word order;

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Summing up

Syntax as a branch of the science of language is a multi-tiered phenomenon that includes many aspects and sublevels. Its study helps to better understand the structure of the language and the relationship of all structural units linguistics.

Every language, including Russian, contains a large number of words. But these linguistic units mean nothing without correct design. This is where syntax comes in handy. The basic units of syntax are just responsible for grammatical connection words into sentences that make up human speech, written and oral. Knowledge of this important section of the science of language will help you correctly and competently formulate your thoughts. Syntax into the basic units of syntax and consider below.

Syntax is a special section of language science

The structure of syntactic units, their meaning and interaction is studied by a section of grammar called "syntax". This word Greek origin denoting "composition" or "construction". Thus, the section studies how exactly from the whole set of words to build the basic units of syntax - a phrase and a sentence. If this section of grammar is learned at the proper level, speech will be harmonious, logical and varied.

Punctuation is inextricably linked with syntax. This is a system of rules governing the punctuation marks. They help to divide the text into sentences, as well as logically arrange the syntactic units themselves.

Basic units

The basic units of syntax are the phrase and the sentence. Each of them has its own characteristics and purpose. Syntax units also include text and a complex syntactic whole.

Let's figure out what the basic units of syntax are. The table will help you with this.

phrase	Offer
It does not have a communicative function, it serves for the grammatical and semantic connection of words with each other.	The minimum communicative unit, serves for registration of oral and written speech. Possesses predictability.
	One grammatical basis	Two grammatical bases
Catch with a net, a wooden table, slow down the movement, jump high.	The forest today is extraordinarily beautiful. He became very sad.	I came to pay my respects. Nature comes to life: in some places you can already hear the singing of birds that have arrived.

subordination

So, we said what is syntax, the basic units of syntax. Syntactic links they determine how the relations between the latter are realized. There are two types of connection that can connect the words in a phrase that make up the elements of a sentence: coordinating and subordinating.

When we talk about the latter, this implies that it is possible to highlight main part and the one that will depend on it. In other words, the main one - from which it is necessary to ask a question, dependent - to which it is posed.

Let's look at examples: know (what?) exact time. In this phrase "know" will be the main word, "time" - dependent.

I don't know what tomorrow will bring me. Here we already have a complex sentence with a subordinating relationship between the parts. From the first - "I know" - we ask a question to the subordinate (what?) "what tomorrow will bring me."

Ways of submission

Implemented subordination in several ways. This is most noticeable within a phrase.

1. Agreement: when the entire syntactic unit is changed, the word forms included in it also change. Wicker basket; wicker basket, about wicker basket. Dependent words in this case can be participles, adjectives, ordinal numbers and pronouns-adjectives.
2. Management: the dependent word remains unchanged, while the main word can change its grammatical form. Describes the landscape - described the landscape - described the landscape - described the landscape. Dependent words: nouns, verbs, adjectives and cardinal numbers.
3. Adjacency: connection only in meaning. Went staggering, very handsome, went to work. Here, as dependents, everything will be

writing connection

Unlike submission, coordinative connection connects absolutely equal parts. These can be both special combinations of words: flowers and herbs, walked and rejoiced, and the constituent parts of a complex sentence: "The street soon calmed down, but anxiety grew in the house."

Here we do not single out the main and dependent words, this connection is framed intonation or with the help of coordinating conjunctions. Compare: "He walked, cried, did not notice anyone. - He walked and cried." In the first case, only intonation is used, in the second - the union and (coordinative connective).

Phrase. Phrase types

So, it was described above what the basic units of syntax are. The phrase is the smallest of them. It is two or more words connected in meaning, intonationally or grammatically. Phrases are singled out from sentences, because they are integral part. This is done as follows: It is drizzling outside.

1. First, the grammatical basis is determined. It is not a phrase. The rain is drizzling.
2. Next, we ask questions from the subject: rain (what?) Small.
3. After that, from the predicate: it drizzles (where?) On the street.

According to which part of speech the main word belongs to, all phrases are divided into nominal ones (an oak table, each of the guests, is capable of learning); verbal (was stumbling, speak clearly) and adverbial (very fun, to the right of the road, somewhere in the store).

Also, phrases are divided into simple and complex.

In the first, only one question is possible: the sun (what?) is bright and radiant. Complex ones are more common. Compare: read (what?) a magazine (simple) and read (what) a popular science magazine. AT last example from the word magazine, a question is also asked for the word popular science, so the phrase is complex.

Allocate free and integral phrases. The first ones differ in that each word from their composition is a full-fledged member of the sentence. The second in the sentence is not divided into constituent parts. Only two students passed the session with excellent marks. "Two students" is essentially a phrase, but in the sentence it acts as a subject, so it can be characterized as a whole.

Not a phrase

It should be remembered that phrases are never:

1. Subject and predicate.
2. Homogeneous members of the proposal.
3. Phraseologisms (they should not be confused with whole phrases that are one member of the sentence: three sisters, a boy with a girl, etc.).
4. Combinations official word and an independent part of speech: during the day (preposition and noun), so is he (conjunction and pronoun), what an ignoramus (particle and noun).
5. Complex forms: I will read (future tense), the highest is more calm ( comparative), let him go (imperative mood).

Offer and its features

We already know that the basic units of syntax are the phrase and the sentence, but it is the latter that is the most important. After all, our speech consists precisely of sentences: we think and speak with them, making up a coherent text.

What characterizes the sentence as the basic unit of syntax? The grammatical basis is the indicator that distinguishes it from a phrase or a simple set of words. This feature is also called predicativity, because it is the predicate that carries an indicator of the reality or unreality of what is happening. It is expressed through the mood of the verb.

Also, the sentence as the basic unit of syntax is characterized by logical and intonational completeness. This is short sentence, the formulation of a certain thought about the subject of conversation. It cannot be confused with a phrase, because in the latter there is no logical completeness - it is just a grammatically connected set of words.

Grammatical basis

Every sentence has a grammatical basis. This is an indicator of its structure - the most important characteristic.

The predicative stem can be represented by both the subject and the predicate, or by each of them separately.

For example, the sentence: "We saw the long-awaited land." There are both main members here. Another thing is a sentence of this kind: "The long-awaited land has become visible." Here, from the basis, only the predicate - it became clear.

It is by the number of predicative stems that the most important characteristic: a simple sentence in front of us or a complex one.

Let's briefly review each main member. The subject shows us the subject of speech, indicates what the sentence is talking about. The predicate means what the subject does, what it is, who or what it is. There are three types of this main member in structure and meaning: simple and compound, verbal and nominal.

What are the offers

It is sentences that, for the most part, study syntax. The basic units of syntax are characterized by many parameters.

Regardless of the number of predicative bases, there are proposals for:

1. The purpose of the statement. Communicating with each other, people can report some facts ( narrative sentences), ask (interrogative) or call for some action (incentive). At the end of such syntactic units, respectively, a period, question mark or exclamation mark is placed.
2. Emotional coloring. Distinguish between exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences. It should be noted that the former may not necessarily be exclusively incentive. For example, the sentence: What a ridiculous situation! We will characterize it as narrative but exclamatory. It's all the fault of that, expressing admiration.

Characteristics of simple sentences

Simple sentences are the basic units of syntax. Let's briefly analyze their most important characteristics.

1. One piece or two piece. The grammatical basis will indicate this. If it is represented by one of the members, the proposal will be one-part. Otherwise, two-part. If the sentence has only a subject or a predicate, it is necessary to indicate its type (definitely or indefinitely-personal, nominative or impersonal).
2. Common or not. Minor members are responsible for this characteristic. If there is at least one of them - the proposal is common.
3. Complete or incomplete. The latter are typical for oral speech: some member is omitted in them. Thus, it is not possible to build a logical chain without neighboring sentences. For example: "Are you reading a book?" - "No, a magazine." The answer to the question posed is an incomplete sentence.
4. A simple sentence can be complicated. This is also one of its characteristics. As complicating elements are isolated and minor members, both common and not, also homogeneous designs, introductory words, appeals.

Sentences simple and complex

Russian syntax is very diverse. The basic syntactic units are simple and Let's figure out what the difference is between them.

If a syntactic unit has one grammatical basis, then we will talk about a simple sentence. The wind is very loud today. The characterization of such a proposal will proceed according to the plan presented above.

There are cases when a syntactic unit consists of several simple ones. Then it will be a difficult proposition.

It is most difficult to distinguish between a simple sentence with homogeneous predicates from complex. Here you need to carefully look at the subject. If it is one item that performs various activities, then the proposition is simple. Let's look at examples:

"They walked the streets of the city and enjoyed their newfound freedom." - "They walked along the streets of the city, and the newfound freedom gave them strength." The first suggestion is simple. There is only one predicative basis here, complicated by homogeneous predicates: they walked, enjoyed. The second sentence will be difficult because grammar basics two: they walked, gave freedom.

Types of links in complex sentences

As mentioned above, the basic units of syntax are sentences. If speak about complex structures, then their most important characteristic will be the type of connection between the parts. Syntax also deals with these phenomena. Basic units of syntax, complex sentences, may include parts connected by a subordinating and coordinating connection. Depending on this, there is a gradation into compound and complex sentences.

Let's look at each type in more detail. The components of compound sentences are equal. This equality provides them with a special, creative connection. It is expressed in the fact that in the construction of sentences are used coordinating conjunctions. So a question from one simple sentence to another is impossible.

Example: "I want to return everything back, but something is constantly preventing me." This offer compound, parts connected adversarial union but.

Also, intonation plays an important role in the formation of a complex sentence: at the end of each simple sentence, it goes down - this characterizes logical completeness.

Complex syntactic integer

What other elements does Russian syntax include? The basic units of syntax are also complex sentences. They are made up of elements where one depends on the other. That is, between simple parts such a proposal, you can always put the question: "The clearing (what?), Which we went to, was hidden from prying eyes."

This connection is made through subordinating conjunctions and intonation descending towards the end of each simple sentence.

Don't forget that there is unionless bond. It implies the absence of formal elements between the parts, only intonation completeness: The river was noisy and seething; ships sailing on it feared for their safety.

We have analyzed what the Russian syntax includes. The basic syntactic units, the sentence and the phrase, form other structures called the complex syntactic whole. And it, in turn, already forms the text. Inside it, as well as in any other element of syntax, there are connections, both grammatical and semantic, and even formal (for example, conjunctions with which the following sentence begins).

What is a complex syntactic whole? This is a group of sentences, simple and complex, logically interconnected by one main idea. In other words, the syntactic whole is a micro-topic that contains an intermediate meaning. As a rule, it is limited to paragraph articulation.

It is not uncommon for a text to be a syntactic whole. As a rule, this short stories with one short storyline.