Minerals and their classification

The following ecological functions are inherent in the lithosphere:

1) resource (provision with various types natural resources necessary for biota and humans);

2) geodynamic (presence of violations upper parts lithosphere due to endo- and exogenous, natural and artificial processes);

3) geochemical (the content of chemical elements necessary for biota and humans, as well as the presence of pollutants);

4) geophysical (presence of physical fields).

When considering each function, the ecological consequences of either mining, or disturbances of the lithosphere, or the accumulation of chemical elements are revealed; reveals the influence of physical fields on living organisms.

Fuel- energetic resources

The main minerals include fuel and energy resources that are used for energy production and as fuel. Fuel and energy resources include oil, hard and brown coal, gas, shale, uranium. Each type of fuel raw material has a certain calorific value. Calorific value is the amount of energy released when a unit of fuel is burned. Significant calorific value is allocated to oil and gas.

Fuel raw materials are unevenly distributed on the territory of the globe. North America and Eurasia have the most significant volumes (87% of the total energy potential is concentrated here). The main types of fuel raw materials include oil, gas, coal.

Oil is the most important and efficient view fuel raw materials. It is characterized by high calorific value and calorific value, low content of polluting compounds. Oil is easily transported and in the process of processing a wide range of products is obtained from it.

Oil fields are unevenly distributed around the globe. 62% of the world's oil reserves are concentrated in Arabian Peninsula and waters of the Persian Gulf ; 11% of world oil reserves North America, 7% in Africa and Russia, 9% in South America Promising are oil fields in the shelf zone of the seas and oceans, on the continental slope (600-900 m). Offshore fields currently account for 25% of global oil production. Large oil reserves - in oil sands, oil shale, bituminous rocks (contain the so-called heavy oil). It has not yet been possible to develop these reserves on an industrial scale. 32% of the world's energy needs are met by oil.

Natural gas is distributed in the bowels of the Earth even more unevenly. Russia occupies the first place in the world in terms of gaseous fuel resources (fields Western Siberia). Significant gas fields are located in the countries of the Near and Middle East (resources are especially large in Iran, Saudi Arabia, in the waters of the Persian Gulf). Less inventory in the US, North Africa, Venezuela. Promising are the shelf zones of the World Ocean.

In the global energy balance for the share natural gas accounts for 17%, in a number of countries (USA, Western Europe, Japan) higher. Unlike oil, the gas potential increases faster than production (about 2 times), moreover, more than half of the shelf area has not yet been explored in terms of gas content, and underwater gas fields account for 15% of global gas production. On land, only 30% of tectonic structures promising for this raw material have been studied. Another reserve of this kind fuel resource- gas saving.

Coal-bearing basins are distributed unevenly across the globe. Russia and neighboring countries, the USA, China and South Africa account for more than 90% of recoverable resources hard coal. Poland, Germany, Australia, Great Britain and other countries have large reserves.

Until the 1960s, coal dominated the structure of the fuel balance (more than 50%). In the 1980s, due to the use of oil and gas, the share of coal decreased (to 28%). Currently, up to 30% of the world's energy was produced from coal (the reason is the instability of the world market).

The globe is not equally provided with nuclear raw materials. More than 28% of nuclear resources are in the USA and Canada, 23% in Australia, 14% in South Africa, 7% in Brazil. In other countries, uranium reserves are negligible. Thorium resources are found in India (nearly half of the resources), Australia, Brazil, Malaysia and the USA.

Alternative sources energy

Non-traditional energy resources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, bioconversion energy.

Total solar energy 20 thousand times greater than modern consumption energy in the world economy. Since the density solar radiation on the land surface is so small (even in tropical deserts during the day it is 5-6 kW h / m 2 per day, in temperate deserts - 3-4 kW h / m 2), then it is difficult to technically master it. Solar furnaces are now being used to produce low-temperature fuels.

wind energy has long been used in England, Holland, France and other countries, on a small scale. Shared Resources wind power are huge, but strictly localized. In Denmark and other countries European North wind turbines provide at least 12% of energy. However, the technical difficulties in the development of wind energy are significant.

Tidal energy is actually used at several TPPs: in Russia (Kislogubskaya), in France (the mouth of the Garonne). The difficulty of using energy lies in the transformation of the shock force of the wave into gravitational, thermal and electrical forms of energy.

Bioconversion energy is energy stored in biomass. Wood has been used as a source of fuel for a long time. There are experimental developments for obtaining biogas from agricultural waste, but this process has not yet been developed on an industrial scale. Biogas consists of 60-70% methane (with calorific value- 5000 kcal per 1 m 3), while the process of gas outlets is continuous, and the resulting residue - sludge - is a good fertilizer.

Geothermal energy is the internal energy of the Earth. The normal temperature gradient of the Earth is 3 o C per 100 m of depth, in some places up to 5 o C per 100 m. Geothermal power plants operate in Italy, the USA, Japan, Iceland, etc. In California, 7% of energy is obtained from hydrothermal sources. The resources of rocks heated by endogenous heat are 20 times higher than the reserves of fossil fuels.

Oil and gas (produced)

Belarusian oil and associated gas fields are located in the eastern part of the Pripyat trough.

In 2010, about 75 deposits were discovered and explored, the largest of which are Rechitskoye, Ostashkovichskoye and Vishanskoye.

Almost all oil deposits of the fields are confined to Devonian sediments (subsalt terrigenous, presalt carbonate, intersalt, upper salt strata of the Devonian), and only 2 deposits - to Upper Proterozoic.

Commercial mining began in 1965 and over 115 million tons have already been mined. Now the annual oil production is 1.5 million tons per year (more than 12 million tons of oil per year is needed for the needs of the republic). The maximum annual production was in 1975 - 8 million tons.

oil shale(not mined)

Oil shale deposits Belarus - Lubanskoe and Turovskoe, are confined to the post-salt Devonian thicker than the Pripyat trough. The quality is low - high ash content.

The predicted resources of oil shale in the Pripyat shale-bearing basin to a depth of 600 m are 11 billion tons, including 5.5 billion tons to a depth of 300 m.

Brown coals (not mined)

Brown coal deposits in Belarus are found in deposits of various ages: in Carboniferous, Jurassic, Paleogene and Neogene. However, the greatest value so far is precisely Neogene coals.

In the western part of the Pripyat trough, 3 deposits of exactly Neogene age were identified: Zhitkovichskoe, Brinevskoe and Tonezhskoe. The depth of occurrence is 20-80 m, which allows coal to be mined in an open (quarry) way.

The reserves at these 3 fields are more than 100 million tons.

Peat (mined)

Peat deposits in Belarus distributed almost everywhere, the age of this mineral quaternary.

About 9,200 deposits have been discovered in Belarus, in which 3 billion tons of peat are concentrated. About 400 deposits are exploited, 13-15 million tons are mined annually. For all the years of development of peat deposits, 1.1 billion tons of peat have been extracted.

Chemical raw materials of Belarus

Potassium salts (mined)

Potassium salts - basic mineral wealth Belarus, the most important export commodity.

They occur in the Pripyat trough and are associated with the lower and upper salt strata of the upper Devonian.

The main deposits of potassium salt in Belarus– Starobinskoe(reserves 2.7 billion tons) - being developed, Petrikovskoye (reserves 1.28 billion tons) and Oktyabrskoye deposits (reserves 637.2 million tons).

The total industrial reserves of potassium salts are more than 5 billion tons, according to this indicator Belarus ranks 3rd in the world after Canada and Russia.

The industrial production of potash salt was started in 1961, now the annual production of potash salts in Belarus is about 20 million tons, of which more than 8 million tons of potash fertilizers are produced annually.

Rock salt (mined)

Rock salt is one of the most important minerals in Belarus. Its resources dedicated to Devonian salt strata of the Pripyat trough are practically inexhaustible.

There are currently three explored largest deposits: Mozyrskoe, Starobinskoe and Davydovskoe. The first two are in operation.

The total reserves are about 22 billion tons.

Dolomites (mined)

Dolomite deposits in Belarus are located in the Orsha depression, Devonian deposits.

Explored and developed dolomite deposit - Ruba (Vitebsk region). The average content of carbonates is about 94%.

The field is being developed open way(quarry Gralevo). Annual production of 3-4 million tons of dolomite. The main products are dolomite flour for liming acidic soils.

The total explored reserves of the deposit amount to 755 million tons.

Phosphorites (not mined)

Phosphorite deposits in Belarus are located in the Orsha depression, Upper Cretaceous deposits.

The explored phosphorite deposits are Mstislavskoye (reserves 175 million tons), Lobkovichskoye (reserves 246 million tons).

Metal minerals of Belarus

Sands (mined)

glass sands Belarus has been explored (not yet mined) in the Gomel (Loevsky) and Brest (City) regions. Their total reserves are 15 million m3. Glass sands are suitable for producing window and container glass.

foundry sands Belarus - Zhlobin and Dobrush districts. The total reserves are 100 million tons. About 0.6 million m3 of foundry sands are mined annually.
Sand and gravel mixtures– north and center of Belarus, 136 deposits with total reserves of more than 700 million m 3 ; 82 deposits are being exploited, the total reserves are 660 million tons. About 3 million m3 of sand and gravel materials are mined annually. They are used mainly for the preparation of concretes and mortars.

Clays (mined)

The deposits are located in the south of Belarus.

More than 210 fusible clay deposits have been explored (Vitebsk region) with total reserves of about 200 million m 3 . More than 110 fields are being developed, 2.5-3.5 million m 3 of raw materials are produced annually.

Refractory clays - in the south of Belarus (Luninetsky, Loevsky, Stolin districts), about 20 deposits.

Chalk and marl (mined)

Deposits of chalk and marls are located mainly in the east of Belarus, they are found in the west of the country. On the areas of their shallow occurrence, mainly in Krichevsky, Klimovichsky, Kostyukovichsky and Cherikovsky districts of the Mogilev region, Volkovysk and Grodno districts Grodno region explored whole line deposits. Some of them (for example, Krichevskoye) are represented by writing chalk, others (Kommunarskoye) - by marl, and others (Kamenka) - by marl and writing chalk.

The total reserves are about 270 million tons.

Gypsum (not mined)

The Brinevo gypsum deposit is located in the west of the Pripyat trough and is confined to Upper Devonian deposits.

Gypsum reserves are 400 million tons.

building stone(produced)

Place of Birth building stone in Belarus Mikashevichi and Sitnitsa ( Brest region), Glushkevichi and Quarry of Hope (Gomel region).

At the Mikashevichi deposit (the largest), the annual production of stone is about 3.5 million m 3, crushed stone production - 5.5 million m 3, at the Glushkevichi deposit - 0.1 million m 3 and 0.2 million m 3, respectively.

Lecture 2.1. General information about the resources of the lithosphere

1. Minerals and their classification

2. Fuel and energy resources

3. Alternative energy sources

4. Mineral resources Belarus.

65. ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE LITHOSPHERE: RESOURCE, GEODYNAMIC, GEOPHYSICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL

People in ancient times learned to use for their needs some of the resources of the lithosphere and other shells of the Earth, which is reflected in the names historical periods human development: stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, “Iron Age”. Today, more than 200 different types of resources are used. All natural resources should be clearly distinguished from natural conditions.

Natural resources- these are the bodies and forces of nature, which at a given level of development of productive forces and knowledge can be used to meet the needs human society in the form of direct participation in material activities.

Under minerals refers to mineral formations earth's crust, which can be effectively used in economic activity person. The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological laws. The resources of the lithosphere include fuel, ore and non-metallic minerals, as well as energy internal heat Earth. Thus, the lithosphere performs one of the most important functions for mankind - resource - supplying a person with almost all types of known resources.

In addition to the resource function, the lithosphere also performs another important function - geodynamic. Geological processes are continuously taking place on the Earth. All geological processes are based on different sources energy. The source of internal processes is heat generated during radioactive decay and gravitational differentiation of substances inside the Earth.

With internal processes various tectonic movements of the earth's crust are connected, creating the main forms of relief - mountains and plains, magmatism, earthquakes. Tectonic movements are manifested in slow vertical oscillations of the earth's crust, in the formation of rock folds and tectonic faults. The appearance is constantly changing earth's surface under the influence of lithospheric and intraterrestrial processes. We can see with our own eyes only a few of these processes. These include, in particular, such menacing phenomena as earthquakes and volcanism caused by seismic activity internal processes.

The diversity of the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of the earth's crust lies next function lithosphere - geophysical and geochemical. According to geological and geochemical data to a depth of 16 km, the average chemical composition rocks of the earth's crust: oxygen - 47%, silicon -27.5%, aluminum - 8.6%, iron - 5%, calcium, sodium, magnesium and potassium - 10.5%, all other elements account for about 1.5 %, including titanium - 0.6%, carbon - 0.1%, copper - 0.01%, lead - 0.0016%, gold - 0.0000005%. Obviously, the first eight elements make up almost 99% of the earth's crust. The fulfillment by the lithosphere of this function, which is no less important than the previous ones, leads to the most efficient economic use of almost all layers of the lithosphere. In particular, the most valuable in its composition and physical and chemical properties is the upper thin layer of the earth's crust, which has natural fertility and is called soil.

Surface and groundwater land, state and protection of soils, degree of transformation natural landscapes, i.e. basically geographical envelope. The lithosphere as such is not distinguished in them in any way, despite the fact that it serves geological basis landscape and is also a medium for the exchange of matter and energy with other geospheres. In certain aspects, the problems of attrition have received attention mineral resources, which are enclosed in the surface part of the lithosphere, and pollution of the natural environment in the process of mining, enrichment and processing of mineral raw materials.

However, one must also take into account the fact that the lithosphere is a reservoir and custodian of surface and groundwater. It provides biota with inorganic nutrients, contains mineral and energy resources necessary for the existence and development of human society.

The ecological functions of the lithosphere as a planetary geosystem, together with the geological processes occurring in it (both natural and anthropogenic), can be determined based on the role they play in the life support and evolution of the biota and, mainly, human society.

Resource function of the lithosphere

The resource function of the lithosphere determines the significance of the mineral, organic and organomineral raw materials of the lithosphere, which form the basis for the life and activity of the biota both as a biogeocenosis and anthropogenesis. According to V.T. Trofimov et al. (1997), it includes the following aspects: resources necessary for the life and activity of the biota; resources necessary for the life and activities of human society; resources as a geological space necessary for the settlement and existence of biota, including human society. The first two aspects are associated with mineral resources, and the last - with the ecological capacity of the geological space, within which the vital activity of organisms takes place.

Mineral resources are classified as exhaustible, and all of them, with the exception of groundwater, are non-renewable. Throughout its history, human society has used mineral resources in various volumes, and the volume of extracted raw materials has continuously increased. At the same time, the number of extracted chemical and compounds increased: if in the 18th century. - 18 chemical elements and compounds, in the XIX century. - 35, in 1917 - 64, in 1975 - 87, then in the 90s of the XX century. - 106 elements Periodic system D. I. Mendeleev. Currently, about 100 billion tons of mineral raw materials are extracted from the bowels every year. There is a threat of depletion of mineral deposits. According to the forecasts of some experts, the reserves of many types of mineral raw materials will run out by the middle of the 21st century, while lead and zinc will last only for the first decades of the third millennium.

The lithosphere contains rocks that contain biophilic elements, i.e. chemical elements, soluble in aquatic environment and at the same time vital for organisms. They are also called biogenic elements. The lithosphere, in addition, is a reservoir of groundwater, and also contains substances that are eaten by certain animals - lithophages.

The vital activity of the biota is ensured by the biogeochemical cycles existing in nature, including those occurring in the lithosphere. According to G. A. Bogdanovsky (1994), these are more or less closed pathways for the circulation of chemical elements that make up the cellular protoplasm from the external environment to the body and leaving again for external environment. There are two types of biogeochemical cycles: gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere and ocean; sedimentary cycle with a reserve fund in the earth's crust.

The development of human society is impossible without the use of mineral resources. Thanks to them, humanity provides its needs for energy, fertilizers, housing, transport, and communications. Today, the means of receiving, transmitting, processing and analyzing have been added to this category. Every year, about 17-18 billion tons of rock mass is extracted from the bowels.

Minerals also include underground. They are used as domestic and drinking water supply (10.34 km 3 / year), for technical water supply (2.66 km 3 / year), land irrigation and watering of pastures (0.51 km 3 / year), for medicinal purposes, as geothermal sources, for the extraction of a number of valuable components (iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, strontium, table and potassium salt).

The lithosphere plays an important role as a geological space necessary for the settlement and existence of biota, including humans. On the one hand, the near-surface areas of the lithosphere are the habitat of biota (cave dwellers, burrowing and digging animals, microorganisms), and on the other hand, its underground spaces are used for urban areas: for the construction of underground utilities, transport highways, located at the underground level of objects, as well as receptacles for the disposal of highly toxic and radioactive waste. However, the ongoing construction of underground engineering facilities often leads to an aggravation environmental issues. The objects of the geological environment used for these purposes are very limited and in most regions quickly become sources of acute environmental crises.

For a long time there was an idea that the territories of the continents are inexhaustible for the settlement and life support of biota, including humans. However, in the era of technogenesis, the earth's surface and geological environment became an important natural and ecological resource. Today, mankind has mastered about 55% of the land surface, and there is a tendency for this process to increase. At present, humanity is faced with the fact that the further deployment of urbanized territories is associated with both overcoming natural difficulties and high material costs.

As V. T. Trofimov et al. (1997) note in their monograph, the specificity of the land resource lies in the fact that not only geological, but also geographic and soil sciences are engaged in its study and evaluation. Geologists consider the resource side from the standpoint rational use geological space, geographers - from the standpoint of the rational use of the landscape, and soil scientists - from the standpoint of the rational use of soils for agriculture. Together, they must evaluate the rationality and possibility of using a particular territory from the standpoint of .

Geodynamic function of the lithosphere

According to V.T. Trofimov et al. (1997), the geodynamic function of the lithosphere is understood as the ability of the latter to manifest and develop natural and anthropogenic geological processes and phenomena that to some extent affect the living conditions and life of the biota, and especially human society. It must be emphasized that given function It has been carried out since the moment of the emergence of the biota, and its formation and development are inextricably linked with the evolution of the Earth and the biosphere. As you know, the entire history of the Earth is full of crisis situations and catastrophic phenomena of global and regional scales. Along with catastrophic situations in the history of the Earth, there were epochs of relative calm, when the development organic world flowed smoothly in accordance with the established natural (physico-geographical) conditions. At the present stage, for the geoecological direction, it is important to assess the geological role and significance of anthropogenic processes, identify their direction and determine the possibility of developing into global catastrophic geological processes.

A characteristic feature of the geodynamic function of the lithosphere is its ability to manifest itself in the form of both negative and positive attitudes towards the development and spatial distribution of biota. This relationship can be direct and indirect, i.e., it can manifest itself through resource or geophysical-geochemical functions.

Within the framework of this function, geodynamic processes and phenomena that directly affect the conditions for the existence of biota should be considered. Based on the degree of impact on biota, including humans, all geodynamic processes can be divided into two groups. Some processes, due to their scale and speed of manifestation, are not capable of providing direct negative impact on , while others act on biota in the form of catastrophic phenomena and natural Disasters and thus are hazardous natural processes. The former include, for example, movements lithospheric plates, tectonic slow vertical and horizontal movements, geological processes such as weathering, denudation, transport of sedimentary material and sedimentation. Catastrophic geological phenomena include those that, due to the short duration of their manifestation, quickly destroy the usual natural structure and the habitat system of the biota, violate the conditions of human life and lead to victims.

According to UNESCO, about 0.5 billion people currently live in areas with a high frequency of catastrophic earthquakes. About a quarter of the world's population lives in areas at risk from natural disasters.

All known catastrophic and unfavorable natural and anthropogenic phenomena associated with the lithospheric shell can be divided into two large groups. The first group includes processes and phenomena that do not pose a direct threat to the existence of the biota, but affect the living conditions of a person, changing them. However, due to the high adaptability of the organic world, their impact on biota is often minimal. For a person, these natural phenomena change only the conditions of comfortable life. These include wind erosion and deflation, water erosion, material transport and accumulation, suffusion, waterlogging, thermokarst formation, new formation and degradation. permafrost, karst formation. The negative impact of catastrophic natural phenomena is very high. Especially dangerous natural phenomena include earthquakes, explosive eruptions, landslides, landslides and rockfalls, sinkholes, etc.

Geophysical and geochemical function of the lithosphere

This function is defined as a property of geophysical and geochemical fields (heterogeneities) of natural and anthropogenic origin, capable of influencing the state of biota and human health.

The entire earth's surface consists of mosaically distributed certain averaged values ​​of various chemical elements and physical parameters environment. Plots with high content chemical elements that are very different from the geochemical background are called areas with a geochemical anomaly. Natural geophysical fields are distinguished - magnetic, gravitational, geothermal and artificially excited electric fields direct currents and geophysical anomalies. Geochemical and geophysical anomalies in the Earth's shells are often called geopathogenic zones, although the interpretation of this term is still ambiguous.

A number of scientists consider geopathic zones as areas of anomalous manifestation of the properties of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and deep bowels of the planet, which negatively affect the state of the organic world, including humans. In this regard, geopathogenesis is a set of geological and geophysical conditions that accompany the development of pathogenic abnormalities in living organisms.

The existence of anomalies, or geopathic zones, is due to the fact that there are vertical and horizontal heterogeneities in the lithosphere and there are permeable zones through which noticeable distortions are introduced into the composition of energy fields and into the distribution of chemical elements in areas of tectonic disturbances.

Resource functions of the lithosphere

The lithosphere is one of the most important components of the geological environment, with geodynamic activity and the composition of which humanity faces every minute. The resource function of the lithosphere is predetermined by the mineral, organomineral and organogenic resources that take part in its structure. They are essential for the life and activity of the biota, acting as one of the components of ecosystems, as well as for the life of human society. The resources of the lithosphere include the following aspects: the resources necessary for the life of the biota; resources necessary for the life and activities of human society; resources as a geological space that is necessary for the settlement and existence of biota and human society. If the first two aspects are directly related to the mineral resources of the Earth, then the last one is exclusively with the geological space, which covers the near-surface and surface parts of the lithosphere.

Mineral resources are classified as exhaustible resources and the vast majority of them are non-renewable. They play a primary role in the life of human society, determining its material and scientific and technical level. Beginning with ancient times the number of mineral resources and the volumes of their extraction and use increased continuously. In the Paleolithic, the extraction of raw materials was limited only to those rocks, which could be raw materials for the manufacture of stone tools. Later, ores began to be involved in the sphere of activity - first tin and copper, and then iron. Dynamics of extraction and use of mineral raw materials for recent centuries rose sharply. Based on existing forecasts, the reserves of a number of types of mineral raw materials will begin to dry up by the middle of the 21st century.

Resources of the lithosphere necessary for the life of the biota

They are represented by rocks and minerals, which include chemical elements of the biophilic series, vital for the growth and development of organisms, kudyurites - the mineral substance of kudyurs, which is the mineral food of lithophages, and underground waters. Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, sodium and a number of other elements are required by organisms in significant quantities, therefore they are called macrobiogenic. Microbiogenic elements for plants are Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Si, Mo, Cl, V, Ca, which provide the processes of photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and metabolic function. Animals require the same elements, except for boron. Some of them they get using food producers, and some - from mineral compounds and natural waters. In addition, animals (consumers of the first and second orders) additionally require selenium, chromium, nickel, fluorine, iodine, etc. These elements in small quantities are vital for the activity of organisms and the performance of biogeochemical functions.

Some of the items listed are in gaseous state in the atmosphere, others are dissolved in the waters of the hydrosphere or are in bound state in the soil cover and in the lithosphere. Plants (producers) extract these elements in the course of their life activity directly from soils together with soil and ground waters.

Mineral substances of kudyurs are episodic food of herbivores (first-order consumers) and omnivores (third-order consumers) animals. They consume them with food at least twice a year. Kudyury are designed to regulate the salt composition of the body. These are mainly minerals of the zeolite group. In addition to zeolites, clay minerals such as bentonites, palygorskites, as well as glauconite and diatomite are stimulants for the growth of plants, animals and fish.

Groundwater is the basis for the existence of biota, determines the direction and speed of the biochemical processes of plants and animals.

Mineral resources necessary for the life and activities of human society

These include all existing minerals that are used by mankind to produce the necessary materials and energy. Currently, more than 200 types of minerals are being extracted from the bowels, and the volume of annual production of mineral raw materials reaches about 20 billion tons of rock mass per year.

geological space

It consists in considering the lithosphere as a habitat for the biota (the surface of the lithosphere is used by burrowing and earth-moving animals and microorganisms) and the engineering-geological activity of man.

Any human economic activity is unthinkable without the construction of residential and industrial buildings, the construction of enterprises, underground utilities, highways, underground workings or open pits in the extraction of minerals. All construction work is carried out only after detailed survey work, which determines the ability of the soil to bear the corresponding load.

Along with this, the assessment of the resource function of the lithosphere is associated with the placement of highly toxic and radioactive waste burial sites in the geological space. It should be borne in mind that the volumes of geological space suitable for these purposes are very limited. It becomes more and more problematic to find suitable and safe places for waste disposal and industrial and domestic landfills.

In the era of technogenesis, the earth's surface has become an important natural and ecological resource. At present, a little more than 55% of the land surface has been developed, and there is a tendency for this process to further increase. And if for countries with large land resources the problem of disposal of industrial, agricultural and residential waste has not yet become relevant, then for small states with high density of the population, it has become the most important factor social development. A striking example in this regard was Japan, which is forced to fill up coastal areas of marine areas and carry out construction on bulk soils. Other countries, such as Holland, use dams to protect land from being flooded by the sea. Therefore, not only agricultural land is a valuable natural resource, but also land intended for industrial, civil and transport construction is of great value.

resource function

The resource function of the upper horizons of the lithosphere lies in its potential ability to meet the needs of biota (ecosystems) with abiotic resources, including human needs with certain minerals necessary for existence and development. human civilization. (Korolev, 1996; Trofimov and Ziling, 2000, 2002).

The resource function is basic in the "lithosphere-biota" system, since it is associated not only with the conditions of life and evolution of the biota, but also with the very possibility of its existence.

This function determines the role of resources (mineral, organic, and organo-mineral) for the life and activity of the biota both as a biogeocenosis and social structure. The resource function of the lithosphere determines the importance of mineral, organic and its organomineral raw materials, which form the basis for the life of the biota both as biogeocenoses and anthropogeocenosis (Yasamanov, 2003).

According to V.T. Trofimova et al. (2000), it includes the following aspects:

Resources necessary for the life and activity of the biota,

Resources necessary for the life and activities of human society,

· resources as a geological space necessary for the settlement and existence of biota, including human society.

The first two aspects are associated with mineral resources, and the last one, with the ecological capacity of the geological space within which the organism's vital activity takes place.

From the standpoint of biocentrism, human needs should not conflict with the needs of the biota as a whole. Among the natural resources on Earth, in terms of their importance for developed countries, energy resources are in the first place. At modern level of industrial development in the world, technological energy creates and transforms a huge amount of energy, if we consider the planet as a whole. About 70% of the mined minerals in the world are energy resources. Therefore, we can talk about the commensurability of the technogenic energy potential with the energy potential of the Earth natural origin especially in urban areas.

Resources of the lithosphere necessary for the life of the biota

They are represented by rocks and minerals, which include chemical elements of the biophilic series, vital for the growth and development of organisms, kudyurites - the mineral substance of kudyurs, which is the mineral food of lithophates. and groundwater. Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, sodium and a number of other elements are required by organisms in significant quantities, therefore they are called macrobiogenic. Microbiogenic elements for plants are Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Si, Mo, C1, V, Ca, which provide the processes of photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and metabolic function.

Animals require the same elements, except for boron. Some of them they get using food producers, some - from mineral compounds and natural waters. In addition, animals (consumers of the first and second orders) additionally require selenium, chromium, nickel, fluorine, iodine, etc. These elements in small quantities are vital for activity.

organisms and perform biogeochemical functions.

Some of the listed elements are in a gaseous state in the atmosphere, others are dissolved in the waters of the hydrosphere or are in a bound state in the soil cover and lithosphere. Plants (producers) extract these elements in the course of their life activity directly from soils together with soil and ground waters.

Mineral substances of kudyurs are episodic food of herbivores (first-order consumers) and omnivores (third-order consumers) animals. They consume them with food at least twice a year. Kudyury are designed to regulate the salt composition of the body. These are mainly minerals of the zeolite group. In addition to zeolites, clay minerals such as bentonites, palygorskites, as well as glauconite and diatomite are stimulants for the growth of plants, animals and fish.

Groundwater is the basis for the existence of biota, determines the direction and speed of the biochemical processes of plants and animals.

Mineral resources necessary for the life and activities of human society

These include all existing minerals that are used more than 200 types of minerals are being extracted from the depths of the earth, and the volume of annual production of mineral raw materials reaches about 20 billion tons of rock mass per year.

The most important groups of minerals and the main directions of their use are shown in fig. 4.

rice. 4.

The ecological significance of groundwater is enormous. The main directions of their use and consumption volumes (km/year) are given below.

environmental geology

Topic 2
Ecological features
lithosphere (part 1)

Resource ecological function of the lithosphere and its transformation under the influence of technogenesis

Part 1
RESOURCE ENVIRONMENTAL FUNCTION
THE LITHOSPHERE AND ITS TRANSFORMATION UNDER
INFLUENCE OF TECHNOGENESIS

Definition, meaning and structure of the resource ecological function of the lithosphere

Under the resource ecological function of the lithosphere, we understand how
already
shown
previously,
role
mineral,
organic,
organomineral resources of the lithosphere, as well as its geological
space for the life and activity of the biota both as
biocenosis, and the human community as a social
structures.
The object of study in this approach are the features of the composition and
structures of the lithosphere with all their components that affect
the possibility and quality of the existence of biota, and the subject - knowledge about
resource potential of the lithosphere, the suitability of its space for
habitation of biota (including humans as a biological species) and
development of mankind as a social structure.
The resource ecological function of the lithosphere occupies a leading position,
position in relation to the geodynamic, geochemical and
geophysical functions. It not only defines comfort
"living biota", but also the very possibility of its existence and
development.

Resources of the lithosphere necessary for the life of the biota

Resources of the lithosphere necessary for the life of the biota,
including
human
as
biological
view,
represented by four components:
rocks containing elements
biophilic series - soluble elements, vital
necessary for organisms and called biogenic
elements;
kudyurites - mineral matter kudyurov,
being the mineral food of animals - lithophages;
table salt;
underground waters.

Biophilic elements of the lithosphere

Elements and their compounds required by biota in large
quantities are called macrobiogenic (carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur), and in small quantities -
microbiogenic.
For plants, these are Fe, Mg, Si, Zn, B, Si, Mo, CI, V, Ca, which
provide the functions of photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and
metabolic function.
For animals, both the listed elements are required (except
boron), and additionally selenium, chromium, nickel, fluorine, iodine and
tin.
Despite the small quantities, all these elements are necessary
for
vital activity
biosystems,
for
implementation
biogeochemical functions of living matter

Average chemical composition of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, %

Average chemical composition of plant and human, % of dry matter

Mineral biogenic complexes-kudyurites

Lithophagy, or stone eating ("lithos" - a stone, "phagos" -
devouring) has been known for a long time. In the animal world, this phenomenon is so
the same usual as traditional food.
In addition to food and medicinal salts in nature, there is a large
a group of aluminosilicate and silicate minerals that are eaten
birds, animals and people.
-On the slopes of the hills. Sumatra folded zeolite and
tuffs, described caves measuring 3.5 × 7.5 m, which were "scraped"
elephants, mining white stone pumice (a product of the weathering of tuffs,
enriched
minerals
with
high
sorption
and
ion exchange properties). These elephant excavations
other animals also used - orangutans, gibbons, deer and even
proteins.
– In many parts of Africa, there are entire industries for
preparation of mineral foods. So, in the settlement of Anfoeda (Ghana)
two thousand workers extract clay and make cakes from it
for sale, and the inhabitants of the village of Uzalla (Nigeria) eat annually
400-500 tons of "edible" clay.
– Within active tectonic faults, on oil and gas bearing and
coal-bearing areas, where relatively
intense outflow of CO2 from the bowels, vegetation is significantly
different from the zone. It is more "lush" and more "southern".

The nature of lithophagy

Lithophagy is the natural need of wild animals for
balancing the salt composition of the body, especially in
periods of seasonal food change.
Lithophagy is based on lithotherapy, aimed at
regulation of the body's salt balance. as menu
animals choose mineral mixtures that have
high ion exchange and sorption properties.
The latter received the name kudyurites in Altai from the word
"kudur" - solonets soil, solonchak, solonetz, which
since ancient times used by primordial pastoralists - Altaians, Mongols,
manjura, etc.
AT last years kudyurites began to be used as
additives in pet food, which is essential
increased their growth and improved the physical state.

Salt

Table salt is a typical mineral formation,
consumed by biota and, first of all, by humans. Towards
all of them are lithophages.
The inhabitants of the Earth use it in the amount of 8-10 kg per person per year.
From a resource standpoint, this mineral formation is
exception to general rule, because in a certain volume
belongs to the category of renewable resource. table salt
obtained either from brines in the zone of salt deposits, or collected in
places of natural evaporation of salty sea water. Till
natural reserves of table salt in terms of resources of a special
cause no alarm.
It should be recalled that this mineral resource is necessary for man
as a biological species. Table salt activates some
enzymes, maintains acid-base balance, it
necessary for the production of gastric juice. Absence or deficiency
salt in the body leads to various disorders:
blood pressure, muscle cramps, heart palpitations
and other negative consequences.
It should be noted that, despite the almost unlimited reserves
table salt, at the end of the 80s the need for it of the population
Northern Eurasia was only 90% satisfied. The same position
has been preserved to the present day.

Groundwater as a resource of the lithosphere necessary for the life of biota

From these positions, the ecological significance of fresh water
groundwater requires no special explanation.
V.I. Vernadsky showed that living matter during
only 1 million years passes through itself such an amount
water, which is equal in volume and quantity to the world
ocean.
Underground
water,
suitable
for
drinking
water supply account for 14% of all fresh water
planets. However, they significantly outperform
quality surface water and unlike them
much better protected from contamination, contain
micro and macro elements necessary for the body
human, do not require expensive cleaning. Exactly
this determines their importance as the most important
source of drinking water supply, i.e. ensure
human water as a biological species.

Groundwater supply

Currently, more than 60% of cities in the Russian Federation have
centralized water sources. In terms of resources
groundwater use is well below potential
opportunities and is about 5% (for water supply) of potential resources estimated at 230 km3/year. However, the estimates
are valid only for Russia as a whole and change significantly with
transition to individual regions.
Shortage in drinking water basically due to three main
factors:
– lack of sufficient groundwater resources due to natural causes (permafrost zone, wide development of relatively
waterless strata - Karelia, Murmansk, Kirov and Astrakhan regions);
– intensive exploitation and depletion of the main aquifers
(Middle Urals, areas of large urban agglomerations);
– technogenic pollution of aquifers used for
drinking water supply.

Examples of groundwater scarcity

The most impressive example of such catastrophic anthropogenic impacts is Plain Crimean artesian basin. Intensive exploitation of groundwater for irrigation, as well as
the construction and commissioning of the North Crimean Canal led to the salinization of fresh groundwater. Over 30
years of operation of aquifers, about 10 km3 of fresh water became brackish.
The impossibility of using groundwater for domestic and drinking water supply as a result of
pollution is noted at the sites of storage of solid household waste. For example, in the area of ​​the polygon
MSW Shcherbinka, Moscow region Contaminated groundwater exceeding MPC for a number of components in
Penetrated 100-130 times into the Podolsko-Myachkovsky aquifer of Carboniferous deposits. As a result
As a result, the content of chlorides in the waters of the horizon increased by 3-7 times, sulfates more than doubled, it was noted
the presence of chromium and cadmium.
The development of deposits of solid minerals leads to the depletion of operational reserves
groundwater, which is associated not only with the selection of pumped water at the developed field, but also
with the failure of existing groundwater intakes. The largest depression funnels
are formed in those cases when aquifers with
regional distribution. Thus, the long-term operation (since 1956) of the dewatering system around
deposits KMA led to the closure of depression funnels around the Lebedinsky quarry and the mine.
Gubkin. Cretaceous aquifer levels have been lowered by 20-25 m, causing construction
The next Stoilensky quarry was carried out at the first stage in practically dehydrated rocks. AT
Currently, the groundwater regime of the development area is disturbed along the Upper Cretaceous horizon within a radius
40 km, and according to the Precambrian - within a radius of 80 km, which makes it economically inexpedient to use
underground waters of this area for water supply of the population.

Mineral resources, their structure and human society

Mineral resources are represented by a set of identified in the bowels
accumulations (deposits) of various minerals, in which
chemical elements and the minerals they form are in sharply
increased concentration compared to clarke contents in
the earth's crust, which allows
their industrial
use.
All natural resources are natural bodies and substances (or their
set), as well as types of energy that at a particular stage of development
productive forces are used or can be technically used
for
efficient
satisfaction
diverse
needs
human society.
The structure of mineral resources is determined by the purpose of their use.
There are five main categories of mineral resources:
– fuel and energy (oil, condensate, combustible gas, hard and brown coal, uranium,
bituminous shale, peat, etc.),
ferrous and alloying metals (ores of iron, manganese, chromium, titanium, vanadium, tungsten and
molybdenum),
– non-ferrous metals (ores of copper, cobalt, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum, antimony and mercury),
– non-metallic minerals (various types mineral salts(phosphate,
potash, sodium), construction (crushed stone, granite and sand) and other materials (native
sulfur, fluorite, kaolin, barite, graphite, asbestos-chrysotile, magnesite, refractory clay))
-The groundwater.

Schematic diagram of the use of natural resources of the lithosphere in the sphere

The role and place of mineral resources in the socio-economic and environmental issues of the development of the material base of modern society

The role and place of mineral resources in socio-economic and environmental issues of development
material base modern society

On the reserves of mineral resources of the upper horizons of the lithosphere

An analysis of the assessment of the availability of fuel and energy resources shows that the most
oil is a scarce type of fuel, its proven reserves are enough, according to various
sources, for 25-48 years. Then, in 35-64 years, the reserves of combustible gas and uranium will be depleted. It is better
the situation is with coal, its reserves in the world are large, and the security is 218-330 years.
At the same time, it should be taken into account that in the global supply of liquid energy carriers there are
significant reserves associated with productive oil and gas deposits on the shelf of the World
ocean. Russia's prospects are connected with the development of the shelf of the Arctic seas, where, according to estimates,
specialists contain over 100 billion tons of hydrocarbons in oil equivalent.
Among ferrous and alloying metals, titanium ores have the lowest availability (65
years) and tungsten (from 10 to 84 years according to various sources).
The global supply of non-ferrous metals is generally much lower than that of ferrous and
alloying. Stocks of cobalt, lead, zinc, tin, antimony and mercury will last for 10-35 years.
The provision of Russia with copper, nickel, lead reserves is 58-89%, and antimony - only 17-18%
from the world average. Against this background, aluminum reserves are an exception: with the current
the level of consumption and production of its reserves will be enough for another 350 years.
The global resource endowment of non-metallic minerals is on average
50-100 years and above. The most scarce are chrysotile asbestos (world supply 54
years) and fluorite (world 42 years).

World endowment of human society with mineral resources

Withdrawal of fresh groundwater in the main economic regions of Russia in km3/year as of 1.1.1992

1 - total;
2 - household and drinking
water supply;
3 - mine and quarry
drainage;
4 - water discharge without
use (loss
water at
transportation, dumping
well water,
self-draining from wells,
weir drainage
waters);
5 - technical
water supply;
6 - land irrigation and
watering pastures

Groundwater as a resource of the lithosphere

The availability of groundwater resources in Russia as a whole is quite high. In connection with
of particular importance, let us consider in more detail the provision of fresh,
mineral, thermal and industrial waters.
Fresh underground waters. In accordance with GOST 2874-82, these include groundwater
with dry residue up to 1 g/dm3 (in some cases up to 1.5 g/dm3).
When calculating the availability of groundwater resources, unclaimed
groundwater reserves, worked out for 50 years. Thus, if we assume that
over the next 50 years, the total withdrawal of groundwater will double and amount to
approximately 35-40 km3/year, it can be assumed that the total operating resources
groundwater in Russia, which is about 230 km3 / year, as a result of the selection
non-renewable reserves will decrease by about 15-20 km3/year.
There is no doubt that the bulk of fresh groundwater is used for drinking water.
water supply. However, a certain proportion of fresh groundwater is spent on technical
needs, irrigation of arable land and irrigation of pastures.

Provision of mineral waters in the territory of the former USSR

Thermal waters

Thermal waters are underground waters confined to
natural collectors of geothermal energy and presented
natural heat carriers (water, steam and steam-water mixtures).
For practical use thermal waters
are divided into several classes:
– low-potential (with heating temperature 20-100оС)
heating needs,
- medium potential - for heat supply,
– high-potential (more for power generation.
are used
for
Thermal waters with a higher temperature (150-350°C) due to
the technical difficulties of handling them have not yet found their application.
Supply of Russia with reserves thermal waters very high. From the general
quantity deep heat emitted by thermal springs in
atmosphere, 86% falls on the Kuril-Kamchatka region, about 7% - on
region of the Baikal Rift and only 8% to all other mobile regions
continental crust.
Environmental aspects of the development of geothermal resources are associated with
the probability of thermal and chemical contamination of the surface layers
lithosphere, since thermal waters, in addition to high temperature,
are also characterized by increased mineralization. To avoid this
pollution, a technology has been developed for the exploitation of aquifers with
re-injection of used thermal waters into them.

industrial water

Industrial waters include highly mineralized underground waters of deep (15,003,000 m) aquifers. From them, on an industrial scale, elements such as
sodium, chlorine, boron, iodine, bromine, lithium or their compounds (for example, table salt).
Interest in industrial use waters of deep aquifers as
mineral raw materials is determined by the expansion of the need for rare elements in different
industries and the depletion of traditional ore raw materials. In the world
extracted from industrial waters 90% of the total production of bromine, 85% - iodine, 30% - cooking
salt, sodium sulfide, lithium, 25% - magnesium, bromine, etc.
The provision of Russia with underground industrial waters is quite high. They are like
as a rule, confined to the deep parts of large artesian basins, etc.
promising for iodine and bromine areas within the East European, West Siberian and
Siberian platform areas.
Environmental aspects of the development of industrial waters are associated with the problem of disposal
waste waters and the likelihood of contamination of host rocks and day surface in
their extraction and processing.

Definition and structure of geological space resources

Geological space resource means
geological space necessary for settlement and
the existence of biota, including for life and activity
person.
In general systematics ecological functions lithosphere structure
resources of the geological space includes: biota habitat,
place of human settlement, receptacle of ground and underground
facilities, the place of burial and storage of waste, including
highly toxic and radioactive.
Another approach to structuring the resources of the geological space
is based on an approach that allows us to consider the lithosphere as
habitats and settlement of various representatives of flora and
fauna, including humans as a biological species, and as
space actively developed by mankind as a social
structure.

General structure of geological space resources

Resources of the geological space and the expansion of the engineering and economic activities of mankind

When considering the lithosphere as an engineering and economic environment
human activity, two ways of estimating resources are clearly distinguished
geological space: assessment of the "areal" surface resource
lithospheric space and assessment of the resource of underground geological
space for various types of its development. In each case there may be
many options for assessment in relation to various types of engineering activities.
The first of them - "areal" resources of the geological space have already become
huge deficit. At present, mankind has mastered about 56%
land surface with a tendency to a further increase in this process. And if
for a number of countries with large land resources, the problem of locating
industrial, agricultural and residential facilities has not yet become acute
relevant, then for small states with a large population
population, it has become the most important environmental factor social
development.
Most a prime example is Japan forced to accommodate
industrial facilities and recreation areas to cover the coastal parts of the sea
water areas and carry out construction on bulk soils.

Geological Space Resources and Urbanization

Particularly acute, even in relatively prosperous from the point of view of the overall territorial
security of countries, there is a question of shortage of space in urban areas. how
As a rule, this applies to capitals and large industrial centers.
The following figures speak eloquently about the pace of urbanization: in early XIX in. in the cities of the world
29.3 million people lived (3% of the world's population), by 1900 - 224.4 million (13.6%), by 1950 - 729 million
(28.8%), by 1980 - 1821 million (41.1%), by 1990 - 2261 million (41%).
The urban population of the Russian Federation by the beginning of 1990 was about 74%.
The share of the urban population in Europe is more than 73%, in Asia - 31, Africa - 32, North
America - 75, Latin America - 72, Australia and Oceania - 71%.
In total, there are about 220 million-plus cities in the world (more than 1 million inhabitants), the largest of
of which - Mexico City (9.8 million). In Greater London, 6.8 million people live in
with an area of ​​more than 1800 km2, about 9 million people live in Moscow on an area of ​​1000 km2.
With such a population density, a specific resource picture is created, in which, as
territories suitable for development are beginning to be considered with difficult engineering-geological and environmental conditions (territories of former landfills, slag-ash dumps, etc.).

Resources of geological space and complex civil and industrial facilities

Resources of the geological space for the placement of most complex
engineering structures that exert high pressure on the ground (0.5 MPa
and more), in particular, objects such as thermal power plants (TPP),
metallurgical plants, television towers, skyscrapers, defined
the presence of favorable engineering and geological conditions in the area
proposed construction. These structures, due to their specificity, as
as a rule, are located in well-developed territories, often within the
city ​​or in its immediate vicinity. This presents special
requirements for their stability and safety, not only from engineering, but also from
ecological positions.
The main resource (as well as geochemical environmental) problem,
related to TPP - placement of ash dumps, which is close to the problem
disposal of waste from the mining and processing industries
industry discussed below.
The main restrictions when choosing a site for nuclear
power plants (NPP):
– high seismicity (more than 8 points on the MSK-64 scale);
– the presence of thick (more than 45 m) strata of subsiding, water-soluble and
liquefying soils;
– the presence of active faults, karst and other potentially dangerous
exogenous geological processes;
– high groundwater level (less than 3 m);
– the presence of well-filtering soils and soils with low sorption
with a capacity of more than 10 m.
The main environmental hazard of nuclear power plants is the possibility
radioactive contamination of large areas in emergency situations.
These territories fall out of any use by hundreds, even thousands
years.

Resources of geological space and hydrotechnical construction

A pronounced specificity in terms of
necessary
resource
geological
space
has
hydrotechnical
construction. Space resource first
the turn is determined by the presence of watercourses and
sites with favorable engineering-geological conditions on them.
Major hydrotechnical construction in
significant
measure
exhausted
resource
geological space suitable for
these goals, even in Russia, rich in water and
territorial resources.
The flow of many large rivers of our country
regulated.

Inundation areas and number of relocated buildings for individual large reservoirs of the former USSR

Resources of the geological space of mining regions

Resources of the geological space of mining regions
There is an acute issue of the deficit of geological space in areas of development
mining and mining and processing industries.
The most capacious in relation to the alienation of natural geological
space are enterprises of the coal industry: production of 1 million tons
fuel is accompanied by the alienation of an average of about 8 hectares of land.
In mining areas, a significant violation of the territorial
resource occurs due to subsidence of the earth's surface over underground
workings. Settling values ​​reach in the Moscow coal basin 3
m on an area of ​​km2, in Donbass - 7 m on an area of ​​more than 20 km2. Precipitation may
continue for 20 years and sometimes fail.
Significant damage to the resource potential of the territories causes a change
hydrogeological conditions as a result of aquifer dewatering, mine
and quarry drainage. Formation of large depression funnels
area up to 300 km2 can not only violate the accepted system
water supply of the territory and lead to subsidence of the earth's surface, but also
cause activation of karst, suffosion and failure processes.

Resources of geological space and disposal of waste products of human society

The variety of waste products of the human community occupy huge
area. In Russia alone, their total area as of (1997) is more than 500 thousand hectares, and
the negative impact of waste on the environment is manifested in the territory, 10 times
exceeding the specified area.
Most waste actively interacts with the environment (lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere). Duration of "aggressive" (active)
the existence of waste depends on its composition. During storage, all waste undergoes
changes due to both internal physical and chemical processes, and
influence external conditions. As a result, at landfills for storage and disposal of waste
new environmentally hazardous substances may be formed, which, when penetrated into
the lithosphere will pose a serious threat to the biota.
Cities are the largest producers of waste. The statistics show that in
conditions of modern technology with more high level economic development
country within its borders is formed and large quantity waste per capita.
The average rate of garbage accumulation in developed countries ranges from 150-170 (Poland) to
700-1100 kg/person per year (USA). Moscow annually produces 2.5 million tons of solid domestic
waste (MSW), and average rate"production" of MSW per person per year reaches
approximately 1 m3 by volume and 200 kg by mass (for major cities recommended standard
1.07 m3/person in year).

Waste classification by origin

Radius of negative impact of municipal solid waste landfills

The main aspects of the impact of solid waste landfills environmental and human components

The radii of the negative impact of landfills for storing waste from the mining and mining and processing industries

Radii negative impact polygons
storage of waste from the mining and processing industries