Basic questions of economics.

1.What to produce?

Society cannot produce all the desired goods and services in unlimited quantities. Therefore, it is necessary to solve the problem of distribution of limited resources between the necessary goods. In other words, an increase in the production of one good is possible while reducing the other.

2.How to produce?

The same product can be produced using different combinations of inputs. New technologies are saving in relation to labor, raw materials, energy and other types of resources. Society faces a choice not only of technology, but also of the most optimal organizational forms production.

3. Who is the product for?

The problem of distribution of the social product is one of the decisive ones. The economic dynamism of this system depends on the solution method. social stability. For what segments of the population to produce these goods? Who will get them first? How to distribute production goods and services?

Needs- is the need for some good having utility for specific person. economic science explores social needs.

· public needs- these are the needs that arise in the process of development of society as a whole, its individual members, socio-economic groups of the population. Social needs include production needs, needs for public administration, in ensuring the constitutional guarantees of society, the need for protection, environment, defense, etc.

· Primary Needs- these are the needs for means of subsistence that cannot be replaced by anything (food, air, water, clothing).

· material needs can be expressed in concrete terms.

· Production needs- these are the needs of production in raw materials, materials, equipment.

· Real Needs are needs that can be met given level production.

· Personal and family needs These are the needs of an individual or family.

· Secondary needs- these are needs that can be replaced, and which arise in the process of human development (learning, communication, medicine, decoration, car.)

· spiritual needs(aesthetic knowledge, communication).

· Non-production needs These are people's needs for commodities.

· Absolute Needs These are needs that can only be met in the future.

public needs- these are the needs of the whole society in the areas of production, defense, security of citizens, etc.

Factors that form needs.

1) national, cultural and religious

2) the biological nature of man

3) natural and climatic conditions

4) the spiritual world of man

5) socio-economic conditions of life

6) the level of development of production (scientific and technological progress)

The means of satisfying needs is good.

4. The concept and classification of goods. Limited economic resources.

Good- this is everything that contains a certain positive meaning: an object, a phenomenon, a product of labor that satisfies a certain human need and meets the interests, goals, aspirations of people. Goods classification

- According to the sources of occurrence, they distinguish:

a) economic benefits are the result economic activity human (limited)

b) non-economic benefits (air, water, people consume not in limited quantities).

- by the role of production arise:

a) consumer goods(food, shelter, clothing, Appliances)

b) production goods (equipment, raw materials, materials)

- according to their role in consumption, they distinguish:

a) basic necessities (medicine, housing, food, hygiene products)

b) non-essential items (phone, jewelry, etc.)

- according to the duration of use, they are distinguished:

a) long-term use (apartments, cars)

b) disposable (food, raw materials, materials, etc.)

- according to the nature of satisfaction of needs:

a) fungible goods (telephone, bicycle, tea, coffee)

b) complementary goods (blackboard, chalk, tea, sugar, etc.)

- taking into account the time factor, they are divided:

a) real good

b) future blessings

- depending on the number of consumers:

a) private goods, the benefits of which are used only by a certain consumer.

b) public goods, goods that benefit all members of society (playgrounds).

All resources are divided into 4 main groups:

1) natural resources (all resources that nature gives (water, gas))

exhaustible and inexhaustible:

restored (forest, animal world, air) and non-recoverable ( ozone layer)

2) material resources (created by human labor (structures, etc.))

3) labor resources (includes working-age population)

4) financial resources (actually allocated cash to the organization of production.)

Needs - a lack (need) for something that is objectively necessary for the maintenance of life and the development of a person (individual), social group, firms, societies. In the economy, needs act as internal drivers of active economic activity.

Human needs are boundless, varied, impermanent; they can be classified according to the following criteria.

1. By subjects (bearers of needs):

a) satisfied individually (in person);

b) satisfied collectively (group, collective, society).

2. By objects (objects to which they are directed):

a) material needs; b) spiritual needs; c) ethical needs(relating to morality); d) aesthetic needs (concerning art).

3. According to the degree of satisfaction of needs:

a) Final Needs- these are the needs of the person himself, i.e. these are personal needs. Goods that satisfy final needs are called "commodities". These include food, clothing, shoes, etc.

b) Intermediate needs indirectly related to humans. These are the needs of business entities. Their satisfaction serves to create new goods. Therefore, these needs are considered production needs, and the goods that satisfy them are the means of production (machines, equipment, machines, buildings, etc.) ..

4. By origin:

a ) Primary Needs are physiological in nature, usually congenital; these are vital needs, the satisfaction of which is necessary to save human life (needs for food, clothing, footwear, housing, water, air, etc.).

b) Secondary needs psychological in nature (needs for success, power, respect, leisure needs: cinema, theater, sports, etc.).

Economic Needs- that part of human needs, the satisfaction of which requires the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services. Economic needs actively influence production, they are a prerequisite, an internal motive and a specific guideline for creative activity.

According to Russian economists, economic needs can be conditionally divided into 3 groups.

1. Material (physiological):

a) essential needs (food, clothing, housing, health);

b) luxury items ( french perfume, yacht, aircraft, etc.).

2. Spiritual, intellectual (education, art).

3. Social (needs for work, participation in management, etc.).

The Law of Elevation of Needs states: the dynamics of diverse needs is constantly growing in quantitative ratio, but still more changes qualitatively. Range of needs modern man extremely diverse, especially since human needs include not only individual needs, but also the needs of the family, social group, labor collective, population, state. The number of types of goods, goods, services that people need is in the millions, however, their circle is constantly expanding.

TOPIC 2: COMMON PROBLEMS OF ALL ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

hours

CONTENT
1.	The needs of society economic resources and the problem of choice
1.1.
1.2.	Economic resources, their types
1.3.	The problem of choice in economics
2.	Economic efficiency enterprise and economic system
3.	Production possibilities of society and their border
4.	The principle of substitution in economics full time. opportunity cost
5.	The economic growth and its reflection on the production possibilities curve
6.	Current Alternatives and Future Opportunities of Society
	Tests
	Tasks

Society's Needs, Economic Resources, and the Problem of Choice

The needs of society and their forms

The most important task and development goal of any economic system is to meet the needs of society. result production process is the creation of tangible and intangible goods that satisfy the needs of both individual person as well as the whole society. Let us consider in more detail the content of such categories as good and need.

Good Any means, both tangible and intangible, capable of satisfying needs. In a market economy Benefits are goods and services. It is necessary to distinguish between higher and lower goods, or direct and indirect goods.

boons higher order or direct benefits directly meet people's needs. Goods of a higher order include commodities (cars, furniture, clothing, food). Inferior Goods or Indirect Goods satisfy the needs of society indirectly. To the benefits of the second order - the means of production (machines, equipment, units, tools).

Services also contribute to the satisfaction of needs. Service Any activity or benefit that is essentially intangible and does not result in ownership of anything. Distinguish between material (transport, communications, trade, housing and consumer services) and intangible services (health, education, scientific services, art).

Good is a means to satisfy needs. Need - this is the need for something necessary or the lack of something necessary to maintain a person’s life, develop his personality and society as a whole. A need can be characterized as a state of dissatisfaction that can be overcome through the use of certain goods (goods and services). Human needs, total human society varied and classified according to many characteristics. Needs can be physiological (the need for food, warmth, security), social (the need for communication, respect), etc. Economists study the economic needs of a person, which can also be classified according to a number of criteria. For example, distinguish between primary and secondary needs. The first includes needs that satisfy the vital needs of a person (the need for food, clothing, housing). The second includes all other needs (need for education, leisure). individual groups allocate the need for means of production (production goods: machines, machine tools, equipment) and the need for consumer goods (goods that directly satisfy human needs: furniture, household appliances, clothing). A distinction must also be made between the need for goods and the need for services. Services, unlike goods, are consumed at the time they are provided.

With all their diversity, all needs have common property: they are limitless or completely insatiable. In addition, the needs are constantly multiplying. This peculiarity of them finds expression in the law of rising needs. The Law of Rising Needs: the needs of both one person and the entire human society cannot be fully satisfied, because they are very diverse and numerous and constantly growing. The variety of needs, their constant quantitative and qualitative growth are explained by a number of reasons.

The limitlessness of needs is explained by:

1. The growth of the population of the Earth.

The more people inhabit a particular country, the planets as a whole, the more needs are formed. So, in mid-1950, the world population, according to United Nations estimates, was 2.5 billion people, and in 2000 it was already 6.0 billion people. and according to forecasts in 2015 will be 7.5 billion people.

2. The development of mankind.

Each historical era meet their needs and their ability to meet them. At the same time, not only new needs appeared, but old ones went into the past, the ratio between various types needs.

3. Achievements of the NTP.

The modern capitalist economy is characterized by the fact that the novelty of goods is key factor competitiveness. Scientific progress allows firms respond quickly to changing customer needs, or to form completely new needs in them.

4. Raising the cultural level of people.

The growth of the cultural level of people leads to a quantitative and qualitative change in the range of their needs. People prefer to read more, travel more, etc.

5. Efficiency of the media.

Facilities mass media very quickly do given need the property of all people, it makes no difference what class they belong to or what country they live in.

Hence it follows that due to the quantitative and qualitative growth of needs, it is impossible to satisfy them completely. So ultimate goal economic activity is the maximum, not complete satisfaction needs.

§ 2 The needs of society and ways to meet them

What is a need

A powerful engine of the economy are the needs of society.

Needs- a lack or need for something necessary for the life of people.

Human needs are important distinctive features, which distinguish it from the rest of the animal world. What are they?

First feature. People's Needs change historically quantitatively and qualitatively. These changes are noticeable during the transition from one era of development of the economy and culture of society to another. Take, for example, people who lived at the beginning of the last century.

They did not even imagine in their fantasies that there could be such extraordinary things that have become familiar to our contemporaries - televisions, computers, space stations and much more.

The second feature. Human requests are very change throughout his life. It is one thing for an infant who experiences predominantly physiological needs, and it is completely another for an adult who has mastered a certain specialty.

Third feature. People even of the same age very often have needs, requests, preferences do not match. It is no coincidence that in Russia in use folk sayings and expressions: “There are no comrades for taste and color”, “Tastes do not argue”.

Fourth feature. Modern civilization (the level of material and spiritual culture) knows multiple levels of needs person:

Physiological needs (food, water, shelter, etc.);

The need for security (protection from external enemies and criminals, help in case of illness, protection from poverty);

Need in social contacts(communication with people who have the same interests; in friendship and love);

The need for respect (respect from other people, self-respect, in the acquisition of a certain social position);

The need for self-development (to improve all the capabilities and abilities of a person).

Listed Forms human needs can be visually depicted in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Pyramid of needs of modern man

It is especially important to say about image (external and internal appearance) of the future specialist. Concerning appearance graduate of a technical school, college, then he is usually influenced generally accepted norms culture, fashion and other circumstances. The development of high qualities of his internal image, in which developed needs are manifested, largely depends on the student himself:

erudition (reading, deep knowledge of various areas human activity);

Developed intellect (creative thinking);

High culture of human communication;

Fluency in one or two foreign languages;

Ability to use a computer;

High moral behavior.

The 21st century is characterized comprehensive development needs and high image of specialists.

How does the level of needs of the members of society rise in the course of history? This largely depends on the interaction of social production and the urgent needs of people.

How are demand and production related?

The connection between production and needs is two-way: direct and reverse. Let's consider this connection in more detail.

Production directly and directly affects needs in several ways.

1. The level of production activity determines, in to what extent can it satisfy the demands of people. If, suppose, the country does not produce the required amount of goods (be it bread or cars), then the needs of the people will not be adequately satisfied. In this case, the growth of needs will become impossible.

2. Transfer of production to new level scientific and technological progress radically renews the objective world and the way of life of people, gives rise to qualitatively different needs. Say, the release and sale of VCRs and personal computers makes me want to buy them.

3. production in many ways affects the way people consume useful things and thereby determines a certain household

culture. For example, primitive was quite content with a piece of meat roasted on a fire, which he tore into pieces with his hands. Our contemporary for cooking from the same piece of roast meat requires a gas, electric stove or grill, as well as cutlery.

In turn, needs reverse action for production activities.

1. Needs are a prerequisite and determine the direction of human creative activity. Each farm schedules its production in advance useful products based on identified needs.

2. Rising needs often overtakes production. It is noteworthy that garment factory workers are eager to find out in advance what new clothes are developed in fashion houses, taking into account the new level of needs.

3. The rise of needs gives them lead role in the progressive development of production - from its lowest level to ever higher ones.

The development of needs directly depends in several directions on the level of production. The latter experiences manifold reverse action from the needs of society.

The study of the interaction between production and needs makes it possible to understand the place and role of new needs of people in the circulation of economic goods.

What is the role of needs in the circulation of goods

First of all, it is important to pay attention to special character development of the economy - its circular motion.

Just as the cycle of substances is constantly taking place on Earth, in economic activity circulation of economic benefits. Manufactured useful things disappear in the process of their consumption and are re-created in the same or modified form. Such a cycle required condition continuous maintenance and renewal of human life.

The circuit under consideration consists of five main links that are inextricably linked:

Rice. 1.2. Circulation of economic goods

Production;

Distribution;

consumption of goods;

K needs updating.

Now let's look at how the economic cycle works. The chain of inextricable dependencies between its individual links is clearly shown in Fig. 1.2.

Let us consider the cycle of created goods on specific example peasant economy. The producer first grows, for example, vegetables. Then he distributes them: he keeps some for himself and his family, and the rest goes for sale. In the market, vegetables that are superfluous for the family are exchanged for products that are needed in the household (for example, meat, shoes). Finally wealth reach destination- personal consumption. If needs peasant family increase (in connection, say, with an increase in the family), then the production of vegetables will probably expand.

Now you can imagine the circulation of products in the general view.

The beginning of the cycle is production - the process of creating useful goods. At this time, workers adapt the substance and energy of nature to meet human needs.

Distribution subject to income from industrial activities. The distribution process determines the share of all participants in such activities in the wealth created.

The benefits received from the distribution are often not needed for personal consumption in the amount received. Since people need completely different things, it happens exchange, during which the benefits received are exchanged for other things necessary for a person.

Consumption – The final stage movement of a product that goes to meet the needs of people. As existing needs are met, new ones arise.

Needs are interconnected with all links circulation of blessings. In the process of consumption, there are new requests, which cause a renewal of production.

It may seem that the cycle of goods described here theoretically unambiguously characterizes the relationship between production and needs. However, in practice in many countries there are different variants correlation of production and needs. What are these options?

What are modern options changes in production and the needs of society

Throughout the world economy at the end of the 20th early XXI centuries, there are three main types of relationships between production, on the one hand, and the needs and consumption of the population, on the other.

First option. In some countries, the long decline of the economy leads to a decrease in both consumption and needs. This process can be likened to a spiraling movement with decreasing circles, such as we observe, say, in the funnel of a whirlpool. This plight can be seen, in particular, in selected countries Africa (for example, in the Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia), where at the end of the 20th century. per capita income declined.

Second option. In some African and Asian countries, the output of a relatively limited range of diverse products is growing very slowly. In this case, the needs are traditional and only gradually expand.

The first and second options characterize a clearly abnormal correlation between changes in production and needs.

Third option. It is possible to recognize the simultaneous growth of the production of the national product and the increase in the level of needs and consumption as normal. The natural rise in needs in this case goes in two directions: vertically and horizontally.

The improvement of people's lives is manifested in the growth of needs vertically.

Prolonged economic disruption in a number of Commonwealth countries Independent States in the 1990s had a negative impact on the value of the national product (domestic production) per 1 inhabitant and on household consumption expenditures. For example, in 2002 (as a percentage of 1990) such expenses amounted to: in Belarus - 131%, in Kazakhstan - 60%, in Ukraine - 59%.

Rice. 1. . Elevation of the needs associated with the car

Such a change can be traced in the example of people's attitudes towards buying a car (Fig. 1.3).

Rise of Needs horizontally associated with the expansion of consumption by ever wider sections of the population of products more High Quality. This change becomes more noticeable the longer the period of time under study is. We find confirmation of this in Table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

Provision of the population of Russia with durable goods (per 100 families, units)

As the German statistician E. Engel established, if the money income of the population grows, then it spends relatively less money on food products, buys more industrial consumer goods (shoes, clothing, etc.), and with a further increase in income, it acquires high-quality items and durable goods.

The most rapid rise in needs vertically and horizontally in the 20th century. characteristic of Western - economically the most developed countries. Here, the growth of production and consumption can be likened to an upward spiral with expanding turnovers.

All considered options for changing production and needs have common feature. They express in one form or another contradiction between what people would like to have and what the real economy gives them.

Contradiction between needs and production - main contradiction economic activity in any society.

In the next section, we will find out in what ways and means the main contradiction of the economy is resolved.

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There is probably not a single subject in political economy whose explanation would be as important as needs. No matter how you limit their circle, they will still remain within its framework and, moreover, within those frameworks to which, as to the center, all the conclusions of science will gravitate.

Vladimir Vernadsky

The essence and structure of the economic needs of society

Needs as a determining factor in the expedient behavior of economic entities are one of the fundamental categories of economic science.

A need is a need for something that is objectively necessary to support the life and development of a person, a team, a nation, society as a whole; internal motivator.

Needs reflect the internal motives of people's activities and form complex system, which can be structured according to different criteria. In the most general form, they define:

• - physiological needs conditioned by the vital activity and development of a person as a biological being (food, clothing, housing, etc.);
• - social needs conditioned by the social (public) nature of a person (communication, social recognition, self-realization, etc.);
• - spiritual needs conditioned by the development of a person as a person (creativity, self-improvement, self-expression, etc.).

This classification is conditional, since physiological, social and spiritual needs are intertwined and interact with each other, forming an integral system.

According to the criterion of the urgency of needs and the hierarchy of the relationships between them, the models of F. Herzberg, A. Maslow, K. Alderfer are distinguished. Despite certain differences, all three models distinguish between lower-order (primary) and higher-order (secondary) needs. According to this approach higher demands people will not come to the fore until they are satisfied pressing needs. The realization of primary needs gives rise to a desire to satisfy the next (secondary) needs, which turn into driving force conscious activity.

Thus, A. Maslow's "pyramid of needs" illustrates a stable hierarchy of benefits, according to which each next group of needs is determined and satisfied after the needs of the previous level (Fig. 2.1).

“Man is a pyramid of needs with biological at the base and spiritual at the top,” wrote A. Maslow. “Involvement in higher, spiritual values ​​in a strange way elevates both the body and all its needs. If you direct a person to realize all his needs, to their actualization ... then very soon we will be able to observe the flourishing of a new type of civilization. A person will become more responsible for his destiny, will be guided by the values ​​of the mind, will cease to be indifferent to the world around him .. which will mean approaching a society built on spiritual values" .

However, critics of the "hierarchical" classification of needs draw attention to the following:

• - this approach does not take into account individual interests and the needs of the people;
• - the concept of consistent satisfaction of needs is not confirmed in practice;
• - the authors do not define the minimum level of needs that can be considered sufficient to move to the satisfaction of the needs of the next, higher level.

Needs are satisfied in the process of consumption. Means of satisfying human needs are called goods.

Good - any utility (object, phenomenon, process) that satisfies a human need.

There are the following benefits:

• - non-realized ( sunlight, health, communication, knowledge) and materialized (gifts of nature, as well as products of labor: food, clothing, housing, etc.);
• - non-economic (gratuitous, unlimited, provided by nature without human effort; their volumes exceed existing human needs) and economic (limited, which are the result or object of economic activity; their volumes are limited compared to existing needs).

Economic needs are the needs for economic goods.

The satisfaction of economic needs is an internal motive for production, distribution, exchange and consumption within a certain system of socio-economic relations.

Economic needs are a structural subsystem of the whole complex of society's needs. Therefore, the level of their development and the degree of satisfaction depend on the development of other subsystems, the cultural, spiritual, moral needs of society.

The carriers of economic benefits are a variety of material goods and services. Among them are distinguished:

• - consumer goods, intended for the direct satisfaction of human needs, and production goods, intended for the creation of consumer goods;
• - wealth(products of the sphere of material production) and intangible benefits (created in the sphere of intangible production);
• - real good(are in the direct use of economic entities) and future benefits (those that economic entities will be able to use in the future), etc.

Comprehensive comprehensive study system of economic needs makes it necessary to classify them according to the following criteria:

I. By the nature of occurrence:

• - primary (basic) ones related to human existence: food, clothing, security, housing, etc.;
• - secondary, the emergence and change of which are due to the development of civilization: fashionable clothes, comfortable housing, information, etc.

II. Means of satisfaction:

• - material (needs for material goods);
• - non-material (spiritual needs).

III. According to the urgency of satisfaction:

• - priority (primary necessities);
• - secondary (luxury items).

IV. Satisfaction opportunities:

• - saturable (have a limit, the possibility of complete satisfaction);
• - non-saturable (cannot be fully satisfied, do not have saturation limits).

V. Depending on participation in the reproduced process:

• - production (needs for economic resources);
• - non-productive (needs for consumer goods).

VI. According to the subjects of manifestation:

• - personal (arise and develop in the process of the life of the individual);
• - collective, group (needs of a group of people, a team);
• - public (needs for the functioning and development of society as a whole).

VII. By quantitative certainty and measure of implementation:

• - absolute (perspective needs, bearing abstract character and being a guideline for economic development);
• - valid (formed depending on achieved level production and are social norm for a specific period)
• - solvent (determined by solvent demand);
• - actual (satisfied with the available economic benefits).

The system of economic needs is complex and constantly evolving. The structure of needs, their volume, methods and level of satisfaction are constantly changing: they are modified, complicated, improved in the process. historical development human civilization.

As noted by the famous Ukrainian researcher N.Kh. Bunge (1823-1895), "needs represent the starting point of political economic research. As an attribute of human nature, as a condition for its development, needs arise from the properties of our physical organism and the spiritual foundations inherent in the latter. As everyday needs are satisfied, mental, moral needs wake up in a person and aesthetic, which in turn become as urgent as the needs physical nature... Thus, a powerful economic engine appears, but the engine is far from the only one, since a person is destined to live in society, and in society not only people's needs are more or less homogeneous, but the satisfaction of many of them becomes possible only under the conditions of a general joint activities. In other words, along with private needs, public ones appear, next to personal goals, public goals: concern for both material and spiritual existence, and for the development of the entire union.