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1 E.V. Savinkina G.P. Loginova CHEMISTRY IN TABLES AND SCHEMES Reference manual classes Publishing house AST Moscow

2 UDC 373:54 BBC 24ya721 С13 С13 Savinkina, Elena Vladimirovna. Chemistry in tables and diagrams: reference guide: classes / E.V. Savinkina, G.P. Loginova. Moscow: AST Publishing House, (1) p. ISBN (LLC AST Publishing House) (New school program) ISBN (LLC "Publishing House AST") (Preparation for the unified state exam) The reference book presents a school chemistry course in the form of accessible diagrams and tables. Visual, simple and convenient presentation of the material contributes to its better assimilation and memorization. The book will effective help in the study of new and repetition of topics covered, as well as in preparation for the unified state exam in the course of chemistry. Chemistry teachers can use it in the classroom as reference charts. UDC 373:54 LBC 24ya721 ISBN (LLC "AST Publishing House") (New school curriculum) ISBN (LLC "AST Publishing House") (Preparation for the unified state exam) Savinkina E.V., Loginova G.P. AST Publishing House LLC

3 CONTENTS Preface THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY The structure of the atom Table 1. Atom Table 2. Basic provisions quantum theory atom structure Table 3. Energy levels and sublevels Scheme 1. Shapes of orbitals Table 4. Rules for filling atomic orbitals (in the ground state of the atom) Scheme 2. Sequence of filling AO with electrons Table 5. Blocks of elements Table 6. Electronic configurations neutral atoms in the ground state for the elements of the first four periods Periodic Law DI. Mendeleev Table 7. Numbers of periods and groups Table 8. Patterns of changes in properties in groups Table 9. Patterns of changes in properties in periods Table 10. Changes in composition and properties hydrogen compounds, higher oxides and hydroxides of elements of the 3rd period of the periodic system

4 4 Chemical bond Table 11. Types chemical bond Table 12. Description covalent bond Table 13. Covalent bond formation mechanisms Table 14. Multiple bonds Scheme 3. Orbital overlap Table 15. Molecule formulas Table 16. Chemical bond parameters Table 17. Valency. Oxidation state Table 18. Determination of oxidation state Table 19. Types crystal lattices Classification chemical reactions Table 20. Classification by change in the composition of substances Table 21. Classification by state of aggregation substances Table 22. Classification based on reversibility Table 23. Classification based on thermal effect The rate of a chemical reaction Table 24. Basic quantities Table 25. The dependence of the reaction rate on concentration Table 26. Change in the rate of a chemical reaction Chemical equilibrium Table 27. Le Chatelier's principle Table 28. Shift in chemical equilibrium Electrolytic dissociation Table 29. Dissociation products

5 Table 30. Some strong acids and bases Table 31. Degree of dissociation exchange reactions in solution Table 32. Berthollet rules Table 33. Molecular and ionic equations Hydrolysis Table 34. Hydrolysis inorganic substances Table 35. Reversible hydrolysis of salts Table 36. Medium in solutions acid salts Redox reactions Table 37. Functions of an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent Table 38. Oxidized and reduced forms of certain substances Table 39. Types of redox reactions Table 40. Electrochemical series of voltages of metals Table 41. A number of non-metals Table 42. Examples of oxidizing and reducing agents Table 43. Electron method balance Table 44. Corrosion retardation Electrolysis Table 45. Electrodes Table 46. Electrolysis of melts Table 47. Electrolysis of solutions Mechanisms of reactions in organic chemistry Table 48. Main reaction mechanisms

6 Table 49. Substitution reaction mechanism Table 50. Markovnikov's rule INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Classes of inorganic substances Table 51. Inorganic substances Table 52. Simple substances Table 53. The position of non-metals in the periodic system of elements Table 54. Compound substances Table 55. Ortho- and metaforms of hydroxides Table 56. Trivial names of some oxygen-containing acids and their anions Table 57. Classification of hydroxides and oxides Table 58. Classification of salts Scheme 4. General classification inorganic substances Metals Table 59. Reactions of metals Non-metals Table 60. Reactions of non-metals Oxides Table 61. Reactions of basic oxides Table 62. Reactions acid oxides Table 63. Reactions of amphoteric oxides Bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 64. Reactions of bases Table 65. Reactions of amphoteric hydroxides

7 Acids Table 66. Reactions of acids Table 67. Products of reduction in aqueous solutions anions of oxidizing acids (nitric and concentrated sulfuric) with various metals Salts metals in a series of voltages) Table 73. Decomposition of ammonium salts Interrelation of classes of inorganic substances Table 74. Transformations of inorganic substances ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Structure of organic substances Table 75. Theory of the structure of organic substances A.M. Butlerov Table 76. Types organic compounds Table 77. Carbon-carbon bonds Table 78. Carbon atom Table 79. Types of hybridization Table 80. Composition organic molecules Table 81. Classes of organic compounds .. 73 Table 82. Isomers Table 83. Mutual influence of atoms in molecules

8 8 Nomenclature of organic substances Table 84. Components of the names of organic compounds Table 85. Names of carbon chains Table 86. Designation of the degree of saturation of bonds Table 87. Names of characteristic groups of organic compounds Table 88. Names of some aromatic compounds Table 89. Names of some hydrocarbon radicals Table 90 Numeric prefixes (indicate the number of identical structural elements) Table 91. Composition of the name of the substance Hydrocarbons Table 92. Classification of hydrocarbons Table 93. Reactions saturated hydrocarbons Table 94 unsaturated hydrocarbons Table 95. Reactions of aromatic hydrocarbons Table 96. Reactions of haloalkanes Oxygen-containing organic compounds Table 97. Alcohols and phenols Table 98. Reactions of alcohols and phenols Table 99. Carbonyl compounds Table 100. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones Table 101. Carboxylic acids Table 102. Reactions carboxylic acids Nitrogen-containing organic compounds Table 103. Amines Table 104. Reactions of amines

9 Table 105. Names of some natural amino acids Table 106. Properties of amino acids Biologically important substances Scheme 5. Fats Table 107. Carboxylic acids that make up fats Table 108. Carbohydrates Table 109. Structure levels of protein molecules Table 110. Chemical properties proteins Table 111. Color reactions of proteins Relationship of organic compounds Table 112. Catalysts used in organic chemistry Scheme 6. genetic connection organic compounds METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE IN CHEMISTRY Work with substances and chemical equipment Table 113 chemical laboratory Table 114. Chemical glassware and equipment Table 115. Basic methods of work in a chemical laboratory Table 116. Rules for the use of substances in everyday life Scientific research methods chemical substances and transformations Table 117. Research methods Table 118. Methods for separating mixtures

10 Table 119. Coloring of indicators Table 120. Qualitative reactions to cations Table 121. Qualitative reactions to anions Table 122. Detection of gases Table 123. Recognition of organic compounds Methods for obtaining substances Table 124. Methods for obtaining simple substances Table 125. Methods for the production of oxides Table 126. Methods for the production of bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 127. Methods for the production of acids Table 128. Methods for the production of salts Table 129. Methods for the production of saturated hydrocarbons Table 130. Methods for the production of alkenes Table 131. Methods for the production of alkynes (acetylene) Table 132. Methods for obtaining arenes (benzene) Table 133. Methods for obtaining monohydric alcohols Table 134. Methods for the production of polyhydric alcohols Table 135. Methods for the production of phenols Table 136. Methods for the production of aldehydes and ketones Table 137. Methods for the production of carboxylic acids Industrial production of substances Table 138. Methods for the production of metals Table 139. Metallurgical methods Scheme 7. Domain process

11 Table 140. Some industrial processes Table 141. Products of fractional distillation of oil Table 142. Chemical processing of oil Table 143. Obtaining macromolecular compounds(polymers) Table 144. Classification of polymers Table 145. Polymers based on ethylene and its derivatives Calculations by chemical formulas and reaction equations Table 146. Relationships between quantities in solution Table 147. Preparation of solutions Table 148. Important quantities for calculations Table 149. Relationships between quantities Normal physical conditions Table 150. Stoichiometric laws Table 151. Calculations by reaction equations Table 152. Finding the molecular formula of a substance APPENDICES Table 1. Periodic system elements D.I. Mendeleev Table 2. Chemical elements: serial number, atomic mass(rounded), electronegativity Table 3. Solubility inorganic compounds in water

12 FOREWORD To help schoolchildren and teachers, a manual is offered, which is a generalized presentation in visual tables and diagrams of all the basic rules, laws, formulas and calculations at the rate of organic and inorganic chemistry. All major sections of chemistry studied in the classroom are included. This is the structure of the atom, the periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev, the structure of the periodic system chemical elements, types of chemical bonds, substances and mixtures, classes of inorganic compounds, classification of chemical reactions, rate of chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium, reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry, metals and non-metals and their properties, chemical properties of complex substances, the relationship of classes of inorganic substances, organic substances and their structure, composition of organic molecules, isomers, nomenclature of organic substances, hydrocarbons, their classification and properties, nitrogen-containing organic compounds , biologically important substances, the structure and properties of protein molecules, carbohydrates, the relationship of organic compounds. In addition, the manual describes the basic rules and methods of work in a chemical laboratory, gives the characteristics of chemical

13 courts and equipment, examples of calculations based on formulas and equations of reactions, as well as examples of qualitative reactions are offered. The appendix to the manual contains the periodic table of elements of D. I. Mendeleev, a table of the solubility of inorganic compounds in water. A brief and concise presentation of the material will help students independently or with the help of a teacher to repeat the school chemistry course and successfully prepare for the unified state exam in grade 11. The structure of the manual corresponds to the structure of the codifier of content elements in chemistry for compiling control measurements USE materials and corresponds to the logic of study and repetition school course chemistry. Accepted in the manual the following abbreviations: conc. concentrated solution, n. y. at normal conditions, oh. razb. very dilute solution, pract. practical, razb. dilute solution, theor. theoretical.

14 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM Atom Table 1 Electrons (e) Nucleus protons (p +) neutrons (n ​​0) Mass number(BUT) total number protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus The charge of the nucleus of an atom (Z) is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the atom A \u003d N (n 0) + N (p +) Z \u003d N (p +) \u003d N (e) Table 2 Main provisions of the quantum theory of the structure of the atom discreteness of the energy of the electron dual (corpuscular-wave) nature of the electron impossibility of determining the trajectory of the electron (uncertainty principle) 14

15 Energy levels and sublevels Table 3 Energy levels (EL) Energy sublevels(EPU) Number of electrons 1 1s 2 2 2s 2p 3 3s 3p 3d 4 4s 4p 4d 4f atomic orbital(AO) characterizes the region of space in which the probability of the stay of an electron having a certain energy is the greatest. Orbital shapes Scheme 1 s-orbital p-orbital 15

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This manual contains in a visual form a course of organic chemistry studied in grades 10-11 secondary school. The manual can be used in the study, generalization and repetition educational material, and can also be useful in organizing a systematic repetition in preparation for final or entrance exams.

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Content
I. Theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds
1 The emergence of organic chemistry as a science (1807 J. Berzelius) 3
2. Organic and inorganic substances. Composition and some properties of organic substances 4
3. Pre-structural theories 5
4. Connection between the concepts of the theory of chemical structure 6
5. Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances 7
6. Theory of chemical structure. Basic provisions (1,2) 8
7. Theory of chemical structure. Basic provisions (3.4) 9
8. Theory of chemical structure. Key points (5) 10
9. Algorithm for searching for possible isomers of alkanes (isomerism of the carbon skeleton) 11
10. Classification chemical compounds, typical for organic compounds (according to the type chemical transformations) 12
11. Classification of chemical compounds typical of organic compounds (according to the type of bond breaking) 13
12. Classification of hydrocarbons 14
II. Limit hydrocarbons
1. Methane. Physical properties. Molecule structure 15
2. Sp3 hybridization 16
3. Alkanes 17
4. Isomers and homologues 18
5. Alkanes (unbranched structure) and alkyls 19
6. Nomenclature (rational) 20
7. Nomenclature (systematic) 21
8. Determination of the qualitative composition of organic compounds 22
9. Chemical properties of alkanes 23
10. Obtaining alkanes 24
11. Use of alkanes 25
12. Cycloalkanes (cycloparaffins, naphthenes) 26
III. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
1. Ethylene (ethene). The structure of the molecule. sp2 - hybridization 27
2. Alkenes (olefins, ethylene hydrocarbons) 28
3. Properties of alkenes 29
4. Properties of alkenes 30
5. Use of alkenes 31
6. Obtaining alkenes 32
7. Diene hydrocarbons (alkadienes) 33
8. Chemical properties of alkadienes (with conjugated bonds) Preparation 34
9. General characteristics of rubbers. Their structure and properties 35
10. Acetylene (ethyne). Molecule structure sp-hybritization 36
11. Comparison of the structure of the solecule of ethane, ethylene and acetylene. Comparison of o and ts connections 37
12. Alkynes (acetylenic hydrocarbons) 38
13. Chemical properties of alkynes 39
14. Chemical properties of alkynes 40
15. Application of acetylene 41
16. Obtaining acetylene and its homologues 42
IV. aromatic hydrocarbons
1. Benzene. physical properties. Formula Kekule 43
2. Electronic structure benzene 44
3. Chemical properties of benzene 45
4. Chemical properties of benzene 46
5. Arenes (Aromatic hydrocarbons. Alkylbenzenes) 47
6. Toluene. Chemical properties. Mutual influence of atoms in a toluene molecule 48
7. Orientation rules in the benzene ring..49
8. The use of benzene. Getting arenas 50
9. Styrene. Naphthalene. Anthracene 51
10. Genetic relationship between groups of hydrocarbons 52
11. General information about hydrocarbon groups 53
12. General information about hydrocarbon groups 54
V. Alcohols and phenols
1. Limit monohydric alcohols 55
2. Chemical properties of alcohols 56
3. Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) 57
4. Application of saturated monohydric alcohols 58
5. Methods for obtaining alcohols 59
6. Limit polyhydric alcohols 60
7. Ethers 61
8. Phenols 62
9. Chemical properties of phenol (by hydroxo group) 63
10. Chemical properties of phenol (on the benzene ring) 64
VI. Aldehydes and carboxylic acids
1. Aldehydes. Structure. Nomenclature. Isomerism 65
2. Formaldehyde. Receipt. Properties 66
3. Properties of aldehydes 67
4. Properties of aldehydes 60
5. Ketones G9
6. Preparation of aldehydes and ketones 70
7. Carboxylic acids. Homologous series 71
8. Some saturated monobasic acids 72
9. Carboxylic acids. Properties 73
10. Chemical properties of saturated monobasic carboxylic acids 74
11. Chemical properties of saturated monobasic carboxylic acids 15
12. Obtaining carboxylic acids 76
13.0 separate representatives of carboxylic acids. Classification 77
14. Individual representatives carboxylic acids 78
VII. Complex ethers. Fats
1. Esters 79
2. Chemical properties esters 80
3. Fats. Classification. Getting 81
4. Chemical properties of fats 82
5. Soaps 83
6. Synthetic detergents(CMC) 84
VIII. hydrocarbons
1. Carbohydrates. Compound. Classification 85
2. Glucose. Structure. Fructose 86
3. Glucose. Chemical properties 87
4. Glucose. Special properties. Application 88
5. Sucrose. Structure. Properties 89
6. Polysaccharides (CeH-mOsJn. natural polymers 90
7. Starch and cellulose. Chemical properties 91
IX. Amines. Amino acids. Squirrels
1. Amines. Compound. Nomenclature. Isomerism 92
2. Amines. Chemical properties 93
3. Aniline. Structure. Properties 94
4. Amino acids. Nomenclature. Isomerism 95
5. Amino acids. Properties 96
6. Some amino acids of proteins 97
7. Obtaining and using amino acids 98
8. Proteins. Compound. Building 99
9. Protein structures 100
10. Chemical properties of proteins 101
11. Isomerism of classes of compounds 102
12. Genetic connection of organic substances 103
X Application
1. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 104
2. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 105
3. Periodic system of chemical elements 106
4. Conventions 107

This manual contains in a visual form a course of organic chemistry, studied in grades 10-11 of a comprehensive school. The manual can be used when studying, summarizing and repeating educational material, and can also be useful in organizing systematic repetition in preparation for final or entrance exams.

Theory of radicals (30 years of the XIX century. J. Berzelius, J. Liebig, J. Dumas)
a) organic substances contain radicals;
b) radicals are always constant, do not undergo changes, pass from one molecule to another;
c) radicals can exist in free form.

The concept of "radical" is firmly established in chemistry. The theory was subsequently rejected.
Theory of types (40-50s of the 19th century. C. Gerard, A. Kekule and others)
a) all organic substances - derivatives of the simplest inorganic substances - such as hydrogen, water, ammonia, etc.
b) formulas express not internal structure molecules, and the methods of formation, properties determine all the atoms of the molecule.
c) it is impossible to know the structure of matter, each substance has as many formulas as there are transformations.
The theory made it possible to classify organic substances, to predict and discover some, Special attention- chemical transformations, but could not predict, indicate the ways of synthesis of new substances.

Content
I. Theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds
1 The emergence of organic chemistry as a science (1807 J. Berzelius) 3
2. Organic and inorganic substances. Composition and some properties of organic substances 4
3. Pre-structural theories 5
4. Connection between the concepts of the theory of chemical structure 6
5. Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances 7
6. Theory of chemical structure. Basic provisions (1,2) 8
7. Theory of chemical structure. Basic provisions (3.4) 9
8. Theory of chemical structure. Key points (5) 10
9. Algorithm for searching for possible isomers of alkanes (isomerism of the carbon skeleton) 11
10. Classification of chemical compounds typical of organic compounds (according to the type of chemical transformations) 12
11. Classification of chemical compounds typical of organic compounds (according to the type of bond breaking) 13
12. Classification of hydrocarbons 14
II. Limit hydrocarbons
1. Methane. physical properties. Molecule structure 15
2. Sp3 hybridization 16
3. Alkanes 17
4. Isomers and homologues 18
5. Alkanes (unbranched structure) and alkyls 19
6. Nomenclature (rational) 20
7. Nomenclature (systematic) 21
8. Determination of the qualitative composition of organic compounds 22
9. Chemical properties of alkanes 23
10. Obtaining alkanes 24
11. Use of alkanes 25
12. Cycloalkanes (cycloparaffins, naphthenes) 26
III. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
1. Ethylene (ethene). The structure of the molecule. sp2 hybridization 27
2. Alkenes (olefins, ethylene hydrocarbons) 28
3. Properties of alkenes 29
4. Properties of alkenes 30
5. Use of alkenes 31
6. Obtaining alkenes 32
7. Diene hydrocarbons (alkadienes) 33
8. Chemical properties of alkadienes (with conjugated bonds) Preparation 34
9. General characteristics of rubbers. Their structure and properties 35
10. Acetylene (ethyne). Molecule structure sp-hybritization 36
11. Comparison of the structure of the solecule of ethane, ethylene and acetylene. Comparison of o and ts connections 37
12. Alkynes (acetylenic hydrocarbons) 38
13. Chemical properties of alkynes 39
14. Chemical properties of alkynes 40
15. Application of acetylene 41
16. Obtaining acetylene and its homologues 42
IV. aromatic hydrocarbons
1. Benzene. physical properties. Formula Kekule 43
2. Electronic structure of benzene 44
3. Chemical properties of benzene 45
4. Chemical properties of benzene 46
5. Arenes (Aromatic hydrocarbons. Alkylbenzenes) 47
6. Toluene. Chemical properties. Mutual influence of atoms in a toluene molecule 48
7. Orientation rules in the benzene ring 49
8. The use of benzene. Getting arenas 50
9. Styrene. Naphthalene. Anthracene 51
10. Genetic relationship between groups of hydrocarbons 52
11. General information about hydrocarbon groups 53
12. General information about hydrocarbon groups 54
V. Alcohols and phenols
1. Limit monohydric alcohols 55
2. Chemical properties of alcohols 56
3. Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) 57
4. Application of saturated monohydric alcohols 58
5. Methods for obtaining alcohols 59
6. Limit polyhydric alcohols 60
7. Ethers 61
8. Phenols 62
9. Chemical properties of phenol (by hydroxo group) 63
10. Chemical properties of phenol (on the benzene ring) 64
VI. Aldehydes and carboxylic acids
1. Aldehydes. Structure. Nomenclature. Isomerism 65
2. Formaldehyde. Receipt. Properties 66
3. Properties of aldehydes 67
4. Properties of aldehydes 60
5. Ketones G9
6. Preparation of aldehydes and ketones 70
7. Carboxylic acids. Homologous series 71
8. Some saturated monobasic acids 72
9. Carboxylic acids. Properties 73
10. Chemical properties of saturated monobasic carboxylic acids 74
11. Chemical properties of saturated monobasic carboxylic acids 15
12. Obtaining carboxylic acids 76
13.0 separate representatives of carboxylic acids. Classification 77
14. Separate representatives of carboxylic acids 78
VII. Complex ethers. Fats
1. Esters 79
2. Chemical properties of esters 80
3. Fats. Classification. Getting 81
4. Chemical properties of fats 82
5. Soaps 83
6. Synthetic detergents (CMC) 84
VIII. hydrocarbons
1. Carbohydrates. Compound. Classification 85
2. Glucose. Structure. Fructose 86
3. Glucose. Chemical properties 87
4. Glucose. Special properties. Application 88
5. Sucrose. Structure. Properties 89
6. Polysaccharides (CeH-mOsJn. Natural polymers 90
7. Starch and cellulose. Chemical properties 91
IX. Amines. Amino acids. Squirrels
1. Amines. Compound. Nomenclature. Isomerism 92
2. Amines. Chemical properties 93
3. Aniline. Structure. Properties 94
4. Amino acids. Nomenclature. Isomerism 95
5. Amino acids. Properties 96
6. Some amino acids of proteins 97
7. Obtaining and using amino acids 98
8. Proteins. Compound. Building 99
9. Protein structures 100
10. Chemical properties of proteins 101
11. Isomerism of classes of compounds 102
12. Genetic connection of organic substances 103
X Application
1. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 104
2. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 105
3. Periodic system of chemical elements 106
4. Symbols 107.

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SIBERIAN POLYTECHNICAL COLLEGE

STUDENT HANDBOOK

in ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

for specialties of technical and economic profiles

Compiled by: teacher

2012

Structure "STUDENT'S HANDBOOK on ORGANIC CHEMISTRY"

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The CS in organic chemistry is designed to help students create scientific picture the world through the chemical content, taking into account interdisciplinary and intrasubject communications, the logic of the educational process.

The SS in organic chemistry presents the minimum in terms of volume, but functionally full content to master the state standard chemical education.

The CC in Organic Chemistry performs two main functions:

I. The information function allows participants to educational process get an idea of ​​the content, structure of the subject, the relationship of concepts through schemes, tables and algorithms.

II. The organizational and planning function provides for the allocation of stages of training, structuring of educational material, and creates ideas about the content of the intermediate and final certification.

SS involves the formation of a system of knowledge, skills and methods of activity, develops the ability of students to work with reference materials.

	Name		Name
	Chronological table "Development of organic chemistry".		Chemical properties of alkenes (ethylene hydrocarbons).
	The main provisions of the theory of the structure of organic compounds		Chemical properties of alkynes (acetylenic hydrocarbons).
	Isomers and homologues.		Chemical properties of arenes (aromatic hydrocarbons).
	TSOS value
	Classification of hydrocarbons.		Genetic connection of organic substances.
	homologous series ALKANE (LIMITED HYDROCARBONS).		Relationship "Structure - properties - application".
	homologous series RADICALS FORMATED FROM ALKANE.		Relative molecular weights of organic substances
			Dictionary of terms in organic chemistry. nominal reactions.
	Isomerism of classes of organic substances.		Algorithm for solving problems. Physical quantities for solving problems.
	Chemical properties of alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons).		Derivation of compound formulas. Examples of problem solving.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE "DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY"

Period/year. Who?	The nature of the discovery
Ancient Shih	ancient man	Boil food, tan leather, make medicine
	Paracelsus and others	The manufacture of more complex drugs, the study of the properties of substances org. origin, i.e. waste products
XY-XYIII c. in.	Continuous process	Accumulation of knowledge about various substances. The supremacy of "VITALISTIC VIEWS"
		An explosion of scientific thought, the detonator of which was the needs of people for dyes, clothes, food.
	Jons Jakob Berzelius ( Swedish chemist)	The term "organic chemistry"
	Friedrich Wöhler (German)	Synthesis of oxalic acid
	concept	Organic chemistry is a section chemical science studying carbon compounds.
	Friedrich Wöhler (German)	Urea synthesis
		Synthesis of aniline
	Adolf Kulbe (German)	Synthesis of acetic acid from carbon
	E. Frankland	The concept of "connecting system" - valence
	Pierre Berthelot (French)	synthesized ethanol ethylene hydration. Synthesis of fats. "Chemistry does not need vitality!»
		Synthesis of a sugar substance
		Based on various theories(Frankland, Gerard, Kekule, Cooper) created TSOS
		Tutorial "Introduction to full study organic chemistry". Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies hydrocarbons and their derivatives. .

MAIN PROVISIONS

THEORIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A. M. Butlerova

1. A. to M. connected to certain sequence, according to their valency.

2. The properties of substances depend not only on the qualitative and quantitative composition, but also on the chemical structure. Isomers. Isomerism.

3. A. and A. groups mutually influence each other.

4. By the properties of a substance, you can determine the structure, and by the structure - properties.

Isomers and homologues.

	Qualitative composition	Quantitative composition	Chemical structure	Chemical properties
Isomers	same	same	various	various
homologues	same	different	similar	similar

TSOS value

1. Explained the structure of M. known substances and their properties.

2. Made it possible to foresee the existence of unknown substances and find ways to synthesize them.

3. Explain the diversity of organic substances.

Classification of hydrocarbons.

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homologous series

ALKANE (LIMITED HYDROCARBONS)

Formula	Name
	METHANE
C2H6	ETHANE
С3Н8	PROPANE
	BUTANE
	PENTAN
	HEXANE
	HEPTANE
	OCTANE
	NONAN
С10Н22	DEAN

homologous series

RADICALS FORMATED FROM ALKANE

Formula	Name
	METHYL
C2H5	ETHYL
С3Н7	PROPIL
	BUTYL
	PENTIL
	HEKSIL
	GEPTIL
	OKTIL
	NONIL
C10H21	DECYL

General information about hydrocarbons.

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Chemical properties of alkanes

(saturated hydrocarbons).

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Chemical properties of alkynes

(acetylenic hydrocarbons).

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Genetic link between hydrocarbons.

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Relationship "Structure - properties - application".	Ways receiving
	Structure
Compound		Finding in nature
	Properties	Application

MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF SOME ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

Name
Alkanes
Halogen derivatives
Alcohols and Phenols
Ethers
Aldehydes
carboxylic acids
Nitro compounds

Problem solving algorithm

1. Study the conditions of the problem carefully: determine with what quantities the calculations are to be carried out, designate them with letters, set their units of measurement, numerical values, determine which value is the desired value.

2. Write down these tasks in the form of brief conditions.

3. If in the conditions of the task in question about the interaction of substances, write down the equation of the reaction (reactions) and equalize it (their) coefficients.

4. find out quantitative ratios between the problem data and the desired value. To do this, divide your actions into stages, starting with the question of the problem, finding out the patterns with which you can determine the desired value at the last stage of calculations. If the initial data lacks any values, think about how they can be calculated, i.e., determine the preliminary stages of the calculation. There may be several of these steps.

5. Determine the sequence of all stages of solving the problem, write down necessary formulas calculations.

6. Substitute the corresponding numerical values ​​of the quantities, check their dimensions, and perform calculations.

Derivation of compound formulas.

This type of calculation is extremely important for chemical practice, since it allows, on the basis of experimental data, to determine the formula of a substance (simple and molecular).

Based on qualitative and quantitative analysis the chemist first finds the ratio of atoms in a molecule (or other structural unit substances), that is, its simplest formula.
For example, the analysis showed that the substance is a hydrocarbon
CxHy, in which the mass fractions of carbon and hydrogen are respectively equal to 0.8 and 0.2 (80% and 20%). To determine the ratio of atoms of elements, it is enough to determine their amounts of matter (number of moles): Integer numbers (1 and 3) are obtained by dividing the number 0.2 by the number 0.0666. The number 0.0666 will be taken as 1. The number 0.2 is 3 times greater than the number 0.0666. So CH3 is the simplest formula given substance. The ratio of C and H atoms, equal to 1:3, corresponds to an innumerable number of formulas: C2H6, C3H9, C4H12, etc., but only one formula from this series is molecular for a given substance, i.e., reflecting the true number of atoms in its molecule. To calculate the molecular formula, in addition to the quantitative composition of a substance, it is necessary to know its molecular weight.

The value is often used to determine this value. relative density gas D. So, for the above case, DH2 = 15. Then M(CxHy) = 15µM(H2) = 152 g/mol = 30 g/mol.
Since M(CH3) = 15, to match the true molecular weight you need to double the indices in the formula. Hence, molecular substance formula: C2H6.

The definition of the formula of a substance depends on the accuracy of mathematical calculations.

When finding a value n element should take into account at least two decimal places and carefully round numbers.

For example, 0.8878 ≈ 0.89, but not 1. The ratio of atoms in a molecule is not always determined simple division received numbers to a smaller number.

by mass fractions of elements.

Task 1. Set the formula of a substance that consists of carbon (w=25%) and aluminum (w=75%).

Divide 2.08 by 2. The resulting number 1.04 does not fit an integer number of times in the number 2.78 (2.78:1.04=2.67:1).

Now let's divide 2.08 by 3.

In this case, the number 0.69 is obtained, which fits exactly 4 times in the number 2.78 and 3 times in the number 2.08.

Therefore, the x and y indices in the AlxCy formula are 4 and 3, respectively.

Answer: Al4C3(aluminum carbide).

Algorithm for finding the chemical formula of a substance

by its density and mass fractions of elements.

More difficult option tasks for the derivation of formulas of compounds is the case when the composition of the substance is given through the combustion products of these.

Task 2. When burning a hydrocarbon weighing 8.316 g, 26.4 g of CO2 was formed. The density of the substance under normal conditions is 1.875 g / ml. Find its molecular formula.

General information about hydrocarbons.

(continuation)

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Natural sources of hydrocarbons.

Oil - fossil, liquid fuel, a complex mixture of organic substances: saturated hydrocarbons, paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics, etc. Oil usually contains oxygen-, sulfur- and nitrogen-containing substances.

Oily liquid with a characteristic odor, dark in color, lighter than water. The most important source of fuel, lubricating oils and other petroleum products. The main (primary) processing process is distillation, as a result of which gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, solar oils, fuel oil, petroleum jelly, paraffin, and tar are obtained. Secondary recycling processes ( cracking, pyrolysis) make it possible to obtain an additional liquid fuel, aromatic hydrocarbons(benzene, toluene, etc.), etc.

Petroleum gases - a mixture of various gaseous hydrocarbons dissolved in oil; they are released during extraction and processing. They are used as fuel and chemical raw materials.

Petrol- a colorless or yellowish liquid, consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons ( C5 - C11 ). It is used as motor fuel, solvent, etc.

Naphtha- transparent yellowish liquid, a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons. It is used as diesel fuel, solvent, hydraulic fluid, etc.

Kerosene- transparent, colorless or yellowish liquid with a blue tint. It is used as a fuel for jet engines, for household needs, etc.

Solar- a yellowish liquid. It is used for the production of lubricating oils.

fuel oil– heavy oil fuel, a mixture of paraffins. They are used in the production of oils, fuel oil, bitumen, for processing into light motor fuel.

Benzene It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic odour. It is used for the synthesis of organic compounds, as a raw material for the production of plastics, as a solvent, for the production explosives, in the aniline industry

Toluene is an analogue of benzene. It is used in the production of caprolactam, explosives, benzoic acid, saccharin, as a solvent, in the aniline-dye industry, etc.

Lubricating oils- Used in various areas techniques to reduce friction fur. parts, to protect metals from corrosion, as a cutting fluid.

Tar- black resinous mass. Used for lubrication, etc.

Petrolatum- a mixture of mineral oil and paraffins. They are used in electrical engineering, for lubricating bearings, for protecting metals from corrosion, etc.

Paraffin- a mixture of solid saturated hydrocarbons. Used as an electrical insulator, in chem. industry - to obtain higher acids and alcohols, etc.

Plastic– materials based on macromolecular compounds. Used for the production of various technical products and household items.

asphalt ore- a mixture of oxidized hydrocarbons. It is used for the manufacture of varnishes, in electrical engineering, for asphalting streets.

mountain wax- a mineral from the group of petroleum bitumens. It is used as an electrical insulator, for the preparation of various lubricants and ointments, etc.

artificial wax- purified mountain wax.

Coal - solid fossil fuel plant origin black or black and grey. Contains 75–97% carbon. Used as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry.

Coke- sintered solid product formed when certain coals are heated in coke ovens to 900–1050° C. Used in blast furnaces.

coke oven gas– gaseous products of coking of fossil coals. Consists of CH4, H2, CO and others, also contains non-combustible impurities. It is used as a high-calorie fuel.

ammonia water- liquid product of dry distillation hard coal. It is used to obtain ammonium salts (nitrogen fertilizers), ammonia, etc.

Coal tar- thick dark liquid with a characteristic odor, a product of the dry distillation of coal. It is used as a raw material for chemical industry.

Benzene- a colorless mobile liquid with a characteristic odor, one of the products of coal tar. They are used for the synthesis of organic compounds, as explosives, as a raw material for the production of plastics, as a dye, as a solvent, etc.

Naphthalene- a solid crystalline substance with a characteristic odor, one of the products of coal tar. Naphthalene derivatives are used to obtain dyes and explosives, etc.

Medications- coking industry gives whole line medicines(carbolic acid, phenacytin, salicylic acid, saccharin, etc.).

Pitch- a solid (viscous) mass of black color, the residue from the distillation of coal tar. It is used as a waterproofing agent, for the production of fuel briquettes, etc.

Toluene- analogue of benzene, one of the products of coal tar. Used for the production of explosives, caprolactam, benzoic acid, saccharin, as a dye, etc.

Dyes- one of the products of coke production, obtained as a result of the processing of benzene, naphthalene and phenol. Used in the national economy.

Aniline- colorless oily liquid, poisonous. It is used to obtain various organic substances, aniline dyes, various azo dyes, the synthesis of drugs, etc.

Saccharin- solid white crystalline substance of sweet taste, obtained from toluene. It is used instead of sugar for diabetes, etc.

BB- derivatives of coal obtained in the process of dry distillation. Applied in military industry, mining and other sectors of the national economy.

Phenol- white crystalline substance color pink with a characteristic strong odour. It is used in the production of phenol-formaldehyde plastics, nylon synthetic fiber, dyes, medicines, etc.

Plastic– materials based on macromolecular compounds. Used for the production of various technical products and household items.

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