Organization of the Roman army
The Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 cavalry, not counting the 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's line-up.
Consul Mark Claudius changed the order of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.
The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads.
Light infantry - velites(literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose storyu and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.
Hastati(from the Latin “gasta” - a spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles(first) - 120 people in the maniple. Second line. Triaria (third) - 60 people in the maniple. Third line. triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."
Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.
The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
At the very beginning of the application of the manipulative order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a break in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the place of the maniple from the second line was occupied by the maniple from the third line . During the fight with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.
Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort system of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.
Commanding staff of the Roman army
AT tsarist time the king was in command. In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right of a soldier for misdemeanors. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus spoke of one centurion, whom the whole army knew under the nickname: “Pass another!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii received big influence. They were invited to the military council.
As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, pipes, horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which a banner made of a single-color material hung. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (a wolf, an elephant, a horse, a boar…). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has been preserved to this day.
The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or a bronze one. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner until last drop blood. AT difficult moment the commander threw the banner into the thick of the enemies to induce the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.
The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. The standard-bearers were selected from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.
According to the description of Titus Livius, the banners were a square cloth, laced to a horizontal bar, mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.
Until the allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among Roman citizens.
Great importance attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the commissary service is the quaestor, who was in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each centuria had its own foragers. A special official, as a captain in modern army distributing food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave out salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, signal trumpeters.
All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. At the changing of the guard, they blew a fucina trumpet. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble troops general meeting gave all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.
Training in the Roman army
The training of the fighters of the Roman manipulative legion was primarily to learn the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into total weight. The execution of these maneuvers required more complex training than in the training of a warrior who fought in the phalanx.
The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.
The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced into the Roman army new system education, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like that. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 cavalry.
Discipline
The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.
The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquata, during reconnaissance without the order of the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with enthusiasm. However, the consul condemned him to death penalty. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.
Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fascia, fascines). AT war time an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's authority over his subordinates. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then they cut off their heads with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.
If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor infractions, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced salaries, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.
But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase salaries, rewarded with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award was given by the commander himself.
The usual awards were medals (falers) depicting the face of a god or a commander. Higher signs the differences were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden prows of ships, to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege from the city or fortress or liberated them. But the most high reward- triumph, - was given to the commander for outstanding victory, while at least 5000 enemies were to be killed.
The victor rode in a gilded chariot, robed in purple and embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four white horses. War booty was carried in front of the chariot and prisoners were led. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the victor. There were triumphal songs. Every now and then the cries of “Io!” and "Triumph!" (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurrah!”). The slave standing behind the victor on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and that he should not be arrogant.
For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, joking and laughing at his baldness.
Legion soldiers.
Velites
Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. Velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over the left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be anything except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or go barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus under Brundisium.
Centurion
Centurions had silver-plated helmets, had no shields and wore a sword with right side. They had greaves and how distinctive sign on the armor on the chest they had an image of a vine, folded into a ring. During the manipulative and cohort construction of the legions, the centurions were on the right flank of the centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.
Hastati
Hastati had a leather shell (it could have been linen), a shield, a sword and a pilum. The shell was sheathed (leather) with metal plates. The tunic is usually red, as is the cloak. Pants could be green, blue, gray.
Principles
The principes had exactly the same weapons as the hastati, only instead of a pilum they had ordinary spears.
triarii
The triarii were armed in the same way as the hastati and principes, but did not have a pilum, they had an ordinary spear. The shell was metal.
Rome turned in misfortune
To his last warriors:
"Your turn has come, triarii!"
Anyone who has not heard the phrase: "it came to the Triarii", knows nothing about military history Roman Empire. Legendary warriors, the key to almost any Roman victory, they inscribed their name in the chronicles of any states that faced the legions of the Eternal City on the battlefield. A real bastion of Roman courage and military skill! Despite the fact that there is a large number of sources of history ancient rome, the military component leaves many gaps and places for different kind assumptions.
Who were these triarii?! Almost any encyclopedia will give a standard answer: the veterans, who could afford the best weapons, occupied the third line of the Roman legion (hence the name), were abolished after the reform of Gaius Marius. However, it is worth considering that this assumption was made more by historical theorists than by military practitioners. Let's try to look from all points of view.
Guy Mariy
To begin with, let's deal with military reform Gaia Maria. His name is traditionally associated with the most important milestone in military history, the transition to a professional army. To make it clear even to an inexperienced reader, I will explain. Not only the armies of the Ancient World, but also in the Middle Ages, and partly even in the 18th century, the troops were recruited according to the principle "everyone pays for himself." That is, soldiers and officers did not receive their weapons or equipment in the warehouse, but bought them with their own money. Therefore, there was serious problem when a man in the same shirt with a spear and a fairly well-protected and armed warrior were forced to fight shoulder to shoulder.
While the neighboring villages are fighting, it does not matter. But when it comes to states, everything changes. The Romans did not escape this problem. As soon as their ambitions and capabilities became a little more, it became necessary to organize a motley armed crowd into a normal army. Such reforms were carried out by Servius Tullius, dividing all the citizens of Rome into certain categories, according to their well-being. From these categories, the army was to be completed. Although, in fact, it was then just an ordinary militia.
Servilius Tullius
Why is Servilius' reform so important? First, it defined different rights for categories of the population. Secondly, these rights had to be fought hard for. Thirdly, not everyone was supposed to fight, but only wealthy citizens who could enter the battlefield not with a kitchen knife, but with normal weapons, because a considerable monetary qualification was established for service. This reform made it possible to obtain an army of fairly well-armed soldiers. Today, military service seems to many an anachronism, if not idiocy. The famous "lost from life two years" (year). But in ancient world no one had heard of equality, every right had to be paid for and it had to be continuously defended!
A Roman legion appears... Three lines of heavy infantry that will glorify Rome through the ages. Hastati, principles and triarii. Hastati are fairly well-armed and protected warriors for that time. Principles are even more secure. And the elite-elites, the triarii. Other, “lighter” soldiers fought in the legions, such as rorarii and excise officers, but they could little affect the outcome of the battle, which led to their oblivion. From this moment the mysteries begin.
The classical version says: hastati are the youngest and poorest warriors who gradually saved up money for armaments and turned into principles. Having accumulated more, they became triarii. From the point of view of an ordinary historian, everything is logical. But such logic is deceptive. The salary of an ordinary legionnaire started from 75 asses (up to 300 for veterans), while the minimum qualification was equal to 11,500 asses, and the maximum reached 70,000. That is, even the great-great-grandson of a legionnaire would not have risen to cover the qualification, in the absence of all sorts of expenses! And the prices were high. Although the weapons did not differ too much, and the armor of the principle was unlikely to cost so much less than the armor of the triarii that the latter had to be saved for years.
From this it follows very important conclusion: three lines of heavy Roman infantry had not "monetary division", but "veteran". Otherwise, at least one source called the triarii rich, and the principes or hastati poor. But everywhere we see only one difference: young-experienced-veterans. This is very reasonable, from a military point of view of hand-to-hand combat. And given the initial financial condition of the Roman soldiers (qualification), it was hardly too burdensome for them to acquire greaves and an extra spear ...
The third line of the legion, the triarii, had a significant difference from the first two, it was armed with spears. If necessary ( historical sources), the triarii usually lined up in a phalanx, a dense formation of spearmen, which was extremely problematic to break through in those days. Having abandoned a continuous row of long copies of the Greek phalanx, the Romans also got rid of its important disadvantage - the lack of maneuverability. The triarii could adequately meet the attackers along the front and easily repel the flank attacks of the cavalry, which at that time was actually synonymous with defeat. It was almost impossible to rebuild an army in battle.
Theoretically, the military service in the Roman army was 20 years, but in fact, rarely did a legion disband after 5-6 years before Gnaeus Pompey. Why is that?! So school days we are used to seeing clear maps, where the boundaries of the state are clearly marked and dependent territories. Reality is far from this. The Roman Republic, even in fairly late time, this is just a union of several policies (city-states) of the Greek type, under the rule of Rome. Most conflicts do not require this time, let alone strong army, but also the military presence in general. The usual Roman army is about 20 thousand during the war, two legions to each consul. Rome could then put up about 200 thousand soldiers, according to the census, but this of course was not required.
And so many weapons simply did not exist in nature. Obviously, in Peaceful time Only the backbone of the legions remained. Those same veterans who "in civilian life" had nothing to do. Everything changed in the confrontation with Carthage. The Punic Wars demanded a huge amount of resources. Mostly human, experienced warriors. When people talk about the Roman legions, the imagination immediately draws huge barracks, where thousands of warriors are trained to march correctly, reorganize and beat with a sword. Of course, everything was different.
The training of recruits depended entirely on the specific commander and was composed of several factors.
1. Personal authority. Very important! It was he who strongly influenced everything else. Firstly, veterans and experienced officers were much more willing to go to a successful commander. Secondly, the process of “knocking out” significant expenses from the Senate was greatly simplified.
2. The presence of solid Money. Veterans were invited into the emerging legions for a separate fee, which was at least twice the usual salary. These expenses were often covered from the personal savings of the commander. At one time, Mark Crassus, not possessing special military talents and authority, literally bought thousands of veterans who provided him with victories over the army of gladiators, for example.
3. In the field camp, the actual training of recruits began. The higher the requirements of the commander, the longer the drill lasts, the more the soldiers can do. But it’s also not worth delaying either, because the enemy may already be leading fighting where troops are needed. Again, experienced veterans and officers come to the fore. The more there are, the faster training in progress army, the sooner she will be able to speak.
But with the outbreak of the Punic Wars with Carthage, the system began to give serious failures. The need for human reserves, due to large losses, has increased greatly. There was a need to recruit more large armies. The stratum of veterans turned out to be "smeared" over numerous units. Rome urgently needed military reforms. They began with a significant reduction in the qualification for military service, to 4,000 asses, which made it possible to recruit much more men for service. Subsequently, the military qualification was reduced to 1500. Apparently, the appearance of lightly armed velites in the Roman legions is connected with this factor. Their number often began to approach the number of heavy infantry.
Velit
Triarii veterans have become too valuable resource and often they began to be protected from participation in the battle. At the same time, their introduction into battle acquired colossal significance, capable of turning the whole course of the battle. Apparently, it is with this period of a certain decline in the military quality of the legions that such admiring reviews of contemporaries about the triarii are associated (although one must make allowances for literary exaggerations). Moreover, they are being actively used not just as a third line of defense or attack, solely as a cover for hastati and principles, but for maneuvering around the battlefield and independent strikes against the enemy. These changes are usually associated with the name of Scipio Africanus.
At the same time, there is a mention of cohorts in the legions (although it is believed that the cohorts appeared only after the reforms of Marius). The first formations in cohorts, instead of maniples, are attributed to the allies of the Italic Romans. Allegedly, this military innovation was borrowed from them. The usual Roman army during the Republic consisted of two legions of Romans and two legions of allies. But all historical sources unambiguously declare: the Roman system was the same for everyone! Transfer of Italian legionnaires (allies from other policies) to the category of some "auxiliary forces" or " separate formations) is not only unfounded, but also contradicts military concepts of warfare.
What is the difference between maniples and cohorts, and manipulative tactics from cohort? Maniple is military unit from 60 to 180 people. Cohort, from 300 to 600 fighters. The classical version says that with the reform of Gaius Marius, the same weapons appeared for all legionnaires, so the need for maniples disappeared and cohorts appeared. The statement is rather strange. Firstly, the transition to unified weapons could not affect the tactics of building a legion. Secondly, even after a millennium, the fallen warriors were stripped literally to the skin, iron was so valued. To provide tens of thousands of soldiers with uniform armor and weapons was a difficult task even in the Middle Ages, to say nothing of the Ancient World. Thirdly, the transition of the army to a new formation and weapons, even today, is delayed for long years, and then he simply had to take decades, if not step over the boundaries of the century!
Actually, this is exactly what we will see, it is worth abandoning classic version"instant transition". Cohorts begin to be mentioned around 200 BC. But even under Caesar, there are constructions with maniples, and this is about 150 years later! But then what is the reason for replacing maniples with cohorts? The answer is easy enough to find in military history. ALWAYS, we see the same thing: than more mass troops, the denser the system! Even 19th war centuries amaze with "stupid" marches of dense columns literally to the slaughter. But otherwise it is impossible to hold the attack large forces. Classic example: Battle of Isandlwana, between the British and the Zulus. The presence of the most advanced weapons, tactics, organization of troops at that time did not save the thin chain of British shooters from the melee onslaught of "savages" armed with clubs ... Now imagine that the line of maniples is attacked by numerous enemies armed no worse than legionnaires. No triarii and rebuilding will save!
From this follows the simplest military solution - to increase the concentration of their soldiers on a conditional square meter fight. In this case, the system is much more likely to withstand the onslaught and will enable the commander to show his talents. This tactic is still relevant today. But given that such a formation was new even for veterans, it is easy to understand why, in cases where the enemy used relatively small forces, the Romans returned to manipulative tactics for a very long time, because it also has its undoubted advantages compared to the cohort. got involved in hand-to-hand combat the cohort cannot be divided into separate units, this is a kind of utopia of amateurs " military tactics". Even if there are only 300 enemies against 500 legionnaires. The fighting warriors are mixed, there is no connection, to collect at least a decuria (a Roman unit of 10 people) in the heat of battle seems too unrealistic. At the same time, if you have more than one unit in battle, but only two out of five, then it is quite possible to use the remaining three for a detour or repulse a flank attack.
In this regard, it is extremely doubtful that the triarii quickly disappeared from the Roman army. During allied war Romans with other Italics (91-88 BC), triarii are still mentioned in descriptions of battles. Although more and more often their name is being replaced by the usual "veterans". But they were triarii not because they were used when using manipulative tactics, but because they were in the third line of the legion! There were no fundamental changes in the structures of the legions. The military reforms of Gaius Marius rather consolidated de jure what had long existed de facto, but did not automatically extend the new provisions to all Roman army. All his real contribution to the "formation of a professional army" consisted in the recruitment of literally a few thousand soldiers from the lower strata of Roman society. The experience was pretty bad. Legionnaires began to receive weapons at the expense of the state even under the Gracchi brothers. New order movements when the soldiers carry most put on yourself, also not "reform". The famous "mules of Mary" are only the focus of attention of historians. There were exactly the same "mules of Scipio" and "mules of Sulla" ...
Bas-relief from the "Column of Trajan"
Most likely, the final disappearance of the triarii from the legion is associated with the names of Gnaeus Pompey and Julius Caesar. Their contribution to the real reformation of the Roman army is much more impressive.
Pompey and Caesar
Pompey the Great first began the formation of legions on permanent basis, that is, they did not dissolve after the war, as it was before him. Thus it was decided constant problem with highly paid veterans who have become either ordinary legionnaires or a relatively tiny layer of evocates, over-enlisted. It was a solid financial savings, due to which Caesar increased the salaries of legionnaires and raised the prestige of military service, as well as massive distributions of land. In addition, the most talented commander abandoned many patterns in the art of war, and the position of the dictator made it possible to introduce new approach throughout the Roman army. Although war machine Rome for a long time "creaked" various military anachronisms. Only the era of Octavian Augustus can be considered the final stage of military reforms.
Octavian August
The formidable warriors of the “third line of defense” have disappeared from history forever. But the very name of the triarii has become a household name, which says a lot. At all times, any commander had with him the "last battalion", consisting of selected veterans. They held out at Thermopylae and at Poitiers, stormed the Devil's Bridge and died at La Haye Sainte, broke through the Maginot Line and took Koenigsberg, stood to the last in the Ya Drang valley and at an altitude of 776. In the military history of any country there were their "triarii" . But they began their march in the eternal city, heavy tread of the Roman legion ...
In the fourth century BC: Rome was almost completely sacked by the Gauls. This seriously undermined his authority in central Italy. But this event entailed an almost complete reorganization of the army. It is believed that the hero Flavius Camillus was the author of the reforms, but many historians agree that the reforms were adopted centrally throughout the fourth century BC.
The original legions
Abandoning the phalanx, the Romans introduced a new battle formation. Now the soldiers were lined up in three lines. The hastati, who were second-class spearmen in the previous formation, the phalanxes, stood in front. Young people dressed in armor and carrying a rectangular shield, the scutum, were recruited there, which remained in service with the Roman legionaries throughout. The hastati were armed with two 1.2-meter darts (pilums) and a traditional short sword, the gladius/gladius. Each maniple of hastati included lightly armed warriors. In the phalanx system, they were assigned to the fourth and fifth classes.
While the hastati and principes were fighting, the triarii knelt on their right knees, tilted their spears forward and covered themselves with shields on the left so as to protect themselves from enemy projectiles. They only went into battle if both the hastati and the principes were defeated.
Soldiers, formerly assigned to the first class, were divided into two types: principes and triarii. Together they formed heavy infantry, the Hastati being the first to engage in battle. If they began to be crushed, they could retreat between the ranks of the heavy infantry of the principles and regroup for a counterattack. Behind the principes, at some distance, were the triarii, who, when the heavy infantry retreated, came forward and brought confusion into the ranks of the enemies. sudden appearance, thereby giving the principles a chance to readjust. The triarii were usually the last line of defense, which, in the event of an unsuccessful outcome of the battle, covered the retreating hastati and principes.
The armament of the legionnaires has undergone significant changes. Bronze helmets did not offer good protection against barbarian longswords, and the Romans replaced them with iron helmets with a polished surface on which the swords slipped (although later bronze helmets were reintroduced).
Also, the adoption of the scutum - a large rectangular shield - greatly affected the effectiveness of the legionnaires.
AT early III century-BC the Roman legions proved to be excellent in battles against well-trained Macedonian phalanxes and war elephants. In the same century, the First Carthaginian War hardened the Roman legions even further, and by the end of the century the legions had thwarted the attempt of the Gauls to march south from the Po Valley, proving to everyone that the Roman legions were no match for the barbarians who ravaged their city.
At the beginning of the Second Punic War, the historian Polubius writes that Rome had the largest and most the best army in the Mediterranean, 6 legions of 32,000 infantry and 1,600 cavalry, together with 30,000 allied infantry and 2,000 cavalry. And that's just regular army. If Rome announced the collection of allied troops, then she could count on 340,000 infantry and 37,000 cavalry.
Scipio's reform
One of the people who made huge contribution and the prosperity and survival of Rome was Scipio Africanus. He was present at the defeat at Trebbia and Cannae, from where he learned the lesson that the Roman army urgently needed to change tactics. At the age of 25, he became the commander of the troops in Spain and began to train them more intensively. Undoubtedly the Roman legionnaires were the best warriors of that time, but they needed to be prepared for the tactical tricks that Hannibal used on the battlefield. Scipio walked along the right way and his victory over the troops of Hannibal at Zama, fully proved this.
Scipio's reform radically changed the concept of the legions. Now the ode relied on tactical superiority, and not on physical strength legionnaires. From that time on, Roman soldiers went into battle led by smart officers who tried to outmaneuver the enemy rather than just line up and march on the enemy.
In the second century BC. the formation of the legions has changed slightly. The soldiers used the gladius, also known as the "Spanish sword". The iron helmets were again replaced by bronze ones, but made of a thicker layer of metal. Each maniple was commanded by 2 centurions, with the first centurion commanding the right side of the maniple, and the second the left side.
As Rome conquered the east, all more people was involved in production, and lifelong service in the army became unacceptable. Rome could no longer rely on a steady stream of legionnaires from the villages in the provinces. Military service in Spain caused discontent among the civilian population, and led to a series of local wars and uprisings. human losses, injuries and low inflow of money into the treasury forced to reconsider the time-tested method of conscription into the army. In 152 BC. It was decided to draft citizens into the army by lottery for a period of not more than 6 years of service.
The use of allied troops became more active. In 133 BC, Scipio took Numantia, two-thirds of his troops were Iberian detachments. In the east, during the Battle of Pydna, which ended the Third Macedonian War, the allied forces of Rome, using war elephants, defeated the left flank of the Perseus army, thereby giving the legionnaires the opportunity to approach the Macedonian phalanx from the phalanx and disrupt its ranks.
2 - so the last row could close the gaps - moving forward the back centuries.
Reform Maria
It is Mary who is credited with the complete reform of the army, although he structured and introduced finishing touches into a process that started much earlier. Rome in general, and the Roman army in particular, has always resisted rapid reforms, considering gradual change acceptable. Gaius Grace's reform consisted in the fact that legionnaires were given equipment at the expense of the state and it was forbidden to draft into the army persons under the age of seventeen.
Mariy, on the other hand, made the army accessible to everyone, even to the poorest, the main thing is that they have a desire to serve. They signed up for the army, for a service life of more than 6 years. For these people military service in the army became a profession, an opportunity to make a career, and not just a return of debt to Rome. Thus, Marius became the first ruler in Roman history to create a professional army. Mariy also offered special benefits for veterans, and thereby attracted them to the service. Exactly new army Mary saved Italy from a massive barbarian invasion by first defeating the Germans and then defeating the Cimbrians.
Marius also changed the design of the pilum, replacing the metal shaft with a wooden one. It broke on impact and could not be thrown back (as mentioned earlier, the point of the pilum was bent on impact, but it was very difficult to make a metal tip that deformed and at the same time caused significant damage).
Mariy began distributing land to legionnaires after demobilization - giving guarantees to veterans, for the so-called pension, at the end of their service life.
The changes also affected order of battle legion. Lines of battle order were abolished, depending on the weapons. Now all the soldiers had the same equipment. Cohort tactics were actively used.
By the way, cohorts appeared under Scipius Africanus, so it’s hard to say whether this was the merit of Mary. Although no one denies that the cohort tactics became dominant in the army of Marius, due to the fact that the boundary between the classes was erased, because. all warriors were armed equally.
"Classic Legion"
Under the rule of Julius Caesar, the army became highly efficient, professional, highly trained, and remarkably well-managed.
On the march, the legion relied only on its own supplies. To set up camp each night, each soldier carried tools and two poles. In addition to this, he carried his armor, bowler hat, camp rations, clothing and personal effects. Because of this, the legionnaires received the nickname "Mule Maria".
Disputes do not stop about how much reality the legionnaire carried. In the modern army, a fighter carries 30 kg on himself. According to calculations, including all the equipment and the 16-day ration of a legionnaire, it turns out that one soldier carried 41 kg. Legionnaires carried dry rations with them, which, based on the rate of iron consumption by a soldier, provided him for 3 days. The weight of the ration was 3 kilograms. For comparison, before the soldiers carried with them a grain ration weighing 11 kg.
During the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great, the infantry remained the main military force Roman army. With the introduction of regular cavalry, Constantine abolished the post of prefect of the Praetorians and introduced two new posts in its place: commander of the infantry and commander of the cavalry.
The growth in the importance of cavalry is due to two main reasons. Many barbarian tribes avoided open invasion, but simply limited themselves to raids. The infantry was simply not fast enough to intercept the barbarian troops.
Another reason was that the superiority of the Roman legion over any rival was no longer as clear as before. Barbarians have learned a lot over the past centuries. Thousands of Germans served as mercenaries and adopted the experience of Roman military leaders and applied it upon returning home. The Roman army had to adopt new tactical solutions and provide reliable support for heavy infantry with the help of cavalry. During the period from the third to the fourth century, the Roman army hastily increased the number of cavalry when a catastrophe occurred at the end of this period. In 378 AD heavy gothic cavalry destroyed completely eastern army led by Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople. Now no one had any doubts that heavy cavalry was capable of defeating heavy infantry...
The battle formation of the legion consisted of three lines of hastati, principes and triarii, in front of the chain were velites, and the flanks were covered by cavalry. A distance of 100 meters was maintained between the lines. In the consular army, the four legions could be built in different ways. In the center, the Roman legions could be located, and on the flanks - the legions of the allies, while the cavalry of the legions was united. Roman and allied legions could also alternate.
Each line was divided into maniples, between the maniples there was a distance sufficient for the passage of another maniple. Maniples of principles were built just against these gaps. In turn, the maniples of the triarii were built in the back of the head of the hastati, forming the famous Roman "chess" battle formation. The ranks in each maniple were built freely, the soldiers stood at a distance of two meters from each other. Moreover, in the construction of the maniple, a chess order was also observed, each subsequent line was shifted relative to the previous one. The depth of the maniple system depended on many reasons and could vary in the range from 6 to 12 ranks, with the usual 8-10 ranks. Large intervals between legionnaires were required in order to make it more convenient to throw pilum spears, and later to operate with a sword. If necessary, it was possible to close the ranks by pushing the second rank into the gaps between the soldiers of the first. A tight formation helped to better defend against arrows and stones, and also better kept the enemy’s swift attack. Free formation allowed tired legionnaires to retreat back, giving way to fresh fighters from the back rows. In the thick of the battle, only stabbing blows could be delivered with a sword, since there was not enough room for a swing of the arm and active actions with the shield.
The main weapons of the legionnaires were pilum spears of two types. A light spear was used as a throwing weapon, throwing it at the enemy from a distance of 30 meters. The light pilum was about 3 m long, of which half was on the metal tip. Throwing spears were armed with principes and hastati. The spears of the triarii were heavy and were about 4 meters long. The velites used light, short javelins, and the riders were armed with Greek spears with tips at both ends of the shaft, which allowed the use of a spear after one end was cut off by the enemy. All legionnaires carried a short iron sword about 60 cm long and 5 cm wide with a double-edged blade. The sword was worn on the right side in a sheath in the Greek manner.
Pilum spears were the most important weapon. When approaching, they were thrown at the enemy: first light, then heavy. Even if the enemy warrior protected himself from the spear with a shield, then later he had to throw the shield due to the fact that the pilum was very difficult to pull out. The velites, throwing darts and stones at the enemy, retreated through the gaps in the first line, and, depending on the situation, either joined the triarii or moved to the flanks.
Anyone who was seriously interested in the tactics of the Roman legion, or who played war games, was faced with the question: what to do with the gaps between the maniples? Throwing pilums, the hastati could only hit the opponents directly in front of them, while the enemy soldiers, who were against the gaps, could break deep into the formation and attack each maniple from the flanks. Some attribute this misunderstanding to the fact that the maniples of principles quickly advanced into the gaps, forming solid line. But this explanation raises two objections. First, as a result, the order of the legion degenerated into a phalanx. Secondly, why in this case not build up the phalanx from the very beginning, in order to avoid any risk of breaking the formation, and also in order to double the number of warriors who showered the enemy with spears at the moment of approach. ancient sources they constantly say that the construction of the legion made it possible to constantly rotate soldiers, pushing fresh warriors forward. How did this happen in practice?
The fact is that the maniple consisted of two centuries, built one after the other. Thus, before contact with the enemy, each line had gaps through which it was possible to pass the retreating soldiers (or in the case of a battle at the Zama of the enemy’s elephants), after which the second centuria of each maniple closed the window, forming a solid line. It was precisely because of this circumstance that the battle formation of the Romans was particularly flexible and at the same time maintained stability.
If the hastati could not immediately break through the enemy's formation or put him to flight, they retreated through the gaps between the maniples of the second line, after which the principles closed the formation. If necessary, the principles could also repeat this maneuver as the hastati. But this happened very rarely. The Roman proverb "the battle reached the Triarii" meant an unusually difficult situation. As a rule, the triarii acted as a reserve. They sat on the grass on one knee, shielding themselves from the front and pointing their spear in the direction of the enemy. The task of the triarii was to hold back the enemy while the two retreating lines rebuilt behind them. If necessary, the triarii could be transferred to the flank, or, as in the case of the battle of Cannae, they were simply left to guard the camp, considering their presence on the battlefield unnecessary. It was this circumstance that largely determined the defeat of the Romans, since they could not retreat in an organized manner without a third line.
On the march, a fifth of the allied infantry and a third of the allied cavalry were allocated to carry out special tasks. These warriors were called extraordinarii. Part of the extraordinary formed the avant-garde. The marching formation of the consular army was as follows: behind the vanguard moved the right-flank allied legion, the allied convoy, covered by the allied cavalry, the Roman legion, the Roman convoy, covered by the Roman cavalry, the second Roman legion and the left-flank allied legion. The rest of the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. In fact, the marching formation repeated battle formation, but folded into a column. The legions marched in three parallel columns corresponding to battle lines. The convoy filled the gaps between the columns, so the army could quickly prepare for battle.
From 282 BC The Romans began to actively use siege weapons: rams, ballistas and catapults. As a rule, heavy ballistae and catapults were treated as light in a ratio of 1:6.
This drawing was recreated from figures from the altar of Ahenobarbus and the monument of Eimlius Paullus erected at Delphi to commemorate the victory at Pydna (168 BC). We know that before the Punic Wars, Roman legionaries wore small metal plates on their chests, which continued to be used well into the time of Polybius. But by the beginning of the 1st Punic War all legionnaires, with the exception of the velites, received chain mail. According to the testimony of the same Polybius, the legionnaires wore a knife on their left leg.
2. Roman hast
Worn over chain mail, the mail mantle had a leather base that gave the structure its shape. The mantle was shaped like the letter U. At the back, the mantle was rigidly attached to chain mail, and the ends hanging forward were connected with a belt. By design, Roman chain mail undoubtedly looked like a Greek canvas shell. The mass of chain mail was 20-25 pounds (in the Roman pound 327.5 g.). Montefortino-type helmet was mass-produced in Rome and was quite Low quality. The pilum is depicted according to the samples that have survived to us. The junction of the tip with the shaft is reinforced with an overlay, which additionally balances the spear.
3. Roman order
Light infantry was recruited from the poorest Roman citizens. Velites did not have any armor, relying only on the shield and their evasiveness. Some velites may have had a simple leather or bronze helmet. The dart has a length of about 1.7 m.
