Periodization is a conditional division of the history of mankind in accordance with certain criteria into time stages. Chronology is a science that allows you to identify the time of existence of an object or phenomenon.
There are two types of chronology: absolute and relative. Absolute chronology accurately determines the time of the event (at such and such a time: year, month, day). Relative chronology only establishes the sequence of events, noting that one of them happened before the other. This chronology is widely used by archaeologists in the study of various archaeological cultures.
To establish the exact date, scientists use methods such as radiocarbon (according to the content of the carbon isotope in organic residues), dendrochronological (according to tree rings), archeomagnetic (baked clay items are dated) and others. All these methods are still far from the desired accuracy and allow us to date events only approximately.
There are several types of periodization primitive history. Archaeological periodization as the main criterion uses a consistent change of tools. Main stages:
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) - is divided into lower (earliest in time), middle and upper (late). The Paleolithic began more than 2 million years ago, ended around the 8th millennium BC. e.;
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) - VIII-V millennium BC e.;
Neolithic (new stone age) - V-III millennium BC e.;
Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age) - a transitional stage between the stone and metal periods;
Bronze Age - III-II millennium BC e.;
Iron Age - begins in the 1st millennium BC. e.
These dates are very approximate and different researchers offer their own options. Moreover, in different regions these stages occurred at different times.
Geological periodization.
The history of the Earth is divided into four eras. The last era is Cenozoic. It is divided into Tertiary (began 69 million years ago), Quaternary (began 1 million years ago) and Modern (began 14,000 years ago) periods. The Quaternary period is divided into the Pleistocene (preglacial and glacial epochs) and Holocene (postglacial epoch).
Periodization of the history of primitive society. There is no unity among researchers on the issue of periodization of the history of the most ancient society. The most common is the following: 1) the primitive human herd; 2) tribal community (this stage is divided into early tribal community hunters, gatherers and fishermen and an advanced community of farmers and pastoralists); 3) primitive neighbor (proto-peasant) community. The era of primitive society ends with the appearance of the first civilizations.
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Periodization of primitive history
The most ancient period of human history (prehistory) - from the appearance of the first people to the emergence of the first states - was called the primitive communal system, or primitive society. At this time, there was not only a change in the physical type of a person, but also in tools, dwellings, forms of organization of collectives, families, worldviews, etc. Taking into account these components, scientists have put forward a number of systems of periodization of primitive history.
The most developed is archaeological periodization, which is based on a comparison of man-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, history human civilization divided into centuries - stone, bronze and iron. In the Stone Age, which is usually identified with the primitive communal system, three epochs are distinguished: Paleolithic (Greek - ancient stone) - up to 12 thousand years ago, Mesolithic (middle stone) - up to 9 thousand years ago, Neolithic (new stone ) - up to 6 thousand years ago.
Epochs are divided into periods - early (lower), middle and late (upper), as well as cultures characterized by a uniform complex of artifacts. The culture is named according to the place of its modern location (“Shel” - near the city of Shel in Northern France, “Kostenki” - from the name of the village in Ukraine) or according to other signs, for example: “culture of battle axes”, “culture of log burials”, etc. .
The creator of the cultures of the Lower Paleolithic was a man of the Pithecanthropus or Sinanthropus type, the Middle Paleolithic - Neanderthal, the Upper Paleolithic - Cro-Magnon. This definition is based on archaeological research in Western Europe and cannot be fully extended to other regions. On the territory of the former USSR, about 70 sites of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic and about 300 sites of the Upper Paleolithic have been explored - from the Prut River in the west to Chukotka in the east.
During the Paleolithic period, people initially made rough hand axes from flint, which were unified tools of labor. Then the manufacture of specialized tools begins - these are knives, piercers, side-scrapers, composite tools, such as a stone ax. In the Mesolithic, microliths predominate - tools made of thin stone plates, which were inserted into a bone or wooden frame.
At the same time, the bow and arrows were invented. The Neolithic is characterized by the manufacture of polished tools from soft rocks of stone - jade, slate, slate. The technique of sawing and drilling holes in stone is being mastered.
The stone age is being replaced short period Eneolithic, i.e. the existence of cultures with copper-stone tools.
The Bronze Age (Latin - Eneolithic; Greek - Chalcolithic) began in Europe from the 3rd millennium BC. At this time, in many regions of the planet, the first states arise, civilizations develop - Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Mediterranean (early Minoan, early Helladic), Mexican and Peruvian in America. On the Lower Don, settlements of this time were studied in Kobyakovo, Gnilovskaya, Safyanovo, on the shores of the Manych lakes.
The first iron products appeared on the territory of Russia in the 10th-7th centuries. BC - among the tribes that lived in the North Caucasus (Scythians, Cimmerians), in the Volga region (Dyakovo culture), Siberia and other regions. It should be noted that frequent and massive migrations of various peoples from the east, passing through the territory Central Russia and the Don steppes, destroyed the settlements of the settled population, destroyed entire cultures that could, under favorable conditions, develop into civilizations and states.
Another system of periodization, based on a comprehensive description of material and spiritual cultures, was proposed in the 70s of the 19th century. L. Morgan. At the same time, the scientist was based on a comparison of ancient cultures with modern cultures American Indians. According to this system, primitive society is divided into three periods: savagery, barbarism and civilization.
The period of savagery is the time of early tribal system(Paleolithic and Mesolithic), it culminates in the invention of the bow and arrow. During the period of barbarism, ceramic products appeared, agriculture and animal husbandry arose. The civilization is characterized by the appearance of bronze metallurgy, writing and states.
In the 40s of the XX century. Soviet scientists P.P. Efimenko, M.O. Kosven, A.I. Pershits and others proposed systems of periodization of primitive society, the criteria for which were the evolution of forms of ownership, the degree of division of labor, family relations, etc.
In a generalized form, such a periodization can be represented as follows:
- era of the primitive herd;
- the era of the tribal system;
- the era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property).
All of these periodization systems are imperfect in their own way. There are many examples when stone tools of the Paleolithic or Mesolithic form were used by the peoples of the Far East in the 16th-17th centuries, while they had a tribal society and developed forms of religion and families. So optimal system periodization should take into account largest number indicators of the development of society.
The issues of periodization and the creation of an adequate chronology of primitive history have been raised repeatedly, but the lack of reliable facts and, no less important, the presence of very diverse assumptions and theories, do not make it possible to draw clear conclusions so far.
Since the development of writing and obtaining more specific data, we have a number of information documents and archaeological sources, however, there are also a number of disagreements regarding this period. Specialists in the field of history for a long period of time offered quite different examples distribution and periodization general development human society. For example, A. Ferguson, and then Morgan, proposed a periodization of history by covering three successive stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization. Surprisingly, Morgan additionally divided each of the first two stages into three more stages: lower, middle and higher. According to the author, at the lowest stage of savagery, human activity was more related to hunting, fishing and gathering. Private property was then completely absent and absolute equality existed among the inhabitants of the tribe. The author classifies active agriculture and pronounced cattle breeding as the stage of barbarism. It was believed that during that period private property arose and a social hierarchy was formed. The third, final stage is associated with the emergence and development of the state, cities, society, divided into classes, writing and other attributes of modernity. According to Morgan, the earliest, and therefore the initial stage of the development of society had the lowest stage of savagery, because then the formation of articulate speech was only in its infancy. The second, that is middle step wildness, according to the classification, begins with the use of fire and the introduction of fish food into the diet, and the final, highest stage of wildness balls is directly related to the invention of onions. Along with this, the lower stage of barbarism presumably begins with the appearance and spread of pottery, and after that the middle stage was marked by a transition to agriculture and cattle breeding. The culmination, that is, the highest stage of barbarism arose from the moment the metals were mastered.
The most thoroughly developed periodization is archaeological, since it is based on a comparison of real and man-made tools, various materials, features of the forms of dwellings and burials. According to this gradation, the history of mankind is divided into three main periods: the Stone Age, following it bronze age and, most fruitful of facts, the Iron Age.
Various Soviet scientists, including P. P. Efimenko and A. I. Pershits, proposed a new periodization system for primitive society. The main criterion for their approach was the evolution of forms of ownership, family relations and the degree of division of labor. In a slightly generalized form, this periodization can be characterized as three volume periods:
- the initial era of the primitive herd;
- the subsequent era of a typical tribal system;
- the final era of the comprehensive decomposition of the communal-clan system.
Undoubtedly, all existing periodization systems are imperfect. On the this moment there are many various examples refutation of each, since it is impossible to ideally characterize the various facts in the aggregate and give them great value tied to a specific period. Evidence of the cross-use of tools among different peoples or their spasmodic improvement is also evidence not in favor of periodization.
At the moment, it is believed that the global, universal conditional periodization primitive order exhausted and ends in the Mesolithic, at a time when cultural development suddenly accelerated very sharply. At the same time, the archaeological periodization of the key stages in the development of primitive society, generally accepted by agreement, looks very voluminous and is characterized by different eras with an indication of periodization. At the same time, the culture of the development of society could exist on the verge of two eras, so the table has neighboring items in unexpected places.
So, the chronology of primitive history includes the epochs of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic), Bronze Age and Iron Age. At the same time, the early, middle and late Paleolithic with such human species as hominids of different Homo species, as well as Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens sapiens in the Middle Paleolithic. The Neolithic is also divided into early, middle and late according to the characteristics of development, types of activity. The Bronze Age is characterized by an early history and active spread of metallurgy. During this period, people learned how to effectively extract and process metals such as gold, copper, bronze. By the way, the first written sources that provided information about the writing of this period were discovered in Asia Minor and the Aegean. The Iron Age, as the most accessible for study and gave maximum amount information is conventionally divided into three stages: the period of early history, antiquity, the Middle Ages and new story.
What plan and what will be the discoveries of the near future and whether our descendants will be able to correct these data, one can only guess.
The history of primitive society (hereinafter - IPO) is the oldest stage in the history of mankind, the longest in chronological terms. The term was introduced by Soviet scientists. In foreign literature, it has the names "prehistory", "prehistory" (due to the lack of writing). The subject of IPO research is the society and culture of mankind, physiology, intellectual ability. IPO part of a single historical science. Specificity: others historical disciplines based on the study written sources, IPO has practically no such sources. Historians are forced to reconstruct the IPO on the basis of data from archeology, ethnology, paleoanthropology, paleozoology, and paleobotany. IPO reconstruction is the result of a synthesis of data from a number of other sciences. The main aspect of such studies (DNA) is that they allow reconstructing the history of the emergence of the person himself.
The extreme similarity of a person at the level of DNA structure is observed with monkeys, especially with chimpanzees, with whom we are almost 99% similar at the genetic level. (+33% with Narcissus, 75% with a dog). This again proves the origin of man from one of the species of fossil monkeys.
Historiography of the history of primitive society.
The earliest information about primitiveness - ethno-observations ancient eastern civilizations. Writing begins with ancient egypt. Egyptian texts contain information about neighbors who were at a lower level of development. In ancient times, the center of civilization was the Mediterranean, the peoples of this region, the Greeks and Romans, are considered civilized. Ancient researchers were also interested in them, there is enough great material in ancient literature about peoples who were lower in terms of development Ancient Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages, an era of decline and stagnation of scientific thought began in Western Europe. All the postulates of Holy Scripture were taken on faith. The concept of primitiveness remained entirely dogmatically Christian. This means that the entire history of mankind began with Adam and Eve. With the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries Europeans encountered peoples who were at a significantly lower stage of development. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, set forth in 1859, is important for understanding human development. In subsequent times, an increasing number of finds of ancient remains of the human skeleton began to confirm this theory. 20th century – great scientific deep processing, a large number of new archaeological discoveries, attraction of data of natural science disciplines. Modern stage: clarification and addition of ancestral forms of man. Further development of the Darwinian theory of evolution in conjunction with the achievements of genetics.
Chronology of the history of primitive society.
About 6 thousand years have passed since the emergence of the first states and writing. With regard to the chronology of the IPO, two types of definitions of events and phenomena should be distinguished:
- absolute chronology - when a specific, more or less exact date events (e.g. year, century, number of thousands of years ago),
- chronology is relative, when, considering and comparing a number of events and phenomena, we only determine their position in time relative to each other, without naming specific dates (for example: site A existed before site B, but later than site C).
As for the methods of absolute chronology, they are based on chemical research. The decay rate of radioactive elements is constant and practically does not depend on environmental conditions. Knowing this rate, and measuring the content of such elements in archaeological find, you can calculate how much time has passed since the death of the organism or the manufacture of the tool. Relative chronology methods are primarily geological and paleontological methods, the essence of which is to identify the relative position of various geological and cultural layers, that is, in other words, to establish and study stratigraphy. Periodization is closely related to chronology.
Periodization of the history of primitive society.
Archaeological periodization was created in the 19th century, it is based on the use of raw materials from which tools were made, Thomsen. The whole history is divided into three centuries: stone (rp - 2-3 million - 250 thousand BC; SRP - 250-40 thousand BC; VP - 40-12 thousand BC. ; Mez - 10-5 thousand BC; Neo - 5-3 thousand BC; Eneo - 3-2 thousand BC), bronze (2 thousand BC. - 8th century BC) and iron (8-7th century BC). John Lubbock, Paleolithic and Neolithic. O. Thorell, Mesolithic.
Geology - the science of change earth's surface and its structures. The last 65 million years of the Earth's history is called Cenozoic era. The final stage of the Cenozoic is usually distinguished as the Quaternary period. Eocene - 54 million (monkeys), Oligocene (38 million), Miocene - 23 million (Hominoids), Pliocene - 5.5 million (Hominids), Pleistocene - 1.7 million, Holocene - 10 thousand BC. e.
A large number of tools - additional periods(technique of stone processing, processing of tools). Frenchman Gabriel de Mortilley Shell, ashel, Mousterian.
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ............... 2
1. Periodization of primitive history............................................... ............... 3
2. Anthropogenesis ............................................... ................................................. .... 5
2.1. General problems of anthropogenesis ....................................................... ................ 5
2.2. Philosophical problems of anthropogenesis……………………………………...8
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ........ ten
Literature................................................. ................................................. ...... eleven
Introduction.
About 3 million years ago man separated from the animal world. By the time 35 - 10 thousand years ago, the formation of modern man. And only 5 - 1 thousand years ago, classes and states formed in different parts of the globe. Scientists have calculated that if the entire history of mankind is equated to one day, then it will take only 4 minutes from the moment the classes were formed to the present day.
Of the entire history of mankind, the primitive communal system was the longest in time - more than a million years. It is not easy to determine its lower limit with any certainty, since in the newly discovered bone remains of our distant ancestors, most experts see either a prehuman or a human, and from time to time the prevailing opinion changes. At present, some scientists believe that the most ancient man (and thus the primitive society) arose 1.5 - 1 million years ago, others attribute its appearance to more than 2.5 million years ago. Top face the primitive communal system fluctuates within the last 5 thousand years, differing by different continents. In Asia and Africa, the first class societies and states formed at the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, in America - in the 1st millennium AD, in other areas of the ecumene - even later.
The history of the origin of human beings from animal creatures is still a mystery of nature. Where, when and why a person and the human community appeared - there is still no consensus among scientists. And the question is very interesting, especially since there are no monuments of that time - neither written nor architectural. It remains only to examine the bones ancient people, to dig up burial places and dwellings of people - and on the basis of such meager material to draw general conclusions, build far-reaching assumptions, talk about the origins of modern man and modern civilizations. In this regard, a later time, the Copper or Bronze and Iron Ages, is more “fertile” ground for historical research - monuments, including written and architectural ones, of that time still survived enough, and therefore the mysteries generated by that stage of history are all but much less.
1. Periodization of primitive history.
We note right away that at present among scientists involved in the study ancient history There is no single opinion of humanity on the periodization of this history. There are several special and general (historical) periodizations of primitive history, partly reflecting the nature of the disciplines involved in their development.
Of the special periodizations, the most important is the archaeological one, based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. Already known to ancient Chinese and ancient Roman philosophers, the division of ancient history into three centuries - stone, bronze (copper) and iron - received scientific development in the 19th - early 20th centuries, when the epochs and stages of these centuries were basically typified.
At the dawn of the cultural development of mankind, a period of the Stone Age is distinguished, several hundred times longer than the entire subsequent history of mankind, and periodization within this period is carried out in accordance with the change and complication of the forms of stone inventory. Within the Paleolithic, as already mentioned, the epochs of the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic are usually distinguished, the Olduvian stage, characteristic of Australopithecus, just represents the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic era. It is this era that correlates in a wide chronological framework with the time of the Pithecanthropes, its duration is enormous, and it in itself reveals significant dynamics in the forms of settlements of the most ancient human groups and the types of stone tools they made.
So, the Stone Age begins with the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), in which most scientists now distinguish the epochs of the early (lower), middle and late (upper) Paleolithic.
Then follows the transitional era of the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), which is sometimes called the “Post-Paleolithic” (Epipaleolithic), or “Pre-Neolithic” (Protoneolithic), sometimes it is not distinguished at all.
The final era of the Stone Age is the New Stone Age (Neolithic). At the end of it, the first tools made of copper appear, which gives reason to speak of a special stage of the Eneolithic, or Chalcolithic.
The schemes of the internal periodization of the New Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages at the stage of different researchers are very different from each other. Even more different are the cultures or phases distinguished within the stages, named after the areas where they were first discovered.
Archaeological periodization is entirely based on technological criteria and does not give a complete picture of the development of production as a whole. At present, archaeological periodization has turned from a global into a set of regional ones, but even in this form it remains of considerable importance.
A special aspect of the periodization of primitive history is its division into the history of primitive societies that existed before the appearance of the first civilizations, and societies that coexisted with these and later civilizations. AT Western literature they differ as, on the one hand, prehistory, on the other hand, proto-, para- or ethnohistory, which are understood not only as branches of science, but also as the epochs they study. But this is mainly a source study distinction: prehistory is studied mainly archaeologically, protohistory - also with the help of written information of civilizations adjacent to primitive societies, that is, historically proper. Meanwhile, the selection of those and other societies also has a content-historical significance. Both belong to the same socio-economic formation, since the criterion for belonging to a formation is the mode of production, and not the era of its existence. However, they are not identical in terms of the degree of independence of their development: as a rule, the former experienced less outside influences than the latter.
For all the importance of special periodizations of primitive history, none of them is able to replace the general (historical) periodization of the most ancient past of mankind, the development of which has been going on for more than a century, mainly on the basis of ethnographic and archaeological data.
The historical-materialistic periodization of primitive history is based on the evolution of productive forces. In accordance with this scheme, the history of human society is divided into three major stages, depending on the material from which the tools used by man were made: the Stone Age - 3 million years ago - the end of the 3rd millennium BC; bronze age - from end III millennium BC - 1 millennium BC; Iron Age - from the 1st millennium BC
Thus, there are more than enough criteria for the periodization of human history - they can be found for any “taste and color”, i.e. problems to classify certain primitive communities, tools or jotas, even fossilized remains do not exist.
2. Anthropogenesis.
2.1. General problems of anthropogenesis.
The clarification of many problems of anthropogenesis is facilitated by the intensive research work carried out in a number of countries on the morphology of already known finds, their comparison with geological dating and the historical and cultural interpretation of the accompanying archaeological inventory. As a result, we can formulate several theses that reflect the modification of our knowledge in the field of anthropogenesis over the past decades and our modern ideas.
1. Paleogeographic interpretation ecological niche of anthropoid Pliocene primates in the Sivalik hills in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, together with the expansion of knowledge of their morphology, made it possible with fairly reliable grounds to express the idea of a straightened body position and bipedal locomotion in these primates - as many researchers believe, the immediate ancestors of man. When walking upright, the forelimbs were free, which created a locomotor and morphological prerequisite for labor activity.
2. The dating of the most ancient finds of Australopithecus in Africa causes heated discussions. If we do not follow the most extreme points of view and rely not on single dates, but on a series of dates, then in this case the antiquity of the earliest Australopithecus should be determined at 4-5 million years. Geological studies in Indonesia point to a much greater antiquity of the Pithecanthropes than previously thought and bring the age of the most archaic of them to 2 million years. Approximately the same, if not more respectable, age have finds in Africa, which can be conditionally attributed to the group of pithecanthropes.
3. The question of the beginning of the history of mankind is closely connected with the solution of the problem of the place of Australopithecus in the taxonomic system. If they are part of the family of hominids, or humans, then the date given for their earliest geological age does indeed mark the beginning of human history; if not, this beginning cannot be pushed back from the present by more than 2 - 2.5 million years, that is, by the age of the most ancient finds of pithecanthropes. Boom raised in scientific literature around the so-called skilled man (homo habilis), did not receive support from a morphological point of view: it turned out to be possible to include the find in the Australopithecus group. But traces of purposeful activity discovered along with it, finds of tools in layers with bone remains of Australopithecus, osteodontokeratic, or bone, industry southern group African Australopithecus, the morphology of the Australopithecus themselves is fully mastered bipedal locomotion and noticeably larger than that of great apes, brain - allow us to positively resolve the issue of the inclusion of Australopithecus in the composition of hominids, and therefore date the appearance of the first people 4 - 5 million years ago.
4. A long-term discussion in biological taxonomy also touched on the development of a classification of fossil hominids, leading to the emergence of a scheme in which the entire family of hominids was reduced to one genus with three species - Australopithecus man, Homo erectus (early hominids - Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus) and a man of modern physical type (late hominids - Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people). The scheme became widespread and began to be used in many paleoanthropological works. But a thorough and objective assessment of the scale of morphological differences between individual groups of fossil hominids forces us to reject it and preserve the generic status of Pithecanthropes, on the one hand, Neanderthals and modern humans, on the other, while distinguishing several species within the Pithecanthropus genus, as well as separating Neanderthals and modern humans into quality independent species. This approach is also supported by a comparison of the differences between fossil hominids and generic and specific forms in the animal world: the differences between individual forms of fossil hominids are closer to generic than to species.
5. The more paleoanthropological finds of fossil man accumulate (although their number is still negligible), the more obvious it becomes that ancient humanity from the very beginning existed in many local forms, some of which may have turned out to be dead ends evolutionary development and did not take part in the formation of later and progressive variants. The multilinearity of the evolution of fossil hominids throughout their history is proved by this with sufficient certainty.
6. The manifestation of multilinear evolution does not cancel the stadial principle, but the accumulation of information about specific forms of fossil people and more and more perfect ways estimates of their chronological age limit too straightforward use of this principle. In contrast to the views of previous decades, according to which the transition from an earlier to a later and progressive stage of morphological development was carried out pano-cumenously, the concept seems to be fair, according to which there were constant delays and accelerations of evolutionary development, due to the degree of territorial isolation, the nature of settlement, the level economic development of a particular group of hominids, its numbers and other reasons of a geographical and socio-historical order. The coexistence over a number of millennia of forms related to different levels phasic development, can now be considered proven in the history of the family of hominids.
7. The stadial and multilinear nature of evolution has been vividly reflected in the process of the formation of modern man. After the discovery of Neanderthal skeletons in East Asia the whole old light entered the range of a Neanderthal human species, which once again confirmed the existence of the Neanderthal phase in human evolution. The ongoing discussion between supporters of the monocentric and polycentric hypotheses of the origin of mankind has largely lost its sharpness, since the arguments in favor of one or another point of view, based on old finds, seem to have been exhausted, and new finds of remains of fossil man appear extremely rarely. The idea of the predominant position of the Mediterranean basin, especially its eastern part, and Western Asia in the formation of a modern type of man, perhaps, is legitimate for Caucasoids and African Negroids.
The classical formulations of the polycentric and monocentric hypotheses now look outdated, and modern concept multilinear evolution in relation to the process of the origin of modern man requires a flexible approach in the interpretation of these facts and should be freed from extremes in favor of only monocentrism.
Philosophical problems of anthropogenesis.
The unity of natural and social in man. Individual, individuality, personality. Personality and society. Purpose and meaning of human life.
The extremely complicated system of studying a person, covering almost the entire range of knowledge (from the physical and mathematical sciences to the humanities), makes new demands on the philosophical doctrine of a person ...
Modern philosophy implements a monistic approach to man, considering his physical and mental nature in unity. At the same time, the unity of the social and biological is always taken into account when explaining the mechanism of action of social causality through the totality internal conditions human body.
Philosophical generalization of heterogeneous scientific knowledge about the relationship between social and individual development man is one of the most important ways building general theory human knowledge.
In any of the problems of human science, the interaction of natural science, psychology and social sciences is based on the philosophical doctrine of man. Already at present, the interaction of the sciences related to natural science, on the one hand, and social science, on the other, serves the cause of integrating knowledge about a person (for the purposes of education, scientific organization labor, etc.). The increasing scale of such integration when solving new problems, for example, space exploration or human adaptation to deep-sea diving, etc., is instructive. important step technical relationships that require legal and moral regulation are transformed into spiritual values, including human qualities, including mental and physical health. Even transplantation of organs (for example, heart), the relationship of the donor and the recipient in modern surgical operations become moral and legal and philosophical problem relating to the meaning and value of human life for society. The integration of heterogeneous scientific knowledge about man can be fully realized only at the level of the philosophical doctrine of man, which reveals the dialectics of nature and society.
The problem of man is the fundamental problem of philosophy. Man is the most complex object of study. There are a lot of definitions of this fundamental philosophical category. Man is the highest level of living organisms on Earth, the subject of the socio-historical activity of culture. The problem of man takes shape in philosophy and culture far from immediately. In the philosophy of antiquity and the Ancient East, man was understood as a fragment of nature, the essence of which is due to the impersonal world spirit or mind, and its life path determined by the laws of fate. The essential difference between Western and Eastern philosophy at this stage was that the East never knew that sharp opposition between the body and the soul, which took shape in Western philosophy and culture, starting with Plato. Beginning with Plato, the dilemma of soul and body sharpens. In the philosophy of this thinker, a person acts as an initially dual being: with his body he belongs to the vain world of nature, and with his rational soul he is nostalgic about the lost cosmic harmony and eternal ideas. An alternative to Plato in antiquity was Aristotle, who, in contrast to the first, reconciled man not only with natural world, but also with oneself, orienting the personality towards achieving happiness in a specific empirical experience, and not in the cosmic wanderings of the soul. In general, the image of a person in ancient philosophy is cosmocentric (a person was considered as a microcosm in the harmony of spirit and body), in contrast to the Christian medieval world view which is based on the theocentric model of man.
In Christian philosophy, the biblical idea of man as the image and likeness of God, internally divided as a result of the fall, is combined with the doctrine of the union of the divine and human nature in the form of Christ. The philosophy of the Renaissance substantiated the self-sufficient value of man and his earthly life. In the philosophy of modern times, in accordance with the idea of Descartes "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I exist"), self-consciousness and the processes of individualization of the individual associated with it are emphasized. In German classical philosophy, the cultural and historical engagement of human consciousness (Hegel) and the possibility of sensuality in creating truly human connections and relationships (Feuerbach) were also justified. P. p. XX century was marked by the turn of Western philosophy to man. The problem of man has become central to a number of philosophical and religious movements. The term "philosophical anthropology" was assigned to the philosophical movement, the founder of which was Max Scheler. “Philosophical anthropology is a branch of philosophy that studies a person as a special kind of being, comprehends the problems of human nature and human existence, analyzes the modes of human existence, and reveals the potential of an anthropocentric picture of the world.”
Man is a generic concept, it is a combination of physiological and psychological characteristics distinguishing a human being from other living beings. An individual is a concrete representative of the human race. Individuality is a set of physical, mental, external features that distinguish one individual from another. In the process of growth, the child develops a character that depends on the external and inner world. Depending on these factors, the child grows up calm or unbalanced ( mental features), healthy or sick ( physical features), beautiful or with defects (external features). Personality is social entity person, totality social characteristics that emerge in the course of social experience. A personality is formed and develops in the course of its life activity, i.e., a certain social experience. Allocate physical, social and spiritual personality. According to the Russian philosopher Berdyaev, the individual is a naturalistic, primarily biological category; is part of the genus and subordinate to the genus. The individual is also a sociological category, and as such he is subordinate to society, is a part of society. To become a person is the task of a person. The most striking manifestation of the individual is the unique. The opposite of the individual unique is the typical. The limiting case of typification of technical devices is standardization. A person cannot realize the fullness of his life with isolation in himself. Man is not only a being, but he is also a social being. But society, nation, state are not personalities, a person as a person has a greater value than they do. Therefore, the right of the human personality and its duty to defend its originality, independence, spiritual freedom, to fulfill its vocation in society.
The problem of the meaning of human life is condemned by philosophers different directions, different eras. Consider some philosophical approaches:
Existentialism is the philosophy of human existence. This direction is characterized by the study of the human condition, the problem of alienation of a person from society. According to philosophers - existentialists, a person makes himself, acquires his essence already existing. The meaning of life is in accordance with one's own nature, satisfaction of needs, receiving pleasure, creative activity for their own pleasure and the good of society.
From the point of view of philosophers - Marxists, the meaning of human life is in the appropriation by a person of his own true human essence. The meaning of life from the standpoint of Marxists is to recognize the need to participate individual person in the communist movement, in the elimination of humiliating working conditions, in the transformation of one's own human nature.
Conclusion.
The origin of people from anthropoid apes is confirmed by the similarity of their anatomy, physiology, ethology, immunology and genetic structure, as well as by the finds of bone remains of intermediate fossil creatures - pithecanthropes, and in general does not cause doubts in natural science. However, for all that, in the simial hypothesis of anthropogenesis, there remain many serious contradictions and mysteries, often hushed up, or used by anti-Darwinists, or not noticed at all. unresolved issues Anthropogenesis includes mysterious reasons for the loss of woolen cover by people, although even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys retain wool. What remains unexplained is the cap of hair on a person's head, the protrusion of the chin and nose with the nostrils turned down for some reason; functional reasons differences between the teeth of humans and other primates, although they are all considered equally omnivorous in nutrition, the genetically incredible speed (as is usually believed in 4-5 millennia) of the transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man ( Homo sapiens) and much more. So many secrets in the reconstruction of the original form of man indicate that in modern theory anthropogenesis there is some major gap.
Literature.
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