The Roman army in its era was considered the strongest on the planet. Few could then compete with her in military power. Thanks to the strictest discipline and high-quality training of the military, this entire “military machine” of Ancient Rome was an order of magnitude ahead of many military garrisons of other developed states of that time. Read the article about the number, ranks, divisions and victories of the Roman army.

Discipline is the priority

The divisions of the Roman army were always under the strictest discipline. And absolutely all soldiers, without exception, had to comply with generally accepted principles. For any violation of order in the troops of the famous Roman army, even corporal punishment was applied to the "obeyed" soldiers. Often, those who did not maintain order in the military camps were beaten with lictor rods.

And those actions that could have serious negative consequences for the Roman army were generally punished death penalty. This action allegedly emphasized the fact that it was unacceptable for a soldier of the empire to behave in an inappropriate way so that all his other comrades would not follow a bad example.

The most severe death penalty during the existence of the Roman army was rightfully considered decimation. Entire legions were subjected to it for showing cowardice during combat battles, either for not doing or complete disregard military orders. The essence of this "unpleasant procedure" was that in the detachment that was guilty during the battle, every 10 warrior was selected by lot. And these unfortunate soldiers were beaten by the rest of the detachment with stones or sticks until death.

The rest of the powerful Roman army was also subjected to shameful condemnation of their cowardice shown on the battlefield. They were not allowed to put up tents in a military camp, and instead of wheat, such warriors were given barley as food.

Fustuary was more applied to each individually for any serious misconduct. This is the type of punishment most often used in practice. It involved beating a delinquent soldier to death with stones and sticks.

Very often, shameful punishments were also used, the main purpose of which was to arouse a sense of shame in the guilty. They could be quite diverse in their essence, but the main educational feature left alone - so that the military man who committed a cowardly act would never resort to it again!

For example, weak-willed soldiers could be forced to dig unnecessary trenches, carry heavy stones, take off all their clothes to the waist and come to a military camp in such an unattractive form.

The structure of the army of ancient Rome

The military division of the Roman army consisted of the following military representatives:

1. Legionnaires - they included both Roman soldiers and mercenaries from other states. This legion of the Roman army consisted of cavalry, infantry units, and also cavalry.
2. Allied cavalry and allied units - militaries of other countries who have been granted Italian citizenship.
3. Auxiliary troops - recruited local residents from the Italian provinces.

The Roman army included many different units, but each of them was well organized and properly trained. At the forefront of the army of Ancient Rome was the security of the entire empire, on which all state power was based.

Ranks and ranks of the Roman military

The ranks of the Roman army contributed to the construction of a clear military hierarchy of that time. Each officer performed a specific function assigned to him. And this contributed in many ways to maintaining military discipline within the legions of the Roman army.

The senior officers included the Legate of the Legion, the Tribune of Laticlavius, the Tribune of Angustiklavia, and the Prefect of the Camp.

Legion legate - a certain person was appointed to this post directly by the emperor himself. Moreover, on average, a military man held this position for 3 or 4 years, but in some cases he could hold this post for a little longer than the specified period. In a provincial area, the Legion of the Legion could perform the function of the governor assigned to him.

Tribune Laticlavius ​​- the emperor or the senate chose the military for this position by their decisions. In the legion, a military man bearing this rank was considered the second person in seniority.

The prefect of the camp was the third most important and influential position within the legion. Often, those veterans who previously held the rank of Centurion and eventually received promotion became perfects.

Tribune Angustiklavy - these ranks were received by those soldiers of the Roman army who were in charge of administrative posts for a certain time. In case of a certain need, this category of senior officers could well command even an entire legion.

And the middle officers of the army of Ancient Rome included such military ranks as Primipilus and Centurion.

Primipil was the assistant to the commander of the legion and he was taught an important mission - to organize the protection of the banner of the unit. And the main attribute and pride of the legions was the "Roman eagle". Also, the duties of Primipil included the submission of certain sound signals telling about the beginning of the offensive.

Centurion is the basic officer rank in the entire structure of ancient Roman military formations. In the legions, there were about 59 warriors with this rank, who lived together with ordinary soldiers in tents, and during the battles they commanded them.

The army of ancient Rome had a lot of junior officers in its ranks. Their ranks included Option, Tesserary, Decurion, Dean.

The option was an assistant to the Centurion and, at the first opportunity, could successfully replace him during heated battles with the enemy.

Tesserarius was the deputy of Option, while his duties were entrusted with the functions related to the organization of guards and the transmission of the necessary passwords to sentries.

Decurion - led a small cavalry detachment, consisting of 30 horsemen.

Dean - commanded a small combat unit, which included no more than 10 soldiers.

All ranks in the Roman army were awarded for any specific merits in the military field of activity. But this does not mean at all that the highest ranks were submitted to purely experienced warriors. There were quite a few situations when a young, but at the same time promising officer, who perfectly understood his job, was appointed to a high post.

Historic victories

It's time to talk about the most significant victories Roman soldiers. History knows many cases when a well-organized military group of Ancient Rome literally smashed its enemy. The victories of the Roman army marked, to a greater extent, the assertion of the power of the entire empire in the world hierarchy.

One such incident occurred at the Battle of Varcellae in 101 BC. The Roman troops were then led by Gaius Marius, who was opposed by the detachments of the Cimbri, led by the leader Boyorig. It all ended in true annihilation opposing side and the Cimbri on the battlefield lost from 90 to 140 thousand of their brothers. This is not counting 60 thousand of their soldiers taken prisoner. Thanks to this historic victory of the Roman army, Italy secured its territories from unpleasant enemy campaigns against them.

The battle of Tigranakert, which took place in 69 BC, made it possible for the Italian forces, inferior in number to the Armenian military camp, to defeat the opponent. After this armed conflict, the complete collapse of the state of Tigran II took place.

The Battle of Roxter, which took place in 61 AD in what is now England, ended in a landslide victory for the Roman legions. After those bloody events the power of Ancient Rome was quite firmly entrenched over all of Britain.

Severe strength tests during the uprising of Spartacus

The real army of the Roman Empire passed during the suppression of a grandiose uprising of slaves, which was organized by the fugitive gladiator Spartacus. In fact, the actions of the organizers of such a protest were dictated by the desire to fight for their own freedom to the very end.

At the same time, the revenge of the slaves for the Roman military figures was prepared with a particularly tough one - they were not spared a bit. Perhaps this was retaliation for those humiliating actions that were applied in ancient Rome to the gladiators. They were forced by the high ranks of Rome to fight on the sand until death. And all this happened as a kind of fun, and living people died in the arena and no one took this into account at all.

The war of slaves against their Italian masters began quite suddenly. In 73 BC, the escape of the gladiators from the Capua school was organized. Then about 70 slaves, well trained in military craft, fled. The shelter of this detachment was a fortified position at the foot of the volcano Vesuvius. It was also here that the first battle of the slaves took place against a detachment of Roman soldiers who were pursuing them. The attack of the Romans was successfully repulsed, after which a lot of fairly high-quality weapons appeared in the weapons arsenal of the gladiators.

Over time, an increasing number of freed slaves, as well as those peaceful citizens of Italy who were dissatisfied with the then authorities, joined the uprising of Spartacus. Thanks to the art of Spartacus to organize his units well (even the Roman officers recognized this fact), a solid army was formed from a small detachment of gladiators. And it crushed the Roman legions in many battles. This made the entire empire of Ancient Rome feel a certain fear for its continued existence.

Only unfavorable circumstances for Spartacus did not allow his army to cross Sicily, replenish their own troops with new slaves and avoid death. Sea pirates, having received a conditional payment from the gladiators for the provision of services regarding the crossing of the sea, brazenly deceived them and did not fulfill their own promises. Driven virtually into a corner (on the heels of Spartacus Crassus was heading with his legions), Spartacus decided on the last and decisive battle. During this battle, the famous gladiator died, and the scattered ranks of slaves were successfully exterminated by the Roman troops.

Roman army tactics

The army of the Roman world has always protected from enemy encroachments. Therefore, the empire took very seriously the issues of its configuration, as well as the development of tactics in battles.

First of all, the Roman generals always thought over the places for future battles. This was done so that the strategic position of the Roman legions was in a more advantageous situation compared to the location of the enemy. The best place was considered a hill, around which free space was clearly visible. And offensives were often carried out precisely from the side from which the bright sun shone. This blinded the enemy forces and created an uncomfortable situation for him.

The battle plan was thought out in advance, since the transmission of orders was difficult. The generals tried to build and train their ward soldiers in such a way that they were well versed in all the intricacies of his strategic military ideas and performed all actions on the battlefield in automatic mode.

The military unit in the army of the Roman Empire was always well prepared for the upcoming battles. Each soldier individually knew his job well and was mentally prepared for certain difficulties. Many tactical developments were comprehended in the exercises, which were not neglected by the Roman generals. This during the battles gave certain results, so the Roman military often achieved some success due to mutual understanding and good physical and tactical training.

One remarkable fact is known to history: sometimes Roman military commanders performed ritual fortune-telling before battles, which could predict how successful this or that company might be.

Uniforms and equipment of the Roman military

And what was the uniform and equipment of the soldiers? The military unit in the Roman army was quite well technically equipped and had good uniforms. In battle, the legionnaires used the sword very successfully, inflicting more piercing wounds on the enemy.

Very often a pilum was used - a dart more than two meters long, at the end of which an iron rod with a double-thorn or pyramidal tip was installed. For short distance The pilum was the ideal weapon to confuse the formations of the enemy. In some situations, thanks to this weapon, the Roman military pierced the enemy's shield and inflicted mortal wounds on him.

The legionnaire's shield had a curved oval shape. In a hot battle, he largely helped to avoid injury. The width of the shield of a Roman warrior was 63.5 centimeters, and the length was 128 centimeters. At the same time, this item was covered with calf leather, as well as felt. His weight was 10 kilograms.

The military was quite short, but very sharp. They called this type of weapon gladius. During the reign of Emperor Augustus in ancient Rome, an improved sword was invented. It was he who replaced the old modifications of these weapons and, in fact, immediately gained particular popularity in military affairs. Its blade was 8 centimeters wide and 40-56 centimeters long. This weapon weighed, causing panic in enemy troops, relatively silent - from 1.2 to 1.6 kilograms. In order for the sword to have a presentable appearance, its scabbard was trimmed with tin or silver, and then carefully decorated with various unusual compositions.

In addition to the sword, the dagger could also become effective in battle. Outwardly, in structure, it was very similar to a sword, but its blade was shorter (20-30 centimeters).

The armor of the Roman soldiers was very heavy, but not all military units they were used. A number of units, whose duties were to organize a skirmish with the enemy, as well as reinforcements for the active cavalry, were lightly equipped, so they did not wear heavy armor. The weight of chain mail among legionnaires could vary in the range from 9 to 15 kilograms. But if the chain mail was additionally equipped with shoulder pads, it could weigh about 16 kilograms. The material from which it was made most often is iron. Bronze armor, although met in practice, but much less frequently.

population

The size of the Roman army in many cases showed its military power. But her training and technical equipment also played a big role. For example, Emperor Augustus in 14 AD took a radical step and reduced the number of armed formations to 28,000 people. However, during its heyday, the total number of Roman combat legions was about 100,000 people, but in some cases the number of military men could be increased to 300,000 if this step was dictated by necessity.

In the era of Honorius, the armed Roman garrisons were much more numerous. At that time, about 1,000,000 soldiers defended the empire, but the reform of Constantine and Diolectian significantly narrowed the scope of the “Roman military machine” and left only 600,000 soldiers in the service. At the same time, about 200,000 people were part of the mobile group, and the remaining 400,000 were part of the legions.

In terms of ethnicity, the composition of the Roman army also underwent fundamental changes over time. If in the 1st century AD, the Roman military ranks were dominated by local residents, then by the end of the 1st century - at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, quite a lot of Italics could be found there. And at the end of the 2nd century AD, the Roman army was like that only on paper, since people from many countries of the world served in it. To a greater extent, it began to be dominated by military mercenaries who served for material rewards.

In the legion - the main Roman unit - about 4,500 soldiers served. At the same time, a detachment of horsemen operated in it, of which there were approximately 300 people. Thanks to the correct tactical dismemberment of the legion, this military unit could successfully maneuver and inflict significant damage on the opponent. Anyway, the army knows quite a few cases successful operations, crowned with a crushing victory by the military forces of the empire.

The essence of the reforms

The main reform of the Roman army was introduced in 107 BC. It was during this period that the consul Gaius Marius issued a historical law that significantly changed the rules for recruiting legionnaires for military service. Among the main innovations this document the following main points can be highlighted:

1. The division of the legions into maniples (small detachments) was somewhat modified. Now the legion could also be divided into cohorts, which included more people than it was supposed in the maniples. At the same time, the cohorts could successfully carry out serious combat missions.
2. The structure of the Roman army was now formed according to new principles. Poor citizens could now become military. Up to this point, they had no such prospect. People from poor families were supplied with weapons at public expense, and the necessary military training was also provided for them.
3. For their service, all soldiers began to receive regular solid monetary rewards.

Thanks to the reform ideas that Gaius Marius successfully put into practice, the Roman army became not only more organized and well trained, the military had a considerable incentive to improve their professional skills and move up the " career ladder”, seeking the assignment of new titles and ranks. The soldiers were generously encouraged with land plots, so this agrarian issue was one of the levers for improving the combat skills of the then troops.

In addition, the professional army began to play a significant role in the political life of the empire. In fact, it gradually turned into a major political force, which simply could not be ignored within the state.

The main criterion that showed the viability of the reform of the armed forces of Ancient Rome was the victory of Mary over the tribes of the Teutons and Cimbri. Given historical battle dated 102 BC.

Army during the Late Empire of Ancient Rome

The army of the late Roman Empire was formed during the "crisis of the III century" - this is how historians have characterized this period. In this troubled time for the Romans, many territories of the empire are separated from it, as a result of which the threat of attacks from neighboring countries is growing. Such separatist sentiments were fueled by the recruitment of legionnaires into the armed forces of many residents from provincial villages.

The Roman army underwent great trials during the raids on the territory of Italy by the Alamanni. It was then that entire numerous territories were devastated, which led to the usurpation of power on the ground.

Emperor Gallienus, who tried with all his might to counteract the crisis within the state, is carrying out new transformations in the Roman army. In 255 and 259 AD, he managed to raise a large cavalry group. However, the main marching army of this period was 50,000 people. Milan has become an excellent place to counteract the numerous raids of the enemy from there.

During the crisis period that fell on the 3rd century AD, there is constantly dissatisfaction among the military of Ancient Rome with the fact that they are not paid a salary for their service. The situation was aggravated by the depreciation of money. Many of the soldiers' previous monetary savings were melting away before our very eyes.

And here the moment has come to carry out the last reform in the structure of the Roman army, initiated by Diocletian and Aurelian. This historical period of the late existence of the Roman Empire was nicknamed "Dominate". It was due to the fact that the process of division into military and civil administration began to be actively introduced in the state. As a result, 100 provinces appeared, in each of which duxes and comites were in charge of military orders. At the same time, recruitment into the legions of Roman troops is carried out forcibly, there is a mandatory draft into the army.

Introduction

1.1 Reform Mary

1.2 High command

1.3 Legions

1.4 Praetorian Guard

1.5 Roman garrison

2.1 Recruitment and training

2.3 Daily life

Chapter III. Fleet

3.1 Roman navy

3.2 Rome's heavy fleet

4.2 Defensive weapons

4.3 Equipment weight

5.1 Battle of Cannae

5.2 Battle of Cynoscephalae

5.3 Battle of Karrha

Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix

Introduction

and II centuries. AD in the history of the Roman state - the era of a gradual transition from a policy of territorial expansion to defense. It was a period of maximum power and the beginning of the inevitable decline of ancient civilization.

By the beginning of the new millennium, Rome had extended its power to the entire Mediterranean. In the 1st century the conquests continued. Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) completed the conquest of Spain. Through the efforts of his successor Tiberius (14-37), the power of Rome extended to the Danube. Under Claudius (41-54), the eagles of the Roman legions established themselves beyond the English Channel. Under Mark Ulpia Trajan (98-117), Dacia submitted to Roman weapons. This was the last major conquest.

At the beginning of the II century. The empire reached the zenith of its power. The process of expansion of the territory has stopped. Even the new Hannibal, if there was one among the enemies of Rome, could not now lead his army to the gates of the "Eternal City". Pax Romanum ("Roman world"), stretching from the Baltic to the African deserts, from Ireland to the Caucasus, became more and more isolated in itself. Since that time, the borders of the empire began to be covered with solid defensive structures.

Naturally, in order to protect such vast lands, the state inevitably had to rely on an impressive military force. In countless wars of previous centuries, a military structure, the most perfect of those that the ancient world knew, is the Roman army. Thanks to the army, and even a well-established administrative system, a motley conglomerate of regions (provinces) inhabited by the most different nations, worshiping different gods, became a single empire.

Speaking about the army of Rome in the 1st-2nd centuries ... we must not forget that it was not only a military, but also a political force, which often played a decisive role in that fierce struggle for power that flared up in Rome in the 1st century. BC. - I century. AD Each of the contenders for power in the state relied more and more on the legions that joined him, winning their loyalty with flattery and gifts. Neither Caesar, nor Pompey, nor Mark Antony, nor Octavian Augustus disdained such methods. They tried to gather under their banners as many troops as possible. The number of legions was far from the last argument in the division of power, falling out of the hands of the decrepit republic. Starting from the period of civil strife (Civil Wars), the demands of soldiers for higher pay, distribution of extraordinary awards or premature resignation began to make tangible adjustments to the course of many events. It often happened that the legions, attracted by more generous promises, abandoned their former master and went over to his enemy.

Tasks and purpose of the study.

The object is the development of the Roman army during the existence of the Roman state, as a generally recognized military-political force.

Research objectives:

· Show changes and innovations to the legions throughout the history of Rome

· consider the originality and features of the auxiliary services of the legions

· study the roman fleet

· consider the camp of the legion and the life of the legions in peacetime

· show the importance of strategy and tactics in the battles of the Roman legions

In writing this work, I relied on the following sources:

Winkler P. fon. Illustrated history of weapons. - The book is an illustrated work that combines unique information about melee, throwing and firearms that people fought with ancient world and the Middle Ages, including our ancestors in Russia.

Brief essay on Roman antiquities / Comp.N. Sanchursky. - A textbook for gymnasiums, progymnasiums and self-study has gone through more than five editions only in pre-revolutionary time. The idea of ​​compiling a Brief Essay on Roman Antiquities belonged to a special commission of the St. Petersburg Educational District and was carried out by a team of authors headed by the former district inspector N.V. Sanchursky. The book to this day is an indispensable tool in the study of ancient Roman history. It is addressed to teachers and students of higher educational institutions, students of gymnasiums, lyceums, schools, and a wide range of readers.

Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. - This source represents the history of ancient Rome, completing the history of antiquity, is one of milestones world history. The book tells about the source study and historiography of ancient Rome, pre-Roman Italy, the era of the early republic, the era of civil wars, the era of the early and late empire. The textbook was subjected to some reduction due to material that went beyond the boundaries of the university course in the history of ancient Rome. Some changes and clarifications were also made, which in no way change the main provisions of the textbook. When making most of the clarifications, the material of both printed and unpublished works of N.A. Mashkin. The preparation of the text for publication and its editing were carried out by A.G. Bokshchanin with the participation of M.N. Mashkin.

Suetonius Gaius Tarquil. Life of the Twelve Caesars. - The book aims to highlight the "Life of the Twelve Caesars" not so much as historical, but as literary monument. Therefore, the question of how true the images of emperors drawn by Suetonius correspond to reality is hardly touched upon here: the details and parallels given from other sources should only supplement the general picture of the first century of the empire that had developed in Roman historiography by the beginning of the 2nd century BC. AD and remained decisive for all the ideas of posterity about the first Caesars. Of the realities in the notes, the most famous ones are not explained, references to which can be made in any textbook (consul, praetor, triumph, province, etc.). All important dates placed in the chronological index, all names - in the name index, most geographical names - on the map at the end of the book.

Tacitus Cornelius. Works. - Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (Cornelius Tacitus) (c. 55 - c. 117 AD) - an ancient Roman historian and one of the great representatives of world literature. Tacitus was born around 55 AD. According to the tastes of the age, he received a thorough but purely rhetorical education. In 78 he married the daughter of the famous commander Agricola; A rich life experience, imprinted in his highly tuned soul; vivid memories of older contemporaries about the beginning of the empire, firmly assimilated by his deep mind; a careful study of historical monuments - all this gave him a large stock of information about the life of Roman society in the 1st century. AD Imbued with the political principles of antiquity, faithful to the rules of ancient morality, Tacitus felt the impossibility of implementing them in the public arena in an era of personal rule and depraved morals; this prompted him to serve the good of the motherland with the words of the writer, telling his fellow citizens about their destinies and teaching them goodness by depicting the surrounding evil: Tacitus became a moralist historian.

Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War. - "Jewish War" - the most valuable source on the history of Judea and the uprising of the Jews against the Romans in 66-71. - from a direct participant and leader of the uprising. It was first described by Josephus Flavius ​​(37-100), the famous Jewish historian and military leader, eyewitness and participant in the events. Before him, the Jewish wars were, as a rule, described in the spirit of the sophists and by such people, of whom some, not being witnesses of the events themselves, used inaccurate, contradictory rumors, while others, although they were eyewitnesses, distorted the facts either out of flattery towards the Romans, or out of hatred for the Jews, as a result of which their writings contain now censure, now praise, but by no means a real and accurate history. The original work of Josephus Flavius ​​was written in Greek., Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Englewood Cliffs N.T. - It is an encyclopedia of the military history of Greece and Rome. Tells about the evolution of military art over 12 centuries.

In addition, Internet sources devoted to the history of the Roman army in the imperial era were used when writing the work.

army ancient rome legion

Chapter I. Composition and organization of the army

The army consisted of heavily armed legionary infantry (milites legionarii), lightly armed infantry and cavalry. Lightly armed infantrymen (archers, slingers, javelin throwers) and horsemen were called auxiliary troops (auxilia) and were divided into detachments of 400-500 people. In the infantry, the detachments were called cohorts (cohortes), in the cavalry, alams (alae).

1.1 Reform Mary

The emperors inherited from the Roman Republic a fully combat-ready army. The most important milestone in its history was the reform carried out at the consulship of Gaius Marius (first elected consul in 107 BC). The essence of the reform was the abolition of the property qualification for recruitment into the army and the introduction of regular pay for service. Previously, each warrior had to possess some kind of property. They were mostly peasants who owned small plots of land. In the process of the total ruin of the peasants, who were forced out of the markets by the owners of large land plots (latifundia), who used the free labor of a mass of slaves, the number of Roman citizens who had the property qualification necessary for military service became by the end of the 2nd century. - the beginning of the 1st c. BC. rapidly decline. It could come to the point that the invincible Roman legions would have no one to equip. There was another important circumstance. According to the old laws, after the end of the war, the soldiers returned to their peaceful activities, which affected the combat capability of the troops, because the training of the soldiers was interrupted. In addition, not everyone showed a willingness to leave the house, no matter how good a citizen he was. It often happened that an unbending Roman warrior could, returning to his native hearth, see his house and plot of land seized by a rich and powerful neighbor. Homeless and hungry quirites (full-fledged Roman citizens) with numerous families joined the crowds of unemployed mob, who gathered in large numbers in large cities and, above all, in Rome. These beggars, who defeated all the enemies of Rome, became very dangerous for the rich because of their large number and aggressiveness.

The decision to recruit volunteers who were ready to serve the fatherland for some reward removed this problem. After the reform, the Roman army turned from a militia into a standing professional army (exercitus perpetuus). All soldiers (except for foreign mercenaries, recruited as needed) were constantly in camps, where they underwent military training.

Now the army has received a stronger organization and a clear hierarchy commanders, as well as the possibility of education and training of troops.

Campaigns promised booty, and the soldiers were ready to endure hardships. The authority of a successful commander among them could rise to a height unattainable for a non-military politician. But the soldiers, deceived in hopes of enrichment, could just as easily turn to rebellion against the previously idolized commander.

1.2 High command

The emperor had full military power. The control of the troops was carried out through the legates (legati) appointed by him. They were the highest direct superiors over the troops. In the time of Julius Caesar, legates were only commanders of the legions. The legates of the legions (legatus legionis) belonged to the class of senators and, as already mentioned, were appointed by the emperor himself. In some cases, the legate could combine the command of the legion with the post of governor of the province. Then the legion of such a legate, as a rule, was stationed far away in order to protect the legate from the temptation to use him to seize power in the province and betray the emperor, but this precaution did not always help.

Slightly lower in the service hierarchy were military prefects and tribunes. Prefects of higher rank commanded cavalry detachments (praefectus equitum), fleets (praefectus classis) or were direct assistants to the commander (praefectus fabrum) 3. Both those and others could command separate detachments. The Roman high command as a whole did not have the strict hierarchy that exists in modern armies, and had a slightly different character. The ranks of officers had not only military, but also managerial significance. It is almost impossible to distinguish between these values.

1.3 Legions

The legions were the main striking force and pride of Rome throughout almost its entire history. At the time Augustus came to power, the Roman army numbered more than 60 legions - an exorbitant number for the state treasury, generated by countless civil wars, when each contender for power created new legions. These legions were far from equal in terms of the quality of training. Remaining at the pinnacle of power in splendid isolation, Octavian Augustus retained only 28 legions. The total size of the army during this period fluctuated between 300-400 thousand people, of which about 150 thousand were legionnaires, i.e. heavily armed infantry.

But even the reorganized Roman army sometimes suffered serious setbacks. After the defeat by the Germans in the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9), three legions (XVII, XVIII and XIX) under the command of Varus did not begin to restore them.

By the end of the reign of Augustus, there were 25 legions in the army (after the death of three legions in the Teutoburg Forest). The rulers who inherited his power did not greatly change their number, especially since Rome had few territorial claims. In the 1st century - the beginning of the II century. conquests were "limited" to Dacia, Britain, Mauritania. Temporarily, and even then rather symbolically, Parthia was subordinated. Subsequently, the empire had to defend itself more.

Two legions for the conquest of Britain in 42 were created by Claudius. After the turbulent 69, when several emperors were replaced in a row, nominated by legions stationed in different parts of the empire, two of the four German legions were left. Only at the beginning of the reign of Domitian (81-96) was another legion created. Total number legions reached 30. Subsequently, in different wars, two legions were lost. Emperor Trajan, in order to strengthen the army during unrest in the eastern provinces (132-135), created two more legions that bore his name. Two Italian legions in 165 were recruited by Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Septimius Severus (193-211) created three Parthian legions intended for the war with Parthia.

Secondary to the heavily armed legionary infantry, although no less numerous, were the auxiliary troops (auxilia). Actually, it was the legionnaires who were originally considered the army. But over time, the level of training of legionnaires and "oxilarii" (auxiliary troops) began to more or less equalize.

During the Civil Wars of the 1st c. BC. Roman citizens were finally forced out by foreign mercenaries from the cavalry. This is not surprising when you remember that the Romans were never good horsemen. Therefore, the needs of the army in the cavalry were replenished by hiring Gallic and German cavalry. Cavalry and lightly armed infantry were also recruited in Spain.

The number of auxiliary troops, both infantry and cavalry, was, as a rule, equal to the number of heavily armed legionnaires and sometimes even exceeded it.

During the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), Rome began to use units in the army, formed from the inhabitants of the Mediterranean, who perfectly owned one or another type of weapon (archers from Crete, prashniks from the Balearic Islands). Since the Punic Wars, Numidian light cavalrymen have played a large role in the Roman armies. The custom of recruiting warriors who were well versed in their "national" weapons was preserved under the emperors. Later, when the expansion of the empire's borders ended, the function of direct border protection fell precisely on the auxiliary troops. The legions were located in the depths of the province and constituted a strategic reserve.

1.4 Praetorian Guard

The Roman Empire had at its disposal not only the legions stationed in the provinces. To maintain order in Italy itself and to protect the emperor, Augustus created 9 cohorts of the Praetorian Guard (cohortes practoriae), totaling 4,500 people. Subsequently, their number increased to 14 cohorts. At the head of each of the cohorts was the praetorian prefect (praefectus praetorio). These selected troops were formed from the Praetorian cohorts that existed at the end of the Republican period with each general for his protection. Praetorians had a number of privileges: they served 16 years, and not 26, as ordinary legionnaires, and had a salary 3.3 times higher than the salary of a legionnaire. Each Praetorian cohort consisted of 500 men. At the beginning of the III century. this number was increased to 1,000, possibly 1,500.

Augustus never kept more than three Praetorian cohorts in Rome; he sent the rest to lodge in nearby cities. Under Tiberius, the Praetorians were gathered and placed under a single command in Rome in one camp. These warriors, spoiled by the attention of emperors, were reluctant to go on military campaigns, but they participated in conspiracies with great enthusiasm and more than once played a decisive role in the overthrow of one emperor and the accession of another. The soldiers in the Praetorian cohorts were recruited mainly from the inhabitants of Italy and some of the neighboring provinces, long annexed to Rome. However, after the end of the II century. the Praetorians once again tried to nominate "their" emperor. Septimius Severus dismissed them and recruited them again, but from the Danubian legions devoted to him. The praetorian cavalry was formed from soldiers of the praetorian foot cohorts who had served at least four or five years.

When on duty in the palace, the Praetorians wore togas (traditional clothing of the Roman rich and nobility), like eminent dignitaries. On the Praetorian banners were placed portraits of the emperor and empress, as well as the names of the victorious battles of the emperor.

To reinforce the Praetorian cavalry, the imperial auxiliary cavalry (equites singulares) was created, recruited from the best horsemen of the auxiliary cavalry by the emperor himself or his representatives.

For the personal protection of the emperor and members of the imperial family, bodyguards were recruited from the barbarians. Especially often the Germans were chosen for this role. The emperors understood that too close proximity to the Praetorians was not always safe.

1.5 Roman garrison

The city garrison (cohortes urbanae) was under the command of the city prefect (praefectus urbi). This position was considered honorary for retired prominent senators. The city cohorts were created simultaneously with the Praetorian ones, and their first numbers (X-XI) followed immediately after the Praetorian numbers (I-IX). Claudius increased the number of urban cohorts. Under Vespasian (69-79), four cohorts were stationed in Rome, the rest were sent to Carthage and Lugudunum (Lyon) to protect the imperial mint. The organization of the urban cohorts was the same as that of the Praetorian Guard. Served in them, however, 20 years. The pay was two-thirds higher than that of the legionnaire.

The municipal guard (cohortes vigilum) performed the functions of night guards and fire protection. These cohorts also owe their origin to Augustus. In total, 7 of them were formed (originally from freed slaves), one for two of the 14 districts of the city. Commanded cohorts of praefectus vigilum. They served 7 years.

1.6 Distribution of troops by province

The total size of the army was insufficient for defense huge spaces empire. Therefore, a reasonable distribution of forces was of paramount importance. Even under Julius Caesar (c. 46-44 BC), troops were withdrawn from Italy and located near the borders, where there was a danger of enemy invasion, and in the recently conquered provinces. Augustus and his successors. followed the same concept.

It is quite natural that over the course of two centuries these "sore points" of the empire changed their location. In the 1st century AD the main attention of the emperors was riveted to the Rhine, where at that time about 100 thousand Roman soldiers were concentrated, including 8 legions. However, the strategic importance of this frontier was gradually weakened. Already under Trajan (98-117), there were much fewer troops there - 45 thousand people. At this time, in connection with the ongoing wars in Dacia and Panonia, the "center of gravity" of hostilities moved to the Danube. In 107, up to 110 thousand soldiers stood on the banks of this river, almost along its entire length. Five legions were in Moesia, three in Dacia, four in Panonia.

On the most vulnerable sections of the border, Rome also tried to use detachments of foreign mercenaries. In the first two centuries of the reign of emperors, there were still not so many of them as later, when foreigners gradually began to oust the native Romans from the ranks of the army, but in the I-II centuries. this process has already begun.

Three legions were concentrated against the Parthians in Syria. During the reign of the Flavian dynasty (69-96), two more were added to them, formed in Cappadocia. After the conquest of Arabia in 106, one legion was sent to this province.

The troops were also in less dangerous directions. In such provinces as Spain, North Africa, Egypt, which had long been annexed to the empire, there were troops, but the full legions were almost never stationed there. Of the "secondary" regions, from the point of view of the likelihood of large-scale hostilities, the exception was Britain, where there were always three legions out of four that participated in the conquest of the island, which was a clear disproportion in relation to the area of ​​this province. This is due to the fact that the British were relatively recently subjugated and isolated uprisings against the Romans broke out from time to time.

As for Gaul, since it received the status of a province (16 BC), detachments were sent there if necessary from Germany or Spain.

Chapter II. Daily life of warriors

2.1 Recruitment and training

After the reforms of Mary, the Roman army became mercenary. The legionary infantry could only be formed from Roman citizens, while the auxiliary troops consisted of representatives of the peoples conquered by Rome. After the Civil Wars BC. all Italians living south of the Po River were granted Roman citizenship. This meant that the distinction between Roman and allied legions no longer existed. Civil rights gradually began to be given to the western provinces (Spain, Southern Gaul, "Province" - the current historical area France - Provence). In the East, the institution of citizenship did not have such a distribution, therefore, in order not to conflict with the law, recruits from those parts received this status upon joining the legion. Such measures made it possible to expand the army's access to human resources.

So, recruitment into the Roman army as a result of the reforms of Mary was distinguished primarily by the fact that instead of compulsory conscription, the principle of voluntariness was introduced. But due to the fact that the level of this very voluntariness among citizens in the I-II centuries. left much to be desired, the authorities very soon began to resort to the services of the inhabitants of the most Romanized provinces, such as Dalmatia or Gaul. In the event that there were not enough volunteers, forced recruitment was used. At the same time, in order not to provoke unrest, the authorities, as a rule, did not skimp on good promises. Josephus testifies: “After the war against Antiochus, most of the Roman citizens, however, began to evade service. To replenish the army, they had to use the services of special recruiters from the poor. only officers.

At the beginning of the II century. Emperor Hadrian ordered to recruit not only Roman citizens, but also residents of the provinces. A good help for the replenishment of the legions was the existence in the provinces that did not have civil status, the sons of legionnaires and "oxilaries", who inherited civil rights from their fathers who had served in the army. Some of the benefits associated with the opportunity to enrich themselves in the war, in principle, attracted the provincials to the service more than the inhabitants of Italy, therefore, in the army of the former, as a rule, there were more than those from this beautiful peninsula, from which it was so hard for them to part. Nevertheless, among the soldiers of the legions, native Italians were always found. Speaking about the ethnic composition of the legions, one should not forget that they were often joined by local residents of those regions where permanent camps were located. In any case, it is known that during the reign of Hadrian, approximately 70% of the legionnaires came from the western provinces (Germany, Gaul, Britain).

Before becoming a legionnaire, a volunteer had to first get a letter of recommendation from a member of his family already in the army, or, in the absence of such, from some third person holding even a minor government post. With this document, the volunteer appeared before a kind of draft board or council (probatio), whose members were the officers of the legion. Such commissions were often chaired by the provincial ruler. During the test, both the physical and personal qualities of the recruit were tested. The selection was made very carefully, since the power of the legion and the army as a whole was directly dependent on the qualities of the future soldier. Quite high requirements were also made when joining the auxiliary cavalry.

A recruit (tiron) had to have a minimum height of about 1.75 m, have a decent appearance and a strong build. These simple conditions require some comments. According to outside observers, the inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula were short people. This was especially often noticed by tall Gauls and Germans. This may partly be the reason why the proportion of "Italics" in the legions was gradually declining.

After passing the tests of the commission, a recruit at the age of about 18 had to take an oath (sacramentum). From the modern oath "sacramentum" differed in its religious meaning. It was not only a legal act confirming the acquisition of the status of a soldier, but a kind of expression of some kind of mystical connection between a recruit and his commander. For the superstitious Romans, all these rituals had a deep meaning. At the end of the ceremony, the future soldier was enrolled in the legion in which he was to serve. Then he was given a small amount of money (viaticum), after which, under the protection of an officer, along with other recruits, he went to his legion. Upon arrival at the camp, a freshly minted warrior was assigned to a certain century. His name, age, special signs were entered in the lists of the unit. After that, the grueling phase of training began.

Flavius ​​Josephus notes: "... they win battles with such ease; for confusion never occurs in their ranks and nothing takes them out of their usual battle order; fear does not deprive them of their presence of mind, and excessive tension does not exhaust their strength." He explained these virtues of the Roman soldiers by constant exercises and exercises, which were the lot of not only beginners, but also gray-haired veterans (however, for a certain amount of money handed to the centurion, one could always avoid especially tedious duties). However, for most legionnaires, regular bribes were beyond their means. Moreover, checks and inspections followed one after another. Officials also did not sit idle.

The high command, up to the emperor, personally inspected the legions and closely monitored the state of military training.

Initially, education was not systematic, but from about the beginning of the 1st century. BC. it became obligatory element military life.

The primary training of a legionnaire was the same that to this day forms the basis for the training of recruits in most armies of the world. And until the recruit was familiar with the basics of discipline and combat, he could not be put into service under any circumstances.

Three times a month the soldiers made marches, 30 km each. Half the way was done by walking, half by running. Soldiers were trained to keep a place in the ranks during movement and rebuilding. Ultimately, it was thanks to the high combat training that the legion was able to carry out all its rebuilding and movement with almost mathematical accuracy. But to achieve this was quite difficult. It is unlikely that one day it will be possible to count the number of sticks broken off by the centurions when the soldiers comprehended this science. The precise execution of rebuilds was highly valued by the Romans and was considered the main key to achieving victories.

Legionnaires had to be able to march in two different rhythms. The first of these is the "military step". In this rhythm, the unit had to cover about 30 km in 5 hours on level ground. The second - "long step" - allowed for the same time to overcome more than 35 km.

Drill training was supplemented by physical exercises that included jumping, running, throwing stones, wrestling and swimming. Everyone from beginners to officers did these exercises.

But the main attention was paid to the construction of the camp. The soldiers were required to do the work correctly and, most importantly, quickly. For this purpose, recruits had to build many "boot camps". If in common practice the legions built them once a day, then the recruits had to do it twice. Build and shoot again.

Recruits were also trained in horseback riding. Through these classes, carried out both in full equipment and without it, all soldiers had to go through.

Later, newcomers were taught how to use weapons. This part of the training largely repeated the methods of training in gladiator schools. Weapons for training were wooden, shields were wicker. In size and shape, they were quite identical to the real ones, but almost twice their weight. For practicing blows, a wooden pole was used dug into the ground in the height of a man. On it, the legionnaire practiced blows on the imaginary head and legs of the enemy. The main purpose of the exercise was to work out the strike so that when it was applied, the lunge was not too deep, since this increased the likelihood of hitting the attacker's right side, which was not protected by a shield. Pilum throws were also practiced at different distances and for different purposes.

At the next stage, the future legionnaire moved on to that stage of training, which, like the gladiators, was called armatura. From that moment on, for training, they began to use military weapon. The legionnaire received a sword, one or more pilums and a shield.

Weapon skills were developed in fights with swords or spears, the tips of which were covered with wooden tips for safety. To maintain excitement, rewards for the winners of the duel and punishments for the losers were widely used. The successful received a double ration, while the losers had to be content with barley instead of the usual grain.

Exercises with weapons were aimed at tempering not only the body, but also the spirit of the soldiers. Flavius, apparently observing them closely, believed that "they resemble either bloodless battles or bloody exercises." Looks like they've been working hard.

During training trips, beginners got acquainted with tactical methods of combat, as well as with various types of formations.

At the end of this stage, the soldiers parted with the status of recruits and joined the legion. Nevertheless, throughout the rest of their service, they were expected to do the same exercises and activities that were devoted to most of every day, except for holidays. The maniples and centuries were engaged in drill training and, divided into two groups, fought among themselves. The riders practiced jumping with obstacles, practiced the attack on the infantry. Cavalry and infantry in full marching gear will make three 15-kilometer marches a month.

The practice of constant training was such a characteristic feature of Roman military life that even Seneca, who was so far from the bustle of everyday life in his writings, noted: “Soldiers in peacetime go on a campaign, although not against the enemy, pour yours, exhaust themselves with unnecessary work, so that I had enough strength to do what I needed."

2.2 Military discipline. Punishments and rewards

No other army of antiquity had such strict discipline. Its main expression was unconditional obedience to orders. The maintenance of strict order, first of all, was facilitated by the fact that the soldiers were never left idle. In addition, the well-known principle of "carrot and stick" was applied in the army with unchanging consistency.

Military laws punished by death not only for desertion and leaving the formation during the battle, but also for less significant offenses, such as leaving a guard post, losing weapons, theft, false testimony against a comrade, cowardice. Less significant crimes were punished by reprimands, reduction of salaries, demolition, assignment to hard work and corporal punishment. There were also shameful punishments. For example, Augustus ordered the delinquent to stand in front of the praetorium all day, sometimes in one tunic and with a combat belt.

If the offense was registered for the entire maniple or legion, every tenth, twentieth or hundredth, chosen by lot, was executed, the rest were transferred to barley bread.

More severe than military law was sometimes the unlimited personal power of the commanders, which they used, regardless of rank and merit. Augustus, who was famous for honoring the "traditional virtues of antiquity", would allow legates to see their wives only in winter. The Roman horseman, who cut off his sons thumbs to save them from military service, ordered to be sold at auction with all his property. Tiberius punished the leader of the legion with dishonor because he sent several soldiers to accompany his freedman on a hunt. On the other hand, exemption from punishments, imposed dishonor and accusations in troubled times was a real measure designed to win over the troops to their side or strengthen their authority in more quiet time.

Incentives could also be different kind: praise, promotion, increase in salary, participation in the division of booty, exemption from work in the camp, cash payments and insignia in the form of silver or gold wrists (armillae) worn on the forearm. There were also specific awards for different types of troops: in the cavalry - silver or gold neck chains (torques), in the infantry - chest silver or gold plywood with the image of a commander or the head of some deity.

Officers were awarded an honorary spear without a point (hasta pura) and an honorary personal flag - a small vexillum. The highest insignia were wreaths (sogopae), the most honorable of which was the triumphal laurel wreath (corona triumphalis). There were other wreaths: corona civica - for the salvation of a citizen, corona muralis - for the first to climb the wall, corona vallaris - for the first to climb the rampart of an enemy fortification, corona navalis - for the first to board an enemy ship.

The awards were handed out to the soldiers in the presence of the entire army.

From this point of view, the story of Josephus Flavius ​​about the ceremony organized by Titus after the capture and sack of Jerusalem is indicative: “He immediately ordered the persons appointed for this purpose to proclaim the names of those who had accomplished some brilliant feat in this war. Calling them by name, he praised those who approached and showed so much joy, as if their exploits made him personally happy; he immediately laid on them golden wreaths, golden neck chains, gave them large golden spears or silver banners, and raised each of them to highest rank. In addition, he generously endowed them with gold, silver, clothing and other things from the booty. Having thus rewarded everyone according to their deserts, he blessed the whole army and, with loud jubilant cries of the soldiers, descended from the platform and proceeded to the victorious sacrifices. A huge number of bulls, already standing at the altars, were slaughtered, and their meat was distributed to the army. He himself feasted with them for three days, after which part of the army was released, wherever anyone wanted.

In honor of the commander who won a major victory, a thanksgiving service in temples (supplicatio) could be appointed. But the highest reward was a triumph - a solemn entry into Rome. According to tradition, the commander, invested with the highest military authority (imperium), had the right to it when he, as commander in chief, won a decisive victory on land or at sea in a declared war with an external enemy. According to this definition, in the I-II centuries. AD only the emperors, who were considered the supreme commanders of the armies, had the right to triumph.

By ancient tradition until the day of the triumph, the commander had to remain outside the city. On the appointed day, he with a solemn procession through triumphal gate marched towards the Capitol. On this occasion, the streets were decorated with wreaths, the temples were opened. The spectators greeted the procession with shouts, and the soldiers sang songs.

At the head of the procession were government officials and senators, followed by musicians, then brought booty and images of conquered countries and cities. There were priests, young men in festive clothes, leading white bulls, appointed for sacrifice, and noble prisoners of war in chains. Next came the golden chariot of the triumphant, harnessed by four white horses. Lictors, musicians and singers walked ahead. The victor stood on a chariot, crowned with a laurel wreath, dressed in a purple tunic embroidered with gold (tunica palmata - the clothes of Capitoline Jupiter) and in a purple toga (toga picta) decorated with gold stars. In his hands he held an ivory scepter, topped with a golden eagle, and a laurel branch. Behind the chariot stood a state slave, holding a golden crown above his head. The crowd greeted the victor with shouts: "Look back and remember that you are a man!"

The procession was closed by soldiers in laurel wreaths, with all the insignia. Arriving at the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, the victor laid his prey on the hands of the statue of God, said a prayer, made a sacrifice, and then distributed gifts and awards to the soldiers. This was followed by a feast.

The victorious commander (not the emperor) was only granted the right, on solemn occasions, to wear the triumphant decorations and signs that the Caesars had been rewarding since the time of Augustus. Among the decorations were chains embroidered with palm leaves tunics, togas (toga picta), laurel wreaths.

In honor of the victorious commander, monuments (tropaea) were erected, initially from melted down enemy weapons, and later from marble and copper, triumphal arches, columns, marble and bronze statues were erected. The armor taken from the enemy leader was sacrificed to Jupiter (luppiter Feretrius). In general, military booty went to pay salaries to the troops, and was also partly dedicated to the gods.

Of course, it wasn't just the winners who received the awards. So, for example, during the African triumph of Caesar, young Augustus was awarded, despite the fact that he did not participate in the war.

2.3 Daily life

Years of service in the army did not always fall on campaigns and battles. In the II century. army life was more measured. Expeditions became rare. The troops were mainly stationed in permanent camps, the way of life of which was very reminiscent of the life of most ordinary cities "Pax Romanum", with all the amenities of ancient civilization (baths, theaters, gladiator fights, etc.).

The everyday life of a legionnaire differed little from the everyday life of a soldier of any other era - exercises, guards, patrolling the roads. But in addition to military occupations, soldiers were required to perform numerous construction works. They erected camp buildings and fortifications, built roads, bridges, built border fortified lines and monitored their safety. Behind the main shaft with watchtowers, a military road was always built along which troops could be transferred along the border. Over time, such fortified lines strengthened the borders of the empire in the north of Britain - Hadrian's Wall, between the Dniester and Prut - the Trojan Wall and in Africa - the Tripolitan Wall.

An important aspect of the army's activity was its participation in the process of Romanization of the provinces in which it was stationed. After all, the army was used not only to carry out military work, but also to build canals, water pipes, water tanks, public buildings. Things got to the point that in the III century. the military often had to take over the full performance of a number of civilian functions. Legionnaires often became employees (secretaries, translators, etc.) in various local civilian departments. All this contributed to the spread of the Roman way of life, its organic interweaving with local customs and customs in territories that, as a rule, did not have a sufficiently high level of civilization before.

For service in the army, the legionnaire regularly received a salary (stipendium). The first time the fee for the service was raised by Caesar. Then it amounted to 226 denarii. Centurions traditionally received twice as much. They were paid every four months. Then, 150 years later, the fee was increased by Domitian. The next increase took place another hundred years later.

To pay for the troops, there was a kind of "tariff scale", according to which the infantryman of the auxiliary troops received three times less, and the cavalryman - two times less than the legionnaire, although the cavalryman's pay may have come close to the legionnaire's salary. Large cash rewards were paid to soldiers after victories or when a new emperor ascended the throne. Payments and gifts (donatives), of course, made the service more attractive.

This, of course, did not rule out mutinies in the army, which arose on economic grounds, and also because of the cruel discipline or the large amount of work that the legionnaires were burdened with. It is curious that Tacitus reports an uprising in the summer camp of the three legions that occurred immediately after the death of Augustus, among other things, demanding equal pay with the Praetorians. With with great difficulty succeeded in liquidating this uprising by satisfying the basic demands of the rebels. Almost simultaneously, the Rhine legions revolted. Later, the rebellion of the legionnaires on the Upper Rhine was caused by the fact that they did not receive the rewards promised by Galba for the victory over the Gauls.

Soldiers often tried to save money, even though they had to provide their own food, clothing, shoes, weapons and armor (with discounts, but from their own pay), not to mention the so-called "New Year's dinner" for commanders and payments to the funeral fund. Food and clothing costs were constant. The weapon, of course, was purchased once. Some soldiers could afford to decorate their armor with gold and silver. Part of the money inevitably went to bribes. So, for example, not a single emperor could do anything about the "tradition" of paying centurions for vacations. So, giving "Caesar's Caesar's" on the battlefield, the centurion considered himself entitled to "centurion's" in the camp.

Half of any reward (donatives) was kept for the soldier until the day of his retirement. The legionnaires' savings were the responsibility of the standard bearers, who did this in addition to their other duties.

For food, the soldier received four measures (modius) of grain and a certain amount of salt every month. Grain (usually wheat) was ground by soldiers in hand mills, and bread was baked from flour. Only those serving in the navy received baked bread, because it was dangerous to make fire on ships. Meat played a secondary role. Vegetables, leguminous fruits and other products were given out only when there was a shortage of grain. The provinces were obliged to help in kind or money to support the troops. Provisions for the campaign were specially prepared for the municipalities (districts) and provinces.

The main quartermaster of the troops, i.e. manager economic part and the treasury of the army was the quaestor. Under his command were various lower officials in charge of the treasury and food, and scribes.

Chapter III. Fleet

3.1 Roman navy

In Rome, the fleet did not fundamentally differ from the ships of Greece and the Hellenistic states of Asia Minor. The Romans have the same tens and hundreds, oars as the main propulsion of the vessel, the same multi-tiered layout, approximately the same aesthetics of the fores and sternposts. The main, most accurate and widespread classification is the division of ancient warships depending on the number of rows of oars.

Ships with one row of oars (vertically) were called moners (moneris) or unirems, and in modern literature they are often referred to simply as galleys, with two - biremes or liburnes, with three - triremes or triremes, with four - tetrares or quadriremes, with five - penters or quinqueremes, with six - hexers. However, further clear classification is "blurred". In ancient literature, one can find references to the hepter / septer, octer, enner, detsemrem (ten-row?) and so on up to the seven-cimrem (sixteen-row ships!). The only conceivable semantic content of these names is the total number of rowers on one side in one section (section) in all tiers. That is, for example, if in the bottom row we have one rower per oar, in the next - two, in the third - three, etc., then in total in five tiers we get 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 rowers . Such a ship, in principle, can be called a quindecimreme. Roman ships were, on average, larger than similar Greek or Carthaginian ones. With a fair wind, masts were installed on the ship (up to three on quinquerems and hexers) and sails were raised on them. Large ships were sometimes armored with bronze plates and almost always hung with water-soaked oxhides before battle to protect them from incendiary projectiles.

Also, on the eve of a collision with the enemy, the sails were rolled up and placed in covers, and the masts were laid on the deck. The vast majority of Roman warships, unlike, for example, the Egyptian ones, did not have stationary masts at all. Roman ships, like Greek ships, were optimized for coastal naval battles rather than long raids on the high seas. It was impossible to ensure good habitability of a medium ship for one and a half hundred rowers, two to three dozen sailors and a centurion of the marine corps. Therefore, in the evening the fleet sought to land on the shore. Crews, rowers and most of the marines left the ships and spent the night in tents. In the morning they sailed on. The ships were built quickly. In 40-60 days, the Romans could build a quinquereme and fully put it into operation. This explains the impressive size of the Roman fleets during the Punic Wars. For example, according to my calculations (careful and therefore probably underestimated), during the First Punic War (264-241 BC), the Romans commissioned more than a thousand first-class warships: from trireme to quinquereme. Since they sailed only with a fair wind, and the rest of the time they used exclusively the muscular strength of the rowers, the speed of the ships left much to be desired. The heavier Roman ships were even slower than the Greek ones. A ship capable of 7-8 knots (14 km / h) was considered "fast-moving", and for a quinquer a cruising speed of 3-4 knots was considered quite decent. The crew of the ship, in the likeness of the Roman land army, was called the "centuria". There were two main officials on the ship: the captain ("trierarch"), responsible for the actual navigation and navigation, and the centurion, responsible for the conduct of hostilities. The latter commanded several dozen marines. Contrary to popular belief, in the Republican period (V-I centuries BC), all members of the crew of Roman ships, including rowers, were civilians. (The same, by the way, applies to the Greek navy.) Only during the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) did the Romans resort to limited use of freedmen in the navy as an extraordinary measure. However, later, slaves and prisoners really began to be increasingly used as rowers.

Biremes and Liburnians.

Biremes were two-tier rowing vessels, and liburns could be built both in two- and in a single-tier version. The usual number of rowers on a bireme is 50-80, the number of marines is 30-50. In order to increase capacity, even small biremes and liburns were often completed with a closed deck, which was usually not done on ships of a similar class in other fleets.

Triremes.

The crew of a typical trireme consisted of 150 rowers, 12 sailors, approximately 80 marines and several officers. The transport capacity was, if necessary, 200-250 legionnaires.

The trireme was a faster ship than the quadri- and quinqueremes, and more powerful than the biremes and liburns. At the same time, the dimensions of the trireme made it possible, if necessary, to place throwing machines on it.

3.2 Rome's heavy fleet

Quadriremes.

Quadriremes and larger warships were also not uncommon, but they were built in large quantities only directly during major military campaigns. Mostly during the Punic, Syrian and Macedonian wars, i.e. in III-II centuries. BC. Actually, the first quadri - and quinquerems were improved copies of Carthaginian ships of similar classes, first encountered by the Romans during the First Punic War.

Quinquerems.

The quinqueremes themselves were so huge that there were no rams on them; they were replaced by numerous artillery mounts that made it possible to take on board large parties of paratroopers (up to 300 people). In the First Punic War, the Carthaginians could not try to match the strength of their ships with similar sea fortresses.

Hexers.

In the works of Roman authors, there are reports of more than five-tier ships in the Roman fleet, namely six and even seven-tier ships. Six-tiered ships include hexers. They did not stand on carpet production and were built extremely rarely. So, when in 117 AD. Hadrian's legionnaires reached the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, they built a fleet, the flagship of which was allegedly the hexer. However, already during the battle with the Carthaginian fleet at Eknom in the First Punic War, two hexers were the flagships of the Roman fleet.

Superheavy ships.

These include septers, enners and decimrems. Both the first and the second were never built en masse. Ancient historiography contains only a few scanty references to these ships. Obviously, Enners and Decimrems were very slow-moving and could not withstand squadron speed on a par with triremes and quinqueremes. For this reason, they were used as coastal defense battleships to protect their harbors, or to impose on enemy sea fortresses as mobile platforms for the siege of towers, telescopic assault ladders (sambuca) and heavy artillery. In a linear battle, Mark Antony tried to use decimrems (31 BC, the battle of Actium), but they were burned by the fast ships of Octavian Augustus.

Chapter IV. The evolution of legionnaire weapons

The very belonging of a person to the legionnaires was his attire. It differed in some parts from the simple attire of citizens. As such, this was established only with the introduction of the Marius reform and a number of subsequent reforms that made the army permanent.

The main differences were the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi"). "Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze plates, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They could appear closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist ("pterugs") (metal lining for such stripes was found near Kalkrize, where Var was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern.

Military footwear "kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class. The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. AD These were sturdy sandals. Josephus Flavius ​​in his work - "The Jewish War" - said that, the creak of nailed soles and the tinkling of belts, spoke of the presence of soldiers. Archaeological finds throughout the empire testify to to a large extent standardization in the form "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.

4.1 Offensive weapons

"Pilum" was one of the main types of weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Unlike the "gladius" - the sword, which had several distinct and consistent varieties, the "pilum" was preserved for six centuries in two main types - heavy and light. A dart with a total length of more than 2 m was equipped with a long iron rod with a pyramidal or two-thorn tip.

"Pilum" was a weapon that was used at a short distance. With its help, it was possible to pierce the shield, armor and the enemy warrior himself.

Several "pilums" with flat tips and the remains of a wooden shaft, found in Oberaden Fort Augusta in Germany, have survived. They could weigh up to 2 kg. However, those specimens that were found in Valencia and belonged to the period of the Late Republic had much larger arrowheads and significantly more weight. Some "pilums" were equipped with weights, probably made of lead, but no such specimens have been found by archaeologists. Such a heavy "pilum" in the hands of a Praetorian can be seen on a surviving panel from the ruined arch of Claudius in Rome, which was erected in honor of the conquest of southern Britain. A weighted dart weighed at least twice as much as a normal dart and could not be thrown long distances (the maximum throwing distance was 30m). It is clear that such weighting was done to increase the penetrating ability of the dart and was most likely used for combat on elevated ground and fortress walls.

Usually a Roman legionary is presented armed with a short and sharp sword, known as a "gladius", but this is a misconception.

For the Romans, the word "gladius" was generalized and meant any sword. Thus, Tacitus uses the term "gladius" to refer to the long cutting swords with which the Caledonians were armed at the battle of Mons Graupius. The famous Spanish sword, "gladius hispaniensis", often mentioned by Polybius and Livy, was a piercing-cutting weapon of medium length. The length of its blade reached from 64 to 69 cm, and the width - 4-5.5 cm. The edges of the blade could be parallel or slightly narrowed at the handle. From about a fifth of the length, the blade began to taper and ended with a sharp end. Probably, this weapon was adopted by the Romans shortly after the battle of Cannae, which took place in 216 BC. Prior to that, it was adapted by the Iberians, who took the long Celtic sword as a basis. Scabbards were made from a strip of iron or bronze with wood or leather details. Up to 20 BC some Roman units continued to use the Spanish sword (an interesting specimen has come down to us from Berry Bow in France). However, during the reign of Augustus, it was quickly supplanted by the "gladius", a type of which is represented by finds in Mainz and Fulheim. This sword clearly represented a more developed stage of the "gladius hispaniensis", but had a shorter and wider blade, narrowed at the handle. Its length was 40-56 cm, with a width of up to 8 cm. The weight of such a sword was about 1.2-1.6 kg. The metal scabbard could be trimmed with pewter or silver and decorated with various compositions, often associated with the figure of Augustus. The short "gladius" of the type found at Pompeii was introduced quite late. This parallel-edged sword with a short triangular point was quite different from the Spanish swords and the swords found at Mainz/Fulheim. It was 42-55 cm long, and the blade width was 5-6 cm. Using this sword in battle, the legionnaires inflicted stabbing and chopping blows. This sword weighed about 1 kg. Finely decorated scabbards like those found at Mainz/Fulheim were replaced by leather and wood scabbards with metal fittings, which were engraved, embossed or minted with various images. All Roman swords of the period we are considering were attached to the belt or hung on a sling. Since the image of a "gladius" similar to that found in Pompeii is most often found on Trajan's column, this sword began to be perceived as the main weapon of a legionnaire. However, the time of its use in Roman units was very short compared to other swords. Introduced in the middle of the 1st c. AD, it went out of use in the second quarter of the 2nd century. AD An ordinary Roman soldier carried his sword on the right side. Centurions and higher-ranking officers carried the sword on the left, which was a sign of their rank.

Dagger.

Another borrowing from the Spaniards was the dagger ("pugio"). In shape, it looked like a "gladius" with a blade narrowed at the handle, the length of which could be from 20 to 35 cm. The dagger was worn on the left side (ordinary legionnaires). Beginning with the reign of Augustus, dagger hilts and metal scabbards were decorated with elaborate silver inlays. The main forms of such a dagger continued to be used in the III century. AD

4.2 Defensive weapons

Shield.

The legionnaire's traditional shield was a curved oval scutum. A copy from the Fayum in Egypt, dating back to the 1st century BC. BC, had a length of 128 cm and a width of 63.5 cm. It was made of wooden planks laid on top of each other in transverse layers. In the central part, such a shield had a slight thickening (the thickness here was 1.2 cm, and along the edges - 1 cm). The shield was covered with felt and calfskin, and weighed 10 kg. During the reign of Augustus, such a shield was modified, having received a curved rectangular shape. The only surviving copy of this form has come down to us from Dura Europos in Syria and dates back to about 250 AD. It was constructed in the same way as the Fayum shield. It was 102 cm long and 83 cm wide (the distance between the curved edges was 66 cm), but it was much lighter. With a thickness of 5 mm, it weighed about 5.5 kg. Peter Connolly believes that earlier examples were thicker in the middle and weighed 7.5 kg.

Such a weight of the "scutum" meant that it had to be held with a horizontal grip on outstretched hand. Initially, such a shield was intended for the offensive. The shield could also be used to knock down an opponent. The flat shields of the mercenaries were not always lighter than those of the legionnaires. A rectangular shield with a curved top found at Hod Hill weighed about 9 kg.

Armor.

Most legionnaires of the Imperial period wore heavy armor, although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used unarmoured legionaries ("expediti") fighting as "antisignani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who started skirmishes at the start of a battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry (for example, at Pharsalus). The relief from the headquarters of the legionnaires in Mainz depicts two legionnaires fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but do not have protective armor - even heavily armed legionaries could fight "expediti". On two other reliefs from Mainz, you can see the armor of the established pattern, which was used by legionnaires. In one image, a legionnaire in armor "lorica segmentata", made of metal strips and plates, steps behind the "signifer". True, such armor was not used everywhere. Recent finds made at Kalkries, where Varus' army was defeated (Battle of the Teutoburg Forest), including a fully preserved breastplate with a bronze border, indicate that such armor appeared during the reign of Augustus. Other pieces of armor have been found at what once were Augustus bases near Haltern and Dangsteten in Germany. The shell provided good protection, especially for the shoulders and upper back, but, ending at the hips, left the lower abdomen and upper legs exposed. It is likely that some kind of quilted clothing was worn under the shell, softening blows, protecting the skin from scuffs and helping to ensure that the shell sat properly, and the breastplate and other plates were correctly positioned in relation to each other. The reconstruction of one of these armors showed that it could weigh about 9 kg. Another relief from Mainz depicts a centurion (his sword is on his left side) dressed in what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, cuts at the arms and thighs indicate that this is a chain mail shirt ("lorika hamata"), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of a warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Mail was probably the kind of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts were with short sleeves or without sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most of the legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor ("lorica squamata") was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity. Such scaly armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the body of a legionnaire. "Pterugs" were often added to such attire - linen or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect from serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases. Hinged arm armor was used in the period we are considering by gladiators, but they did not come into widespread use among the troops until the reign of Domitian (81-96 AD).

Legionnaires used different kinds helmets. During the time of the Republic, bronze, and sometimes iron, Montefortino helmets became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single bowl-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called "Culus" type, were used until the end of the 1st century BC. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck. At the beginning of the reign of Augustus, and perhaps even during the period of the Gallic conquests of Caesar, Roman blacksmiths began to make iron helmets of the type "Gallic Port" and "Agen" for legionnaires. These so-called "Gallic imperial" helmets were very High Quality, equipped with front and rear visor. Large side plates were also added to this helmet to protect the neck. Closer to the middle of the 1st c. AD a variety of such a helmet was made in Italian workshops. For their manufacture, iron and bronze were used (which was a step forward compared to the Montefortino-type helmet). Legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5-2 mm, and the weight was about 2-2.3 kg. Helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and the design of some helmets left a small space between the head and the canopy, which made it possible to soften the blow. Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases when helmets were made to order for a soldier, the side plates could partially cover the ears of a legionnaire. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy. Batavian and Tungrian mercenaries fighting at Mons Graupius hit their British opponents in the face. Caesar recalled how the centurion Crastin was killed at the Battle of Pharsalus by a blow to the mouth with a sword.

4.3 Equipment weight

Apart from emotional tension during the battle, the legionary of the Augustan era had to carry a significant weight combat equipment. The armor "lorica segmentata" and the use of a curved rectangular "scutum" made it possible to reduce the weight of the equipment to 23 kg. On the march, the weight that the legionnaire had to carry increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, fit into leather bag with ropes and carried with the help of a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. Flavius ​​Josephus notes that, if necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for earthworks. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt, and a basket for carrying earth. Not surprisingly, Julius Caesar made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires on the march was not burdened with cargo and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.

The table shows the weight of the combat equipment that the legionnaire of the Augustan era had to carry. \

Equipment Approximate weight (in kg) Montefortino helmet 2 Mail 12 Crossed straps 1.2 Oval scutum 10 Gladius with scabbard 2.2 Dagger with scabbard 1.1 Pilum 3.8 Total 32.3

the ability of legionnaires to travel long distances with a load, and then immediately engage in battle, surprises modern scientists. For example, the six legions of Vitellius, who took part in the second battle of Cremona, marched 30 Roman miles (about 60 km) from Hostilia in one day and then fought all night. In the end, the fatigue of Vitellius's legionaries took their toll and they were defeated. The weariness of the soldiers often influenced the outcome of battles between Roman armies, which, as the second battle of Cremona shows, could go on for quite a long time. The heaviness of the armor and the energy that the legionnaire had to expend, acting with the "pilum", sword and shield, limited the duration of the battle, which was regularly interrupted for respite.

Chapter V. The strategy of the Roman legions

In the Roman army, tactics and strategy were of great importance, but these functions were only possible if the legionnaires were given time to prepare and undergo training.

The standard tactic of the Roman army (before the reform of Gaius Marius) was a simple onslaught. The use of pilums made it possible to smash the enemy with much greater ease. The first onslaught and attack could decide the outcome of the entire battle. Titus Livy and all other authors describing the consolidation of Rome on the Italian peninsula said that the enemies of Rome were in many ways similar in weapons to the Romans themselves. So, the most significant battle showing that tactics played a big role was the Battle of Cannae.

5.1 Battle of Cannae

August 2, 216 near the village of Cannes in southeastern Italy, near the confluence of the river. Aufid (Ofanto) in the Adriatic Sea, the largest battle of the 2nd Punic War took place. The number of the Roman army, according to some sources, was about 80 thousand infantry and 6 thousand horsemen, and according to others - 63 thousand infantry and 6 thousand cavalry, which was commanded by consul Gaius Terentius Varro that day. The Carthaginian army consisted of 40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry.

August the Roman army was commanded by Varro; he ordered the legions to withdraw from the camp and move towards the enemy. Aemilius was against these actions, but Varro did not pay attention to all his objections.

To meet the Romans, Hannibal moved his cavalry and lightly armed foot soldiers and unexpectedly attacked the Roman legions during the movement, causing confusion in their ranks. But then the Romans brought forward a force of heavily armed infantry, reinforced by javelin throwers and cavalry. The attack of the Carthaginians was repulsed, and they were forced to retreat. This success further strengthened Varro in his desire for a decisive battle. The next day, Aemilius could not safely withdraw the legions, being in direct contact with the enemy. Therefore, he encamped two-thirds of his forces on one bank of the Aufid River, and a third on the other bank, 2 km from the first camp; these troops were to threaten the Carthaginian foragers.

The Carthaginian army set up camp on the other side of the river, where the main forces of the Romans were located. Hannibal turned to his soldiers with a speech, which he ended with the words: “With the victory in this battle, you will immediately become the masters of the whole of Italy; this one battle will put an end to your current labors, and you will be the owners of all the wealth of the Romans, you will become the rulers and masters of the whole earth. why no more words are needed - deeds are needed.

The Carthaginian army then took to the field and formed up for battle. Aemilius strengthened his guard posts and did not move. The Carthaginians were forced to return to their camp. On August 2, as soon as the sun appeared, the Roman troops, on the orders of Varro, moved immediately from both camps and began to line up on the left bank of the river. Aufid front to the south. Varro placed the Roman cavalry near the river on the right wing; the infantry adjoined it in the same line, and the maniples were placed more closely than before, and the whole formation was given greater depth than breadth. The allied cavalry stood on the left wing. Ahead of the entire army, at some distance, were light detachments.

The battle formation of the Romans occupied about 2 km along the front. The troops were lined up in three lines of 12 ranks each, that is, in depth - 36 ranks. Legions and maniples were built at reduced intervals and distances; on the left flank lined up 4,000 cavalry under the command of Varro, on the right flank - 2,000 cavalry under the command of Aemilius. Eight thousand lightly armed infantry covered the battle formation. Ten thousand people left in the camp, Varro intended to attack during the battle on the camp of the Carthaginians. The reduction of intervals and distances and the increase in the depth of the formation of the Romans actually meant the rejection of the advantages of the manipulative order of the legions. The Roman army became a huge phalanx that could not maneuver on the battlefield. The battle order of the Carthaginian army was divided along the front: the worst troops were in the center, the wings consisted of selected infantry and cavalry units. Near the river, on the left flank against the Roman cavalry, Hannibal placed the cavalry of the Iberians and Celts, followed by half of the heavily armed Libyan infantry, followed by the infantry of the Iberians and Celts, and next to them the other half of the Libyans. The right flank was occupied by the Numidian cavalry. Having built the whole army in one straight line, Hannibal moved forward with the Iberians and Celts standing in the center; to them he joined the rest of the army in such a way that a crescent-shaped crescent-shaped line was obtained, gradually thinning towards the ends. By this he wanted to achieve that the Libyans would cover the fighters with themselves, and the Iberians and Celts would be the first to enter the battle. On his extreme right flank, Hannibal built the Numidian cavalry (2 thousand horsemen) under the command of Hanno, on the extreme left flank was located the heavy African cavalry (8 thousand horsemen) under the command of Gazdrubal, and in the path of the offensive of this cavalry there were only 2 thousand horsemen of poorly trained Roman cavalry. Next to the cavalry, on both flanks, there were 6,000 heavy African foot soldiers (Libyans), built in 16 lines. In the center, 10 ranks deep, stood 20 thousand Gauls and Iberians, whom Hannibal ordered to move forward. The center was built with a ledge forward. Here was Hannibal himself. Eight thousand lightly armed infantry covered the battle formation of the Carthaginian army, in front of it stood superior enemy forces.

The lightly armed infantry of both opponents, having started a battle, withdrew behind the disposition of their armies. Following this, the cavalry of the left flank of the Carthaginian battle order defeated the cavalry of the right flank of the Romans, went to the rear of their battle formation, attacked the cavalry of the left flank and scattered it. The Carthaginians drove the Roman cavalry from the battlefield. At the same time, an infantry battle was unfolding. The course of events on the battlefield created the prerequisites for the coverage of the flanks of the Roman army by the Carthaginian infantry, the completion of the encirclement of the Romans by cavalry and the destruction of the encircled Roman army. The battle order of the Carthaginians took on a concave enveloping shape. The Romans wedged into it, which facilitated the two-sided coverage of their battle formation. The rear ranks of the Romans were forced to turn to fight the Carthaginian cavalry, which, having defeated the Roman cavalry, attacked the Roman infantry. The Carthaginian army completed the encirclement of the Romans. The tight formation of the legions robbed them of their maneuverability. The Romans were lumped together. Only warriors of the outer ranks could fight. The numerical superiority of the Roman army lost its significance; inside this huge mass there was a crush, the warriors could not turn around. A terrible massacre of the Romans began.

As a result of the twelve-hour battle, the Romans lost 48,000 killed and about 10,000 captured. The losses of the Carthaginians killed reached 6 thousand people. Despite being completely surrounded, many of the Romans managed to escape; according to some reports, 14 thousand people were saved, but if we take into account the data on losses and the total number of the entire Roman army (86 thousand people), it turns out that 28 thousand people were saved.

What were the main mistakes of Varro - he abandoned the already established tactics (manipulative). The formation of the Romans was wide, but even for such a length, the depth was too great. For Varro, it was more reasonable to break the army into legions and disperse them over the area, giving them the opportunity, both for tactical maneuvering and for the ability to deliver a continuous strike from several sides. In addition, a reserve corps of 10,000 could inflict a flank or rear attack on Hannibal's army.

But Varro did not take into account any facts and decided to defeat the enemy with one frontal attack, which led him to defeat. Not taking into account the strong cavalry of Hannibal, he imprudently decided to move the army.

But still, in a similar situation, there was a chance to defeat Hannibal by using the triarii for a flank counterattack at the beginning of the battle. They could reinforce the horsemen standing on the flanks and repel the attacks of Hasdrubal and Hannon. After which the battle would change its course. But Varro did not take into account this option and lost. Thus ended the battle of Cannae - the complete defeat of the Romans.

5.2 Battle of Cynoscephalae

The second battle was the Battle of Cynoscephalae. The Battle of Cynoscephalae ranks in military history special place. Partly - because it was the first large-scale field battle of the Roman legions and the Macedonian phalanx, partly - because the fate of the Macedonian state was decided in it (Fig. 7).

Both sides in the winter of 197 BC prepared for battle on the Thessalian plain. The Romans sought to push the king north into Macedonia and isolate his garrisons in Greece. Philip, in turn, wanted to keep Thessaly and cover the Tempe passage to Macedonia.

Philip set out on a campaign in the morning, but because of the fog he decided to return to the camp. To cover from the Cynoscephalus, behind which the enemy could be, he sent ephedra - a guard detachment of no more than 1000 - 2000 people. The bulk of the troops, having set up guard posts, remained in the camp. A significant part of the soldiers was sent to collect fodder for the cavalry.

Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who also did not know about the movement of the enemy, decided to reconnoiter the situation on the ridge of hills separating him from the Macedonians. For this, extraordinaries were allocated - selected 10 allied cavalry troops (300 horsemen) and 1000 light infantrymen.

At the pass, the Romans suddenly saw the Macedonian outpost. The battle between them began with separate skirmishes, in which the velites were overturned and with losses retreated along the northern slope. Flamininus immediately sent to the pass under the command of 2 Roman tribunes 500 Aetolian horsemen Eupolemus and Archedamus and 1000 Aetolian foot soldiers. The crumpled Macedonians withdrew from the ridge to the tops of the hills and turned to the king for help. Philip sent the most mobile and maneuverable part of the army to the pass. The Macedonian cavalry of Leontes (1000 horsemen), the Thessalian cavalry of Heraclid (100 horsemen) and mercenaries under the command of Atenagoras entered the battle - 1500 Greek peltasts and lightly armed and, possibly, 2000 trawls. With these forces, the Macedonians overturned the Roman and Aetolian infantry and drove them down the slope, and the Aetolian cavalry, strong in loose battle, grappled with the Macedonians and Thessalians.

The messengers who arrived told Philip that the enemy was fleeing, unable to resist, and the opportunity simply could not be missed - this was his day and his happiness. Philip gathered his remaining troops. He himself led the right wing of the army to the ridge: the right wing of the phalanx (8000 phalangites), 2000 peltasts and 2000 Thracians. On the crest of the hills, the king reorganized the troops from the marching order, deploying to the left of the pass and occupying the height dominating the pass.

dissatisfied with the inevitability and suddenness of the battle, Titus lined up an army: on the flanks were detachments of cavalry and allied ala, in the center were the Roman legions. Ahead, 3800 velites lined up in loose formation for cover. He led the left wing of the army - to the right of the 2nd legion, to the left of the 2nd allied ala, in front of all the light infantry, the Aetolians, probably on the flank of the legion (a total of 6000 heavily armed, about 3800 velites and up to 4000 Aetolians), - stood in the center and led to the aid of the defeated Aetolians. The right wing, in front of which a line of elephants stood instead of velites, remained in place.

Flaminin, without taking the lightly armed behind the line of maniples, attacked the enemy. The Romans approached the Macedonians, who were beating the light infantry and the Aetolian cavalry, the velites threw pilums and began to cut with swords. The Romans were again outnumbered. Now about 8000 infantry and 700 horsemen fought against 3500 - 5500 infantry and 2000 horsemen. The ranks of the Macedonian and Thessalian cavalry and lightly armed, mixed in pursuit, could not withstand the blow and rolled back up under the protection of Philip.

The king doubled the depth of the phalanx and peltasts and closed their ranks to the right, making room for the deployment of the left flank rising to the crest. The right wing of the phalanx was lined up in 32 lines of 128 people. Philip stood at the head of the peltasts, the Thracians stood on the right flank, and the retreating lightly armed infantry and cavalry deployed even more to the right. On the left, the right wing of the phalanx was not covered by either the left wing of the phalanx (it followed in the march formation) or by the peltasts. The Macedonian army was ready for battle - 10,000 in the ranks, up to 7,000 in loose formation, 2,000 horsemen. Titus Quinctius Flamininus let the lightly armed infantry pass between the rows of maniples, reorganized the heavy infantry into a staggered order and led them on the attack - 6,000 in formation, up to 8,000 in loose formation, up to 700 horsemen. Philip commanded to lower the sarissa, and the phalanx bristled with the dagger-points of the sarissa.

The Romans, accustomed to overturning the barbarian phalanx with a hail of pilums, stumbled upon an impenetrable wall. 10 sarissas were sent to the chest of each legionnaire, which inflicted deep bleeding wounds, and the Romans fell on the rocky ground, wet from the rain, being unable even to cause damage to the Macedonians. And the phalanx went forward with an even step, the Macedonians stabbed forward with sarissas taken at the ready, and only a sudden resistance to the spear sent forward meant for the warrior of the fifth or sixth rank that he had hit the enemy. Rebuffed, the 2nd Legion and the Aetolian allies began to roll back. The Aetolians still tried to fight with the phalanx, but the demoralized Romans simply ran.

The battle was essentially lost by the Romans. King Philip advanced quickly. On the right flank of the rushing right wing of the Macedonians, there were peltasts put in order, lightly armed and mercenaries under the command of Athenagoras. Heraclids and Leontes, the best cavalry in the Balkans, were put in order there. Nicanor Elefas led the left flank of the phalanx to the crest of the hills, lowered it down and successively deployed it into the battle line.

In order to maintain the battle formations of the right wing, the Romans would have had to let the remnants of the 2nd legion pursued by the Macedonian cavalry past them and meet the blow of the rebuilt front of the phalangites, which, under the leadership of the king, had just defeated the enemy and to which the fresh left wing of the phalanx was attached.

Flaminin did not wait for the rout, but turned his horse and rode to the right wing, which alone could save the situation. And at that moment, the consul drew attention to the formation of the Macedonian army: the left wing, in marching order, crossed the crest of the hills in separate spares and began to descend from the pass in order to deploy in battle formation to the left of the pursuing fleeing king. There was no cover by cavalry and peltasts - they all marched on the right flank of Philip's successfully advancing right wing. Then Titus Quinctius Flamininus launched an attack that changed the course of the battle. He led the right wing, which stood aside from the battle, and moved the right wing (60 maniples - about 6000 heavily armed) to the left wing of the Macedonians that had risen to the ridge. Elephants were in front of the battle formation.

It was a turning point in the battle. The phalangites, built in marching order, did not have the opportunity to consistently turn the front towards the enemy on a narrow road and began to randomly retreat, without waiting for the blow of elephants and a hail of pilums. Nicanor Elephas either hoped to regain control on the crest of the hills when the phalanx broke away from the Romans, or succumbed to the general panic.

One of the tribunes held back 20 maniples and deployed them to the rear of Philip, who continued to pursue the defeated enemy. Since these maniples did not participate in the pursuit of the fugitives (even Roman discipline could not have recalled them), it must be assumed that they were in the 3rd line, and these were 10 maniples of triarii and 10 manipuli of principles or allied triarii - about 1200 in total - 1800 people (elite of the Roman legions). On the left flank of Philip, there was no cover - the left wing did not have time to attach itself, and the light infantry remained on the right flank. 20 maniples hit the flank of Philip's advancing right wing and stopped his advance. there was no cover on the left flank, and the Macedonians were in a difficult position. The commanders were either far ahead or in the middle of the formation, and could not get out. Uragi died in the first moments of the fight. It was very difficult to turn around in deep formation: aspises worn on the elbow and huge sarissas were useless in close combat and clung to equipment. The linen cotfib worn by the warriors of the back ranks did not protect well from the slashing blows of the wide gladius recently adopted by the legions. But even now the phalanx held on due to the density of the formation and heavy weapons, and the stopped phalangites, throwing sarissas that had become useless, fought off the Roman swordsmen attacking from the rear and flank with short xiphos. The left flank of the wing still retained the ability to spontaneous, unorganized rebuilding facing the enemy. However, the advance of the phalanxes stopped, and the Macedonian cavalry was never withdrawn from the crowd on the right flank to pursue. When the tribunes brought order to the 1st Legion, and the battle resumed from the front, the Falangists faltered and fled.

Flaminius announced 8,000 killed and 5,000 captured Macedonians - mostly from the phalanx. Roman losses were announced at 700; whether the Aetolians were included in this number is not clear.

Here the obvious military talent of Titus Flaminius is revealed. Realizing that he was losing, he did not try to throw the right wing at the phalangists, but turned to the left, unprepared wing of the phalanx. By sacrificing the left wing, he was able to defeat the enemy. When Philip got too involved in the fight, forgetting his duty as a commander, Flaminius opened him up, attacking the phalanx from behind.

5.3 Battle of Karrha

In June 53 BC near Carr there was a battle between the Romans under the leadership of Crassus and the Parthians under the command of Surena. The first were 7 legions and 4 thousand cavalry and light infantry each, the second - 10 thousand horse archers and 1 thousand cataphrates from the personal royal squad. Under the threat of attacks and shelling from all sides, mainly from the flanks, the Parthians forced the Romans to first line up in squares. The counterattack was organized by the son of Crassus, Publius, at the head of 8 cohorts, 3 thousand horsemen and 500 archers on foot. However, due to the false retreat of the Parthians, his detachment broke away from the main forces and was defeated in the forehead and at the same time engulfed from the flanks. Publius' cavalry were overwhelmed while the rest pinned down the infantry, after which it was finally attacked by the lancers. The head of Publius was sent to King Orodes II. The infantry of Crassus himself was extremely constrained by archery. The shooting was inaccurate, but very effective, as it was carried out on a dense mass. As a result, there were 4 thousand wounded with an unknown number of deaths. However, the Parthian cataphracts did not play a significant role under Carrah - the blow of heavily armed, armored horsemen disappeared in the stamina of the legionnaires. Having taken a blow to the shields, they were able to force the cataphracts to get stuck in the ranks, and only the retreat saved the combatants of the king of Parthia from death. But the climatic factor also played a role in the defeat of the Romans - the army of Crassus was mainly Italians, and in summer the heat in Mesopotamia reached 38 degrees. On the march with a load of more than 50 kg, with a lack of water, the soldiers quickly got tired.

The cataphracts withdrew, and the mounted arrows began to cover the Roman quadrangle from all sides. The Roman light infantry sent forward tried to push them back, but the Parthians, retreating a little, showered them with arrows and drove them back into the square. Following this, a hail of arrows hit the close ranks of the legions. The Romans were horrified to find that Parthian arrows pierced their armor. For some time there was hope that the supply of arrows would run out, and then it would be possible to impose hand-to-hand combat on the Parthians. But in reserve the Parthians had a full wagon train with five against the usual stock of arrows, time after time, when they ran out of arrows, the mounted arrows retreated, took a new supply and returned. Crassus decided to counterattack with the reserve in order to retreat to a more advantageous position under his cover. The son of Crassus Publius, with 1 thousand Gallic horsemen, 300 light infantrymen, 500 foot archers and 8 cohorts of heavy infantry, rushed to the Parthian archers. They began to retreat. But when Publius broke away from the main forces, the blow of the Parthians, supported by cataphracts, fell upon him from all sides. They were answered, the Gallic mercenary cavalry struck back. The spears of the Gauls could not penetrate the scaly armor of the cataphracts, but, converging in hand-to-hand combat, they threw riders off their horses, snatched spears from their hands, dismounted, dived under the armor of horses and ripped open their stomachs. In the battle, Publius was wounded and the Gauls, surrounding the commander, occupied one of the hills, but they were not allowed to retreat, surrounded and destroyed. Of the detachment of Gauls, five hundred people survived. Publius was killed, his head was shown to his father and the rest of the army. With darkness, the battle died down. Surena offered Crassus to surrender, promised him life and gave him a night to mourn the death of his son. During the night, Crassus lost his self-control, and with it his command of the troops. The council of war decided to leave the wounded behind and retreat under cover of darkness. The cavalry, learning of the decision, left immediately to avoid chaos during the night retreat. Passing by the city of Karra, she warned the sentries on the walls of the catastrophe and moved on to the border. Surena soon discovered that Crassus was hiding in Karrah with the remnants of the army. The Romans again decided to leave under the cover of night. Their guide, who was on the payroll of the Parthians, led the Roman column into the swamp. Confused Romans Surena, on behalf of his king, offered a truce. The Roman army began to put pressure on Crassus to accept this offer. Crassus went to negotiate, but was killed during them. They cut off his head and right hand. Part of the Roman troops surrendered, some managed to escape, many of the fugitives were caught and killed by local nomads. The Romans lost up to 20 thousand killed and up to 10 thousand captured. The sources do not mention the losses of the Parthians.

So, the mistakes of Crassus were simple and lay on the very surface.

He did not conduct any reconnaissance, conducting his campaign spontaneously without being guided by any data.

Crassus needed to delay his campaign for several months or one year, until intelligence and spies brought at least a fraction of information about the enemy. Carry out reconnaissance with small forces, checking the possibility of resisting the Roman cohorts to the enemy. Based on the results of reconnaissance in battle, draw conclusions and options for confronting the enemy cavalry. Then, relying on the features of the landscape and terrain, to force the Parthians into a general battle, when the cavalry would fall into pincers between several legions at once, to limit the Parthian cavalry in the ability to quickly retreat and maneuver. Break one of the armies and distract the rest by showing the wrong direction. After that, deliver a quick blow to the capital and if it provides an opportunity to take it, which would inevitably lead to the fall of the Parthian state (the ruler was absent at that time, and there was no chance to organize sufficient resistance)

Conclusion

The army played a very important role in Roman history. It shaped society itself, its entire inner strength and all innovations. Thanks to her, Rome went down in history, from a small city becoming a giant empire spread over the expanses of the Mediterranean coast.

Rome was strong social structure, but the legions that passed through the lands of Europe played an important role in preserving the memory of this empire. The legions created this empire with their own hands, seizing lands throughout the Mediterranean basin.

In our time, the device that the army of Rome had and to this day is considered the best and time-tested. The Roman army was perfect, it not only won easily, but, having been defeated, learned from its mistakes. An example of this is the Punic Wars and the victory of Scipio Africanus at Zama. Based on the mistakes of his predecessors (the defeats at Cannae, Trebia, Lake Trasimene), he was able, relying on the results and results of the first Punic War, to defeat the superior army of Hannibal. Rome, on the experience of countless battles, developed a universal battle tactics and chose the best weapons suitable for it.

The fleet of Rome, which became a force during the years of the Punic War, was the most powerful fleet in antiquity.

In addition, the legions were an army not only for wartime, during the years of peace, the legions were also engaged in important matters for the entire empire.

All this attracted a lot of interest to the Roman army, both on the part of contemporary neighbors and on the part of current researchers. Many of them sought to understand how everything was arranged and pass it on to their descendants with all possible accuracy.

And now we have at our disposal the immortal works of ancient authors who contributed to modern research dimensionless contribution. Our contemporaries, relying on all the same authors, strive for understanding, with all the possibility of recreating what is described. But all the information in the authors' works largely contradicts each other. And that is why there have been disputes about certain details for a long time. Therefore, the main method of producing new ideas in this section is the theoretical presentation and comprehension of the archaeological data already at the disposal of scientists, new finds and reports of the authors.

self study this section very interesting, because it allows you to recognize not just the features of the army, but the originality of the army that created with its strength and power greatest state ancient age that ever existed in that era. The history of Rome itself encourages you to learn as much as possible about the army, due to which this great state was created.

Bibliography

1.Akaemov K. Roman army - women in the ranks (II century BC) // historical magazine - 2006 - No. 2

2.Budanova V. The Romans in the barbarian lands and in their army // Newspaper History - 2002 - No. 41

3.Winkler P. fon. Illustrated history of weapons. M.: Eksmo, 2010. - 256 p.: ill.

.military history. Razin, 1-2 vols., Moscow, 1987

5.Gorkov S.Yu. The development of military art in naval battles The Second Punic War // Bulletin of the Moscow History of the Middle 8th History - 2003 - No. 5

6.Brief essay on Roman antiquities / Compiled by N. Sanchursky. SPb., 2nd ed. 2008

.Makhlaiuk A.V. Soldiers of the Roman Empire. "Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg State University", "Akra".

8.Makhlaiuk A. V The Roman Imperial Army in the context of social policy // Bulletin of ancient history - 2002 - No. 3

.Makhlayuk A. V. The role of the oratory of the commander in the ideology and practice of military affairs in ancient Rome // Bulletin of ancient history - 2004 - No. 1

.Makhlaiuk A.V. Military partnership and corporatism of the Roman imperial army// Bulletin of ancient history - 2005 - No. 1

.Makhlaiuk, A.V. Military clientele in late republican and early imperial Rome // Bulletin of ancient history. - B. m. - 2005. - No. 3.

12.Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. M., 1956.

.Mommsen T. History of Rome - V.1 - M.: 1999

14.On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

.Novichenkova N.G. Roman military equipment from the sanctuary at the Gurzuf saddle pass // Bulletin of ancient history - 1998 - No. 2

.Polybius. General history T.1,2. - M .: LLC "Publishing House AST",

17.Suetonius Gaius Tarquil. Life of the Twelve Caesars. M., 2008.

.Battles that changed the course of history - Saratov - 2005

.Tacitus Cornelius. Works. L.: 2009.

.Titus Livy. History of Rome from the founding of the city. V.1,2,3 - M.: "Nauka", 1989. Tokmakov V.N. The role of centuriate comitia in the development of the military organization of Rome of the Early Republic // Bulletin of ancient history - 2002 - No. 2

21.Electronic sources

22.#"center"> Appendix

Rice. 1. The construction of the heavily armed infantry of the Roman Legion according to G. Delbrück a-c. (a - building before the battle; b - rebuilding the maniples of each line before a collision with the enemy; c - starting position before the infantry collision) Reconstruction by P. Connolly.

Rice. 3 Ballistas.

Rice. 4. Scorpio.

Rice. 5. Onager (A - ship-based sea onager; B - standard small legionary onager, onagers used during sieges outnumber this one by 2-3 times)

Start of the battle:

Completion:

Rice. 6. Battle of Cannae

Rice. 7. Battle of Cynoscephalae.

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A selection of interesting and unexpected facts from the life of the legionnaires of Ancient Rome.

1.Age.
Traditionally, all male Roman citizens between the ages of 17 and 46 were liable for military service. Most soldiers were recruited into the legions between the ages of 17 and 23. The main age for joining the army was 20 years old, but there are cases when they got into the troops at the age of 13-14 or 36 years old.

2. Origin.
Speaking about their origin, most of the legionnaires called small towns or big cities. In fact, only a few of them came from urban centers. Most of the cities were trading centers of the agricultural district and had attached rural areas. Some parts of the Empire were largely unaffected by urbanization. In many cases, the origins given when joining the army were simply fictitious. It was received upon entry into the army along with Roman citizenship.
Peasant farmers formed the backbone of the civilian militias during the Republic period, and the countryside remained the main recruiting ground until the Late Empire period. Soldiers from the countryside were favored for their endurance and also because they were not spoiled by the amusements of city life.

3.Growth.
The height of six Roman feet (177 cm) was considered ideal for a legionnaire. Soldiers whose height was not less than 172 cm were selected for the first cohort. The I legion of Italic Nero became famous for two reasons. Firstly, because it consisted of Italian recruits, and secondly, because the soldiers included in it were at least six Roman feet tall. Noteworthy are the claims that soldiers who were shorter in stature were accepted into other legions.
The skeleton of a soldier who died in Pompeii in AD 79 showed that he was 170 cm tall, while a soldier from the fort at Velsen in Holland was 190 cm tall. He could be from Frisia. 4th century evidence AD they say that soldiers with a height of 165 cm were accepted into the elite units of the army. Consequently, for the rural population, from which recruits were recruited, this was the highest increase.

4. Military service.
Many legionnaires, if not most of them, were drafted into the army and were not always sufficiently prepared. The Dilectus (conscription) was necessary in connection with the frequent civil wars and conquests carried out under Augustus. The army preferred to accept volunteers, but over time, conscription became a common practice.
It was assumed that the legionnaire recruit was a Roman citizen, however, civil wars and aggressive policies led to the fact that the legions were scattered throughout the empire, which, in turn, forced commanders to recruit recruits locally. The only fundamental requirement for conscripts and volunteers when entry into the legions was their free birth, not Roman citizenship. Citizenship, on the other hand, could be granted either immediately upon entry into the army, or at some point during service.

5. Preparation.
For four grueling months, the legions' recruits were trained daily. Preparation began with the development of a military step.
Recruits were required to be able to walk 29 km at a regular pace and 35 km at an accelerated pace in five hours, moreover, they had to carry equipment weighing 20.5 kg.
If possible, they also tried to teach the recruits to swim, so that during the offensive the rivers would not be an insurmountable obstacle for them. Recruits were also taught archery, sling throwing, and horsemanship so they could handle any weapon.
When the recruit was already able to move on the march at the required speed and disassemble the commands given with the help of horns and banners, endless maneuvers began to develop these skills. Worked out various constructions: square, wedge, circle and “testudo” (“tortoise” - a mobile formation in which a group of soldiers was completely covered on all sides by shields).

6. They were taught to overcome obstacles during the offensive and retreat, change formation and replace certain units during the battle. Recruits were also taught to disperse the battle line, as this skill could come in handy in combat.
Weapons training used swords, darts and shields made of wood and rods, which weighed twice the weight of real weapons. Techniques with weapons were practiced on training poles 180 cm high.
The instructors focused on developing the ability to effectively hide behind a shield and inflict stabbing rather than chopping blows with a sword, since in this way the enemy could be inflicted deeper wounds.
Weapon training could be done twice a day.

7.Training continued after the recruit became a regular soldier. Every month, soldiers could make three forced marches with full gear.
At the end of each march, the soldiers had to build a fortified camp, surrounded by a moat and an earthen rampart. All this, together with the orderly internal structure of units, was the basis of Roman military practice.

8. The preparation of Roman soldiers before a military campaign and the daily practice of weapon handling techniques as they approached the combat zone were of decisive importance. At the same time, it must be taken into account that in peacetime many units were understaffed and their numbers did not meet the standard.
Many soldiers had to perform various duties throughout the province, manning garrisons and performing the functions of the police (“stationary”), taking part in the construction of various buildings, collecting taxes or carrying out instructions for the provincial administration.
Only in those cases when the legion was to take part in large-scale hostilities, most of the personnel gathered together, and the structural units began to practice the techniques that they were to perform in battle.

9.Service life.
In the 1st century BC, service in the legions lasted 6 years, but Augustus significantly increased this period.
Usually the most long term service in the legions in the II - III centuries. BC. reached the age of 16. In 13 BC this situation
was formalized: now the legionnaires had to serve for 16 years and at the end of this period receive
a large cash prize in order to avoid disputes related to land allotments. However, after serving 16 years, the soldier had to spend another four years in the corps of veterans of the legion - "vexillum veteranorum".

10. By 5-6 years. AD August increased the term of service to 20 years, but at the same time, the "militare premium" (payment upon demobilization) was also increased to 12 thousand sesterces (3 thousand denarii).
Extensive conquests in Central Europe, starting from 16 BC, led to the fact that soldiers were detained in the service much longer than the established periods.
By the middle of the 1st c. AD the legionnaires were set a service life of 25 years, and the military service of veterans began to be gradually reduced. Some legionnaires had to serve 26 years, because demobilization took place every two years and fell on "even" years.

11. Payment.
In 14 AD the annual salary of a legionnaire was 900 sesterces (225 denarii). The demobilization payment was about 12 thousand sesterces (3 thousand denarii).
Officers received one and a half or double pay ("sescuiplicari" and "duplicari"). The cost of equipment, clothing, food, funeral services was withheld from the salary.
In addition, a certain amount went to the "regimental savings bank", which was supervised by the "signifer". Salaries did not increase until the reign of Emperor Domitian (AD 81-96), and salaries, even after deductions, were never paid in full.
Demobilization payments were also not always paid, and soldiers could be tricked into giving them poor quality plots of land. "[The farms] they were given were often just swamps or rocky mountain slopes."

12. Command.
The Roman legion is often described as a trouble-free war machine. But the legion could only show itself well when the morale of the warriors was at the proper level. Legionnaires could panic and suffer defeat just like the soldiers of any other armies.
Legionnaires achieved great success with the able leadership of their officers. Caesar, Antony, Germanius, Caecina and Vespasian were commanders capable of leading by example and sharing the hardships and hardships of soldiering.
The centurions, distinguished by Caesar and mentioned by Josephus, were brave and steadfast officers, able to show their authority in crisis situations and extinguish panic among the personnel. But not all
the officers had sufficient confidence, courage and talent to skillfully lead the soldiers.
Many of them were cruel and corrupt. In the absence of fair leadership, the legionnaires acted haphazardly in battle, and they often showed a tendency to rebellion and rebellion.

13. A quarter of the soldiers of each centuria could be on vacation or wander around the camp doing nothing, paying the centurion for this.
No one cared how they got the money. In order to buy themselves a temporary exemption from military service, soldiers earned money by robbery on the roads, petty theft, or doing dirty work.
The richest soldiers could be specially given the most tedious work until they bought themselves the right to a respite.
Then, impoverished and demoralized from idleness, the soldier returned to his century, exchanging wealth for poverty, and energy for laziness. So, corrupted one by one from poverty and lack of discipline, they were ready to rebel, show disobedience and, in the end, take part in a civil war.
But Otho promised that the payment annual leave will be carried out at the expense of the imperial treasury. This was certainly a useful innovation, which later, under the wise emperors, became binding rule services."

14. Unit identification.
Legions were traditionally designated by numbers and names. From the middle of the 1st century. BC, when the term of the legions in combat readiness was increased, they began to be awarded honorary titles in addition to numbers.
Legionnaires were also identified by the numbers and names of their legions. Along with this, each legion had its own emblem, probably associated with its founder. For the III legion of Gallica, this was the bull of Caesar, for the XIIII legion of Geminus, the ibex of Augustus. Sometimes these emblems were associated with the legion's military merit.
So, the emblem of the V legion of Alaud was an elephant, and the X legion of Fretensis was a dolphin and a warship. The annual feast in honor of the founding of the legion ("natalis aquila" - the birthday of the eagle), parades and demonstration exercises were essential to maintain morale, since in peacetime this could be the only period when the entire unit gathered together.

15.Group identification.
What really made the legionary fight effectively was his sense of belonging to his centuria and, especially, to his "contubernium".
This unit identification and devotion to one's comrades-in-arms was crucial in battle. First of all, the legionnaire fought for his comrades, his century and legion, then for booty and glory, and, finally, for the emperor and Rome who were far away.
The close ties between the eight soldiers from the "contubernium" were all the stronger because they had to live together in the same barracks or in the same tent during the military campaign. Another convergence factor was general reception food. In the Roman army there were neither common meals for all the soldiers, nor common canteens located on the territory of the camp. During military campaigns, there was no organization of large food supplies.
Roman soldiers were supposed to cook their own meals and pay for their groceries with deductions from their salaries.

16. The legionnaires of the centuria fought effectively because they knew each other well and were friends. The Centuria was not such a large unit that they felt faceless and alienated.
Moreover, the legionnaires felt a sense of pride, identifying themselves with their centuria. Bound by ties of camaraderie, they tried to keep their friends from dying in battle by shielding them and fighting for them.

17. The terms "manipularis" or "commanipularis" (soldiers of one maniple) expressed the willingness of the centuries and individual legionnaires to rely on each other in order to win and stay alive in battle.
The most expressive term, often found in the inscriptions on gravestones, was the term "frater" (brother). The different names of the dead on such monuments indicate that they were not real brothers, but this term expressively and simply denoted the fundamental bond between comrades.
If a legion can be described as a society, then a "contubernium" was a family of legionnaires.

18. Soldiers preferred to die with their comrades than to surrender to the mercy of the enemy.
In wartime, the sense of brotherhood intensified, and the soldiers supported other units in the same way.
as well as their closest comrades.

19. Military oath.
The military oath - "sacramentum" - was pronounced by all Roman soldiers. This oath was religious significance and connected the soldier with the emperor and the state. It was repeated every year a day new year holiday. Vegetius presents a Christian version of this oath dating back to the 4th century. AD
“They swore by God, Christ and the Holy Spirit, as well as by the Majesty of the Emperor, who, after God, was to be the most beloved and revered by all people…”
These soldiers swore that they would steadily carry out all the orders of the emperor, never desert and would not refuse to die for the Roman state.
Prior to the introduction of the established official oath in 216 BC. Legionnaires were required to take two voluntary oaths.
The first oath was an obligation to obey the consul. In the second oath, the soldiers of the maniple promised each other not to leave their comrades in a difficult situation for the sake of saving their lives and never leave their place in the ranks during the battle, except when it is necessary to regain their weapons, attack the enemy or save a comrade.

20. Awards.
The highest award available to a legionnaire, regardless of his rank, was a civil wreath of oak leaves - "corona civica", which was awarded for saving a comrade in battle.
The most valuable manifestation of courage and selflessness in battle was to push the enemy back to save a fallen comrade. It was the highest manifestation of camaraderie, when the legionnaires fought for each other. This was the basis of the effectiveness of the Roman army.

21. Polybius notes that the Romans rewarded valiant soldiers with decorations (medals). They made sure that such soldiers were visible to their commanders on the battlefield and wore animal skins or combs and feathers for this.
Among the awards for valor that were awarded to legionnaires of all ranks were “torques” (neck hoops-hryvnias), “falers” (medals) worn on armor, and “armilla” (bracers-bracelets) made of precious metals.
In addition, legionnaires could be encouraged with cash bonuses and promotions. Awards in the form of wreaths, "spears" and "banners" were intended for centurions and officers of the highest rank.

22. Punishments.
Severe discipline was maintained in the legions. Cowardice in combat and disciplinary offenses such as sleeping on duty were punished by fustiarium (when a soldier was beaten to death by his comrades whose lives he endangered), scourging, or demotion.
If the entire unit showed cowardice in battle, then every tenth soldier of this unit was executed by lot. This punishment was used rarely and in the most extreme cases.
Other punishments were more symbolic. Their purpose was to shame the violators of discipline.
The violator could be put on a barley diet or excluded from general military life, placing him outside the military camp.
They could be stripped of their military belts (i.e. military rank) and forced to march in front of headquarters wearing heavy helmets and carrying heavy sticks or pieces of turf in their hands. These punishments could only be lifted when the soldier managed to rehabilitate himself in battle.

23. Courage and initiative.
Despite the emphasis placed on discipline and maintaining a cohesive formation in battle, the Roman army tolerated and sometimes even encouraged desperate courage and the exercise of personal initiative.

24. Probably, the soldiers could act independently or contrary to orders due to poor communication with commanders on the battlefield.
It is clear that such independent actions could greatly influence the outcome of the battle. During the siege of Gamala in 67 AD. three soldiers from the XV legion of Apollinaris, acting at their own peril and risk, managed to break five support stones from
the foundations of the corner tower and destroy it, ensuring the capture of the city by the Romans (Josephus Flavius. "Jewish War", 4, 63-66).
In the second battle of Cremona, two legionnaires of Emperor Flavius, hiding behind the shields of killed soldiers from the Vitellian XV legion of Primigenius, misled the soldiers of Vitellius and, approaching at close range, were able to disable a huge torsion catapult, which prevented the advance of the Flavians.
All these soldiers died while carrying out their operation. The commander Suetonius Paulinus argued that the outcome of a whole battle could sometimes depend on the actions of several legionnaires.

Conspiracy of Catiline
First Triumvirate
Civil War 49-45 BC e.
Second triumvirate

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, gasta and darts ( body), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without shell and scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - gasta and peak ( verum).

• offensive - spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)

• offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
• protective - iron mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - shell lorica segmentata (Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica), late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use from the 1st c. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the crupellari gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.

• offensive - "Pompeian" sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

A uniform

• paenula(a short woolen dark cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military.

build

Manipulative tactics

It is practically generally accepted that during the period of their rule, the Etruscans introduced the phalanx among the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and built a phalanx like Macedonian, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the first was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, quite simply, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal another's hen, touch another's sheep; let no one carry away a bunch of grapes, an ear of bread, do not demand oil, salt, firewood. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, honed, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him groom his horse and not sell its feed; let all the soldiers walk together behind the centurion mule. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the slanderers be beaten...

medical service

In various periods, there were 8 positions of military medical staff:

• medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinated to the prefect of the camp ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
• medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinarium), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Adrian;
• medicus duplicarius- a doctor on a double salary;
• medicus sesquiplicarius- doctor on one and a half salary;
• capsarius (deputy, eques capsariorum) - an equestrian orderly with a first-aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for the evacuation of the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes
• Roemercohorte Opladen (German)

The emperor ruled over the lands subject to him, appointing legates who had power. Legatus Augusti pro praetore (Legate of August propraetor) The commander of two or more legions. The imperial legate also served as governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were quartered. From the senatorial estate, the Imperial legate was appointed by the emperor himself and usually held office for 3 or 4 years. Each legate was the highest military and civil authority in his area. He commanded the troops stationed in his province and could not leave it before the expiration of his term of office. The provinces were divided into those where people were appointed before the consulate, and those where former consuls were appointed. The first category included provinces where there were no legions or there was only one legion. They were ruled by men in their forties who had already commanded legions. In the provinces that former consuls received, there were usually two to four legions, and the legates who got there were usually forty or under fifty. In the era of the empire, people received high posts relatively young.

Senior officers:

Legatus Legionis
Legion Commander. The emperor usually appointed the former tribune to this post for three or four years, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where the legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor. Where there were several legions, each of them had his own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribunus Laticlavius ​​(Tribunus Laticlavius)
This tribune to the legion was appointed by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and less experienced than the five military tribunes (Tribuni Angusticlavii), yet his office was second in seniority in the legion, immediately after the legate. The name of the office comes from the word "laticlava", which means two wide purple stripes on the tunic laid down for officials of senatorial rank.

Praefectus Castrorum (Camp Prefect)
Third highest post in the legion. It was usually occupied by a promoted veteran soldier who had previously held the post of one of the centurions.

Tribuni Angusticlavii (Tribunes of Angusticlavia)
Each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian class. Most often, these were professional soldiers who occupied high administrative posts in the legion, and during the hostilities they could, if necessary, command the legion. They relied on tunics with narrow purple stripes (angusticlava), hence the name of the position.

Middle Officers:

Primus Pilus (Primipil)
The highest-ranking centurion of the legion, heading the first double centuria. In the 1st-2nd centuries A.D. e. upon dismissal from military service, the primipil was enrolled in the estate of horsemen and could reach a high equestrian position in the civil service. The name literally means "first line". Due to the similarity of the words pilus (rank) and pilum (pilum, throwing spear), the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear." Primipil was by position an assistant to the commander of the legion. He was entrusted with the guard of the legionary eagle; he gave the signal for the march of the legion, and ordered the sound signals to be given to all the cohorts; on the march he was at the head of the army, in battle - on the right flank in the front row. His century consisted of 400 selected soldiers, the direct command of which was carried out by several commanders. lower rank. In order to rise to the rank of primipil, it was necessary (under the usual order of service) to go through all the centurion ranks, and usually this status was reached after 20 or more years of service, by the age of 40-50.

Centurio
Each legion had 59 centurions, centurion commanders. The centurions were the basis and backbone of the professional Roman army. They were professional warriors who lived everyday life their subordinate soldiers, and during the battle they commanded them. Usually this post was received by veteran soldiers, however, one could also become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or other high-ranking official. The cohorts were numbered from the first to the tenth, and the centuries within the cohorts - from the first to the sixth (there were only five centuries in the first cohort, but the first century was double) - thus, there were 58 centurions in the legion and primipils. The number of the centurion commanded by each centurion directly reflected his position in the legion, that is, the most high position occupied the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest - the centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".

junior officers:

Option
Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle in case of his injury. He was chosen by the centurion himself from among his soldiers.

Tesserarius (Tesserarius)
Assistant option. His duties included the organization of guards and the transfer of passwords to sentries.

Decurio
He commanded a detachment of cavalry from 10 to 30 horsemen in the legion.

Decanus(Dean)
The commander of 10 soldiers with whom he lived in the same tent.

Special Honorary Posts:

Aquilifer
An extremely important and prestigious post (the literal translation of the name is “carrying an eagle.” The loss of a symbol (“eagle”) was considered a terrible dishonor, after which the legion was disbanded. If the eagle could be repulsed or returned in another way, the legion was re-formed with the same name and number.

Signifer
Each centuria had a treasurer who was responsible for paying the salaries of the soldiers and keeping their savings. He also carried the battle badge of the centuria (Signum) - a spear shaft decorated with medallions. At the top of the shaft was a symbol, most often an eagle. Sometimes - an image of an open palm.

Imaginifer(Imaginifer)
In battle, he carried the image of the emperor (lat. imago), which served as a constant reminder of the loyalty of the troops to the head of the Roman Empire.

Vexillarius (Vexillarius)
In battle, he carried the standard (vexillum) of a certain infantry or cavalry unit of the Roman troops.

Immunes
Immuns were legionnaires who possessed special skills that gave them the right to receive increased salary, and freed them from labor and guard duty. Engineers, gunners, musicians, clerks, commissaries, weapons and drill instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical personnel, and military police were all immune. These men were fully trained legionnaires and were called to serve in the line of battle when needed.

Cornicen
Legion trumpeters who played on a copper horn - corn. They were next to the standard-bearer, giving commands to collect to the combat badge and conveying the orders of the commander to the soldiers with bugle signals.

Tubicen (Tubicen)
Trumpeters who played the "tuba", which was a copper or bronze pipe. The Tubicenes, who were under the legion of the legion, called on the soldiers to attack or trumpeted the retreat.

Bucinator
Trumpeters playing the bucine.

Evocatus
A soldier who served his term and retired, but returned to the service voluntarily at the invitation of the consul or other commander. Such volunteers enjoyed a particularly honorable position in the army, as experienced, seasoned soldiers. They were allocated to special detachments, most often consisting of the commander as his personal guards and especially trusted guards.

Duplicarius(Duplicarius)
A well-served ordinary legionnaire who received a double salary.

The core of the officer staff was the beneficiary, literally “beneficial”, because this position was considered a sinecure. Each officer had a beneficiary, but only senior officers, starting with the prefect of the camp, had a cornicular. The Cornicularius was in charge of the chancellery, which dealt with the endless stream of official documents characteristic of the Roman army. Documents in the army produced countless numbers. Many such documents written on papyrus have been found in the Middle East. From this mass, one can single out those that contain the results of a medical examination of recruits, directing recruits to units, duty schedules, daily password lists, lists of sentries at headquarters, records of departures, arrivals, lists of connections. Annual reports were sent to Rome, which indicated permanent and temporary appointments, losses, as well as the number of soldiers fit to continue service. There was a separate dossier for each soldier, where everything was recorded, from salary and savings to absences from the camp on errands. In the offices, of course, there were scribes and archivists (librarii). It is possible that many legionnaires were sent to the office of the governor of the province, where they acted as executioners (speculatores), interrogators (quaestionaries) and intelligence officers (frumentarii). From the legionnaires, an escort (singulares) was recruited. The hospital (valetudinarium) had its own staff headed by optio valetudinarii. The staff of the hospital included people who did dressings, and orderlies (capsarii and medici). There were specialist officers, doctors (also medici) and architecti. The latter served as surveyors, builders, sappers and commanders of siege weapons. "Architects", like "medics", were of different ranks, although they were all called the same.
In addition, the legion had many merchants and artisans: masons, carpenters, glassblowers and tilers. The legion possessed a large number of siege weapons, but the men assigned to them did not carry special ranks. The manufacture and repair of siege weapons was the work of the architect and his henchmen. And, finally, there were veterinary officers in the legion who took care of the animals.