Within words different parts speech, it is customary to distinguish categories by meaning - groups of words united by their lexical meaning, affecting their morphological features. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the basis of this word.
Nouns have two groups of digits according to their meaning:
1) property / common noun;
2) concreteness / abstractness / materiality / collectiveness.
Common nouns designate objects without distinguishing them from the class of the same type (city, river, girl, newspaper).
Proper nouns designate objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them (Moscow, Volga, Masha, Izvestia). Proper names must be distinguished from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects ("Evening Moscow"). Part own names does not necessarily include a proper name (Moscow State University).
Specific nouns call sensually perceived objects - things (table), persons (Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.
Abstract nouns denote abstract concepts (joy), signs (whiteness), actions (drawing).
Real nouns denote substances (milk, cream, sand).
Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects (foliage) or persons (children).
The meaning of the morphological selection of precisely these groups of nouns by meaning lies in the fact that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological sign of the number of this noun. So, common nouns have the form of both numbers specific nouns(home - at home). The words of other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only the only one), for example:
rank by value
only the only
plural only
own
Moscow
Carpathians
abstract
courage
chores
real
milk
cream
collective
the youth
finance
Animate and inanimate nouns
Nouns have a constant morphological sign of animation.
The sign of animateness of nouns is closely connected with the concept of living / inanimate. Nevertheless, animation is not a rank in terms of meaning, but a proper morphological feature.
All morphological features are characterized by the fact that they have a typified formal expression- are expressed formative morphemes(endings or formative suffixes - see morphemic). Morphological features of words can be expressed
1) intra-word - formative morphemes of the word itself (table- - table-s),
2) extra-verbal - formative morphemes of agreed words (new coat - new coats),
Both of these means of expression can be presented together. In this case, one grammatical meaning is expressed in the sentence several times - both intra-verbally and extra-verbally (new table- - new tables-s).
Animation as a morphological feature also has formal means of expression. First, animateness / inanimateness is expressed by the endings of the noun itself:
1) animate nouns have the same endings. numbers V. p. and R. p., and for nouns husband. genus, this also applies to units. number;
2) inanimate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and I. p., and for nouns husband. genus, this also applies to units. number.
Compare:
animated
inanimate
I. p. pl. numbers
boy-and
tables
R. p. pl. numbers
(no) boy-s
(no) tables
V. p. pl. numbers
(see) boy-s
(see) tables
In Russian, nouns are presented with a fluctuation in animation: their V. p. can coincide with both I. p. and R. p., for example, (I see) microbes / microbes, describe characters /character-ey, creatures-o/creatures-;
Feminine and neuter nouns, which have forms only in the singular, do not formally express animation (youth, students), they are not formally characterized by animation.
Animation also has an extra-verbal expression: the ending of an adjective or participle agreed with the noun in V. p. differs depending on the animation or inanimateness of the noun, cf.: (I see) new students, but new tables.
The out-of-word expression of the animation of nouns is more universal than the intra-word one: it expresses animation even in the case of the immutability of the noun: (I see) beautiful madams, but beautiful coats.
The animateness of most nouns reflects a certain state of affairs in extralinguistic reality: mostly living beings are called animate nouns, and inanimate - inanimate objects, however, there are cases of violation of this pattern:
fluctuation in animation
An object cannot be both alive and non-living at the same time:
(see) microbes / microbes;
alive but inanimate
1) aggregates of living beings:
(I see) armies, crowds, nations;
2) plants, mushrooms:
(collect) chanterelles;
inanimate but animated
1) human toys:
(I see) dolls, nesting dolls, tumblers;
2) figures of some games:
(play) kings, queens;
3) deceased:
(I see) the dead, drowned, but the corpse (inanimate);
4) fictional creatures:
(I see) mermaids, goblin, brownies.
Animation, as already mentioned, is a constant feature of a noun. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that different meanings one word can be differently designed according to animation, for example: I see a genius-I (a person) - I appreciate a genius- (mind).
Gender as a morphological feature of a noun
Nouns have a constant morphological gender and are masculine, feminine or neuter.
The main expression of the morphological gender is extra-verbal - the endings of adjectives consistent with the noun, participles in the position of the definition and words with fickle sign gender in the position of the predicate, primarily the verb in the past tense or conditional mood, as well as short adjective or sacraments.
The masculine, feminine and neuter gender includes words with the following compatibility:
male new student arrived-
female new student arrived-a
middle large window open
Some nouns with the ending -a, denoting signs, properties of persons, in I. p. have a double characterization by gender, depending on the gender of the designated person:
your- ignoramus came-,
your-I'm ignorant came-a.
Such nouns belong to the common gender.
There are nouns in Russian that designate the name of a person by profession, which, when designating a male person, act as words male, that is, they attach agreed words with masculine endings; when they denote a female person, the attribute is used in the masculine gender, and the predicate is used in the feminine gender (mainly in colloquial speech):
new doctor came - (man),
a new doctor came (a woman).
These words are “candidates” for a common gender, their gender is sometimes called transitional to a common one, but in dictionaries they are characterized as masculine words.
In Russian, there are about 150 words with a hesitation in gender, for example: coffee - male / neuter gender, shampoo - masculine / feminine.
Plural only nouns (cream, scissors) do not belong to any of the genders, because in plural formal differences between nouns of different genders are not expressed (cf .: part-s - table-s).
Thus, the main expression of the gender is extra-verbal. Intra-word gender is consistently expressed only in nouns - substantiated adjectives and participles: hourly, ice cream, dining room: in the singular forms, these words have endings that unambiguously indicate their gender. For masculine II declension nouns and III declension the whole system of their endings is specific to the feminine gender, but as for the endings of individual case forms, they may not be indicative, cf. table- - night- .
For all inanimate nouns (and there are about 80% of such nouns in the language), the gender is conditional, in no way connected with extralinguistic reality.
Among animate nouns - the names of persons or animals, the genus is often associated with the gender of the designated creature, cf.: mom - dad, son - daughter, cow - bull. However, it is necessary to understand the difference between the grammatical attribute of gender and the non-grammatical attribute of gender. So, in the Russian language there are animate nouns of the middle gender (child, animal), in nouns - the names of animals, male and female individuals are often called the same (dragonfly, crocodile), among the words - names of persons there is also not always a correspondence of gender and gender. So, the word lady is feminine, although it can mean both a woman and a man (see, for example, A. S. Pushkin: Someone wrote to him from Moscow that a famous person should soon enter into a legal marriage with a young and beautiful girl).
A certain difficulty is the definition of the kind of compound words (abbreviations) and indeclinable nouns. For them set following rules.
The generic characteristic of abbreviations depends on what type the given abbreviated word belongs to.
The genus of abbreviations formed by addition initial parts(supervisor), the initial part of the first word with the unabbreviated second (sberbank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and / or end of the second (trade representation ® trade mission), is determined by the generic affiliation of the main word in the original phrase: good organizational work, Russian trade mission , new Sberbank.
A genus of abbreviations consisting of initial sounds (GUM) or letters (MGU), as well as abbreviations mixed type, in which the initial part of the first word is connected with the first letters or sounds of other words (glaucous), is determined ambiguously. Initially, they also acquire the gender of the main word in the original phrase, for example, the Bratsk HPP. However, in the process of use, the original generic characteristic is consistently preserved only by abbreviations from the first letters of the original phrase. Abbreviations, consisting of the first sounds, behave differently. Some of them acquire a generic characteristic in accordance with the appearance of the word. So, the words BAM, university, MFA, NEP, registry office and some others became masculine words and acquired the ability to decline according to the second declension, like nouns like house. Other abbreviations ending in a consonant with a core word of the middle and feminine gender may have fluctuations: they can have a generic characteristic in accordance with the gender of the main word and at the same time not be inclined (in our ZhEK) or, inclining, be used as masculine words (in our ZhEKe). Abbreviations ending in a vowel sound do not decline and are predominantly neuter (our RONO - district department public education).
Indeclinable names nouns, getting into the Russian language or being formed in it, must acquire a generic characteristic, which will manifest itself only when choosing adjectives, participles and verbs that agree with the noun.
There are the following patterns in the choice of generic characteristics by such nouns: the gender depends either on the meaning of the word, or on the gender of another Russian word, which is considered as a synonym or as a generic name for this unchangeable word. Different criteria are leading for different groups of nouns.
If a noun denotes an object, then it usually takes on the characteristics of the middle gender: a coat, muffler, subway. However feminine avenue (since it's a street), kohlrabi (since it's cabbage), coffee - with hesitation - masculine/neuter, masculine - penalty, euro.
If a noun denotes an animal, then it usually refers to the masculine gender: chimpanzee, cockatoo. Exceptions: ivasi, tsetse - feminine (since herring, fly).
If a noun denotes a person, then its gender depends on the gender of this person: the words monsieur, couturier are masculine, since they denote men; the words madam, mademoiselle are feminine, since they denote women, and the words vis-à-vis, incognito generic, as they can refer to both men and women.
If a noun denotes a geographical object, then its gender is determined by the gender of the Russian word, which denotes the type of object: Tbilisi is masculine, since it is a city (masculine word), Mississippi is feminine, since it is a river, Lesotho is neuter, since it is a state . All of the above applies only to indeclinable words, therefore Moscow is not a masculine noun, but a feminine one, although it is a city, since it is changeable.

NOUN. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Part-of-speech signs of nouns

A noun is a part of speech denoting an object (substance) and expressing this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.

The noun names objects in the broad sense of the word; these are the names of things table, wall, window, scissors, sled), persons ( child, girl, youth, female, Human), substances ( groats, agony a, sugar, cream), living beings and organisms ( cat, dog, crow, woodpecker, snake, perch, pike; bacterium, virus, microbe), facts, events, phenomena ( fire, spectacle, conversation, holiday, sadness, fear), as well as named as independent independent substances of non-procedural and procedural features - qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states ( kindness, stupidity, blue, run, decision, crush).

The meaning of objectivity is manifested in the fact that nouns either name objects, or denote signs and actions like objects. Whatever the noun names, it represents a certain substance as independent, as a bearer of attributes. Each noun can be questioned with pronouns. who or what. A. M. Peshkovsky called such questions “measures of the noun”, that is, objectivity. "When we ask who or what, we do not name any object (and we don’t know it, otherwise we wouldn’t ask), but only show with our question that what we ask about appears to us as an object, and not as a quality or action”

The meaning of an object can be in the root (house, bench, book, feather, dog, raven, coat, taxi etc.), but in general, objectivity is associated with the grammatical structure of the word, which includes forms of inflection, word-forming suffixes (and other word-forming features), substitution of syntactic positions of the subject and complement, and syntactic links. Yes, the word tenderness lexical meaning denotes quality, but at the same time expresses objectivity, and this is explained by the fact that it is grammatically designed as a noun: formed with the help of a substantive suffix -awn, has a substantive gender, changes according to the substantive paradigm, in a sentence it can be a subject and an object and attach an agreed definition to itself (Your tenderness surprised me).

Morphological features of nouns are categories of gender, number and case. As for animation (inanimateness), it is the basis for highlighting a special lexical and grammatical category of nouns.

From the syntactic side, nouns are characterized by the fact that they can be any member of the sentence, except simple predicate(i.e., they cannot replace the position of the finite form of the verb), but they are specifically distinguished from other parts of speech by the fact that they express grammatical subject and addition. These two functions for a noun are primary. If it is known about some lexeme that it cannot be either a subject or an object, then we can assume that this lexeme does not apply to nouns (should not apply).

A striking syntactic sign of nouns is their agreement property. There are no nouns with which this or that adjective could not agree.

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns

When describing nouns in grammars, it is customary to single out lexico-grammatical categories. This allocation is subject to the following conditions:

Each category combines words with certain semantics;

The words of each of the selected lexico-grammatical categories have common morphological, and in some cases, word-formation characteristics;

Lexico-grammatical categories are closely related to grammatical categories and interact with them;

The meanings on the basis of which words are combined into lexico-grammatical categories are not necessarily expressed morphological means. In this way, lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories, whose values ​​are regularly expressed by morphological means.

Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories:

own and common nouns;

concrete, abstract, collective and material;

animate and inanimate.

These categories intersect: for example, proper names include the names of both animate and non-animate animate objects; real nouns denoting homogeneous mass substances may have a collective meaning ( cranberry, grape, sugar); concrete nouns combine in their composition all those words - animate and inanimate - that name counted objects.

On the basis of naming an object as an individual or as a representative of a whole class, all nouns are divided into own and common nouns. Proper nouns(or proper names) are words that call individual items, included in the class of homogeneous, but in themselves do not carry any special instruction for this class. Common nouns(or common nouns) - these are words that name an object according to its belonging to a particular class; accordingly, they designate an object as a carrier of features characteristic of objects of a given class.

The boundary between proper names and common nouns is inconstant and mobile: common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames. Proper names are often used to generalize homogeneous objects and at the same time become common nouns: dzhimorda, Don Quixote, Don Juan; We all look at Napoleons(Pushkin); Your iconic and austere face hung in chapels in Ryazan(Yesenin.); Coming to the capital Humbly and smartly Young Yesenins In red cowboy shirts(Smelyakov).

Among proper names, there are: 1) proper names in narrow sense this word and 2) the name.

Proper names in the narrow sense of the word are geographical and astronomical names and names of people and animals. This is a lexically limited and slowly replenished circle of words-names assigned or assigned to one subject. Repetitions here are possible as coincidences (for example, coinciding names of rivers, villages, towns); they are also high-frequency in the system of proper names of persons and animals.

Among the names of persons, as a rule, there are no words repeating common nouns. In cases like Idea, Era, Helium, Radium, Uranus, Steel(personal names given in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century) generalized subject meanings in proper names are weakened, and in old names of this type they are completely lost, for example: Faith, Hope, Love.

The composition of the names of persons includes patronymics (names after the name of the father) and surnames (inherited family names). The patronymic is always motivated by the personal name of the father: Vladimirovich, Alexeyevich, Vladimirovna, Alekseevna; Nikitich– Nikitichna; Ilyich– Ilyinichna. Russian surnames are usually formed from various nominal bases with the help of suffixes ov (-yov) and - in (-un), less often sk(oh), -sk(uy), -ck(oh), -ck(uy): Korolev, Pushkin, Borodin, Kunitsyn, Lugovskoy, Mayakovsky, Trubetskoy. There are a number of surnames that formally coincide with adjectives in the forms im. n. husband or wives. R.: Good, Bridge– Good, pavement, and also (in pronunciation, but not in stress) in the forms of the genus. p. units h. husband R.: Blagovo, Durnovo, Sukhovo, in Church Slavonic form Zhivago, dead, or genus. n. pl. hours: twisted, Polish, Chernykh.

The semantic originality of proper names determines their morphological features: these words are not used in plural forms. h. Forms pl. hours here are normal for notation different persons and items that have the same proper name: There are several Svetlanas in one class; AT orphanage there were six valentines. Plural forms. h. surnames denote, firstly, persons who are among themselves in family, family relations: Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, spouses Dobrynina, merchants Morozov, dynasty of steelworkers Kuznetsov; secondly, persons with the same surname (namesake): Three hundred Ivanovs and two hundred Petrovs live in the city.; Both of them– my namesakes: Alexandrov Nikolai Grigorievich(gas.).

For proper names - denominations common nouns or combinations of words are used. At the same time, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function. These are the names newspaper « News", magazine « Health", plant « Hammer and sickle", factory « Bolshevik", perfume « Lilac". Names can also serve as proper names: hotel « Moscow», steamer « Ukraine".

The meanings of common nouns are preserved as part of the names of artistic and scientific works: « Dead Souls» , « cliff», « Crime and Punishment", « Lady with a dog", « Cities and years», « Capital", « Dialectics of nature».

The orthographic sign of all proper names is their spelling with a capital (capital) letter. If a proper name - the name consists of several words, then with capital letter only the first word is written: Captain's daughter» , « Fathers and Sons", « Hammer and sickle"(factory name).

Common nouns are divided into four types: concrete, abstract (abstract), real and collective. This division is connected with the morphological category of number, since only specific nouns are consistently used in the forms of both numbers.

Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and all phenomena of reality that can be presented separately and counted: pencil, ring, engineer, duel, war. All concrete nouns, with the exception of nouns that do not have singular forms. h. (pluralia tantum), have the form of units. and many others. h. By its meaning and morphological features concrete nouns are opposed not only to abstract nouns, but also to collective and material nouns.

abstract (abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laugh, good, captivity, kindness, closeness, dexterity, run, motion. Most abstract nouns are words formed from adjectives and verbs with the help of a zero suffix ( bitterness, sickness[simple], export, replacement), suf. - awn(spelling also - there is) (prettiness, freshness, cowardice), -stv(about) (nonentity, majority, championship, boasting), -tires(a)/ -rank(a) (piecework, German[obsolete]), - ism (realism, humanism), -and|j|- / -stve|j|- (spelling words in - ie, -action) (cordiality, calmness), -from(a) (acid, kindness, hoarseness), -out(a) (white, curvature), -in(a) (depth, gray hair), -neither|j|- / -eni|j|- / -ti|j|- (spelling words in - nie, -enenie, -tie) (punishment, patience, extraction, development), -to(a) (fuse, hunger strike, bombing), -aci|j|- / -enci|j|- / -iti|j|- / -qi|j|-/- and|j|- (spelling words in - ation, -ation, -tion, -ition, -tion, -and I) (stylization, compilation, transposition[specialist.], competition), -already (massage), -hedgehog (payment) and some other, less productive suffixes.

a smaller part abstract nouns make up unmotivated words: trouble, mind, temper, fear, flour, sadness, passion, grief, cosiness, sadness, essence.

Abstract nouns usually do not have plural forms. h. Forms pl. h. form only those words that can name not only abstract properties, qualities, states or actions, but also their individual manifestations: pain – pain, deception– deceptions, m at ka– m at ki, sadness– sadness, joy– joy, motion– movements.

To collective include nouns that name a set of homogeneous objects and express this meaning with the help of suffixes such as - stv(about): students, youth; -|j|- (spelling words in - yo:): babieux, animal, fools; -n(I): sailor, kids; -and|j|- (spelling words in - and I): pioneer, aristocracy; -from(a): poor and etc.

To nouns with a collective meaning as to a lexical and grammatical category with broad sense Collectiveness can also include words in which collectiveness is expressed, not word-formation, but lexically: haulm, small fry, trash, furniture. All such words.

Note. Nouns used in singular forms. hours in a collective sense, are not collective, for example: corn (new harvest grain), feather (stuff pillows with feathers), enemy(enemy army).

A distinctive feature of all collective nouns is that they do not form plural forms. h.

Nouns real substances are called food products (fat, groats, flour, sugar), materials ( gypsum, cement), types of fabrics ( velvet, chintz), fossils, metals ( iron, coal, tin, steel, emerald, jasper), chemical elements, drugs ( Uranus, pyramidon, aspirin), agricultural crops ( oats, potato, wheat) and other homogeneous divisible masses. Unlike collective nouns, real nouns usually do not have suffixes to express real meaning. This value is expressed only lexically.

Real nouns are usually used or only in singular. hours, or only in many. hours: honey, tea, flour, tin; yeast, perfume, cream. Taking the form pl. h., a real noun, usually used in singular. hours, is separated from the form of units. h. lexically: groats(whole or crushed grain of some plants, eaten), but cereals(various types of cereals).

Husband Nouns r., naming substances, in the genus. p. units hours along with flexion - a(spelling also - I) have inflection - at(spelling also - Yu): a glass of tea and tea, sugar cube and sugar, chocolate bar and chocolate.

All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. animated nouns are the names of people and animals: Human, son, teacher, student, cat, squirrel, a lion, starling, crow, perch, pike, insect. inanimate nouns are the names of all other objects and phenomena: table, book, window, wall, institute, nature, forest, steppe, depth, kindness, incident, motion, the trip.

Note. The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not fully reflect the existing division in the world into living and inanimate. Animated nouns do not include, firstly, the names of trees and plants ( pine, oak, Linden, hawthorn, gooseberry, chamomile, bell), secondly, the names of aggregates of living beings ( people, army, battalion, crowd, herd, Roy).

Animate nouns are morphologically and word-formatively different from inanimate ones. Animate nouns - the names of female persons or animals - are often motivated by a word that names a person or animal without specifying its gender or (less often) names a male person or animal: teacher ← teacher, student ← student, student ← schoolgirl, Muscovite ← Muscovite, grandson ← granddaughter, pop ← priest, lion ← lioness, elephant ← female elephant, cat ← cat, goose ← goose.

Animated nouns usually have morphological significance husband. or wives. R. and only a few - the meaning of environments. r., while the belonging of a noun to one or another gender (except for median r.) is defined semantically: nouns husband. R. call a person or animal male, and nouns women. R. - female. Animated nouns. R. called living beings regardless of gender. This or the name of a non-adult creature ( child), or generic type names face, creature, animal, insect, mammal, herbivore. Inanimate nouns are divided into three morphological genders - masculine, feminine and neuter.

Paradigms of animate and inanimate nouns in the plural. hours consistently differ: animate nouns in plural. hours have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form of the genus. P.: no siblings, no animals - saw brothers and sisters, saw animals. Inanimate nouns in plural hours have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form of them. P.: peaches, pears and apples are on the table - I bought peaches, pears and apples. The forms of agreed definitions repeat this distinction: no siblings, there are no animals, I saw my brothers and sisters, saw interesting animals and ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples lie on the table, bought ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples.

In the paradigm h. animation and inanimateness are expressed in the words husband. R. 2 cl., but not at the words of women. and avg. R.: in units. hours for animate nouns husband. R. match the forms of the genus. and wine. P. ( no brother, see brother), and in inanimate - forms to them. and wine. P. ( need a pencil, bought a pencil). Thus, the forms of wines. p. in units h. at the words husband. R. consistently differ depending on whether the word names an animate or inanimate object. Women's words R. in units h. the formulated rule for expressing animateness / inanimateness is not followed: no brother and see brother, but no sister, I see my sister; need a pencil and bought a pencil, but need a pen, bought a pen. Wednesday words. r., like the words of women. r., in units hours do not have a formal distinction between animateness/inanimateness. All nouns. R. (both animate and inanimate) are formally characterized in the same way as inanimate nouns husband. r., - forms to them. and wine. n. they have the same: an unknown animal appeared, saw an unknown animal.

The words have a husband. R. with flexion - a in them. etc., as well as for words of the general gender, in those cases when they name a male person, animation is expressed syntactically - in the form of genus-wine. n. of an adjective consistent with a noun, and is not expressed by the case forms of the nouns themselves: borrowed a book from a young friend; moved away from the obnoxious crybaby and met a young man, remembered the unbearable crybaby.

The only deviation from the consistent expression of animation in the plural. h. is a form of wines. p., equal to them. (and not genus) n. in words - names of persons as part of phraseologized constructions such as to go to soldiers , take (whom-n.) in couriers , go to nannies .

The belonging of words to the category of animate or inanimate reveals itself morphologically in a system of names, which in their lexical meanings combine the concepts of living and inanimate. These are the following cases.

1) Nouns that name such objects that or do not correspond to the ordinary idea of ​​\u200b\u200ba living thing (names of microorganisms: virus, microbes, bacterium) or, conversely, are associatively identified with living objects ( dead man, dead person, doll), are used in the following way: the former tend to be used as inanimate ( observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes and observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes ; the latter is preferable), the latter are used as animated (... our nets dragged dead man . Pushkin).

2) Inanimate nouns applied to specific individuals or to living beings, acquire morphological signs of animation. These are derogatory names like bag, oak, stump, cap, mattress usually with a defining pronominal adjective: our bag deceived, in this oak (stump) don't push anything, I saw this old cap , this mattress .

3) Words idol and idol in meaning (the one who is worshiped, who is adored) (when they are related to a certain person) act as animated: look with admiration at idol , adore your idol ; thirteen years old, Imagine, fell in love with her current husband... Until the age of twenty-three I waited, father angered, and went-still for his idol (Turgenev); look at idols cinema(gas.). Word idol in meaning (what is worshiped, imitated; ideal) appears now as animate, then as inanimate: Make idol from this old, useless person(L. Tolstoy); don't do idol from spelling(gas.); but: How Desdemona chooses Idol for your heart(Pushkin); All in the past, she gradually created idol in the virtue of a real man(A. Rybakov). Use of the word idol in this meaning as inanimate prevails. Noun idol in meaning (statue, statue, which is worshiped as a deity) in rare cases used as an animate: On the banks of the Danube, the Russians set up a wooden idol Perun(A. N. Tolstoy); Mityai looked sternly at the gray, carved with a pagan chisel idols (S. Borodin).

The words blockhead, idol, idol, used abusively in relation to a person, have morphological signs of animation: I don't want to see this blockhead ; And in whom idol ugly! (Sholokhov).

4) Words spirit(an incorporeal supernatural being), genius, type when applied to a person, they act as animated: summon the spirit, know a genius, meet strange type ; I give him German as an example geniuses (Pushkin); It's not the time to call out shadows (Tyutchev) (word shadow used in the meaning (spirit, ghost)).

5) Words used in some games, in particular, in cards and chess; lady, jack, king, horse, elephant are declined like animate nouns: open jack, king; take the elephant, horse. Modeled on the declension of such names as jack and king, change ace and trump: discard an ace; open the trump card; We went to Silvio and found him in the yard, putting a bullet on a bullet in ace , glued to the gate(Pushkin).

Note. In games, it is generally possible to represent inanimate objects as animate. So, in billiards, expressions are known play ball a, make a ball a: " Such ball missed", – said the student with a sneer. Like all players, he declined the ball in the genitive case, as creature , for no billiard player can bring himself to see an inanimate object in the ball, – so many purely feminine whims in it, sudden stubbornness and inexplicable obedience(L. Slavin).

The fact that animate nouns have their own paradigm, which distinguishes them from inanimate nouns, is the basis for many researchers to single out a special morphological category animateness/inanimateness. However, the consideration of animate and inanimate nouns as lexico-grammatical categories (i.e., as classes of words within a noun as a part of speech) is supported by the fact that these nouns are absolutely consistently contrasted on the basis of only lexico-semantic features. The opposition of animateness/inanimateness does not have a regular grammatical expression obligatory for the morphological category: consistently this opposition is reflected in the plural case forms. h. and inconsistently - in case forms singular. hours In units h. the opposition of words on the basis of animation / inanimateness takes place only in the words husband. R.; at the words of women. and avg. R. such opposition is not formally expressed.

INFORMATION SUPPORT OF THE DISCIPLINE. № Content Lesson 1 Plural of nouns

Pronouns and numerals viel, wenig, eine, andere are written with a lowercase letter, even if they are used instead of nouns

Plural of nouns in English

ADVERB AS A PART OF SPEECH. DIGITS OF ADVERBS BY VALUE. SIGNIFICANT AND PRONOUNAL ADVERBS, FUNCTIONS OF THE LATEST IN THE TEXT

No compound nouns! (die Substantivkopellungen)

adverb, preposition, union, particle, interjection), which are divided into 3 groups: independent parts of speech, service parts of speech, interjection. In the latest editions of complex 1, 13 parts of speech are distinguished: participle and participle are declared independent parts of speech, and the category of state is also distinguished.

The order of studying parts of speech and the distribution of material by class in complex 1 are as follows:

class: noun (property / common noun, animation, gender, declension), adjective (fullness / brevity, inflection), verb ( initial form, view, conjugation);

class: noun (variable and indeclinable nouns), adjective (ranks by meaning, degree of comparison), numeral, pronoun, verb (transitivity, reflexivity, impersonal verbs);

class: participle, gerund, adverb, category of state, auxiliary parts of speech, interjection.

Complex 2 distinguishes 12 parts of speech: 8 independent (participle and gerund here are independent parts of speech), 3 service and interjection, to which "onomatopoeic words adjoin."

The order of study is as follows:

class: noun;

class: verb, adjective, numeral, adverb, pronoun;

class: participle and gerund, auxiliary parts of speech, interjection. The pronoun in this complex is expanded by including

non-significant words grammatically correlated with adverbs (there, why, never and etc.).

The words of the state category in complex 2 are called "state words". Their status is not clearly defined: on the one hand, their description completes the section “Adverb”, on the other hand, it is said about the words of the state that they are “similar in form to adverbs”, from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. .

Complex 3 identifies 11 parts of speech: 6 independent (participle and gerund in this complex are forms of the verb), 3 service and 2 parts of speech outside this classification: interjections and onomatopoeic words.

The order of studying parts of speech and the distribution of material by class in complex 3 are as follows:

class: verb, noun, adjective;

class: participle and gerund as special forms of the verb, numeral, pronoun;

class: adverb, auxiliary parts of speech, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

316 Noun as part of speech

Noun- this is an independent significant part of the furnace, combining words that:

have a generalized meaning of objectivity and answer the questions who? or what?;

are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a constant gender and non-permanent (for most nouns) signs of number and case;

in a sentence they most often act as subjects or objects, but can be any other members of the sentence.

All three complexes define a noun (and all other independent parts of speech) according to the same scheme: a generalized meaning, permanent and non-permanent morphological features, basic syntactic functions.

The most difficult is the definition of the general categorical meaning of a noun. A noun is a part of speech, in the selection of which the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is the only part of speech that can mean anything: subject (table), face (boy), animal (cow), sign (depth), abstract concept (conscience), action (singing), attitude (equality), amount (a hundred). Sometimes they talk about the "objectification" of these meanings in a noun, but this objectification really consists only in the fact that the noun is able to name an action or a sign in abstraction from their carrier, to act as the subject of speech communication; this, in fact, is the objectivity of the noun.

When determining the meaning of a noun, the complexes go in different ways.

Complex 1 informs that the noun denotes an object, but precedes the definition of the noun with an exercise in which groups of nouns are given that denote objects of the surrounding world, natural phenomena, events, people. Students are asked to answer the question, what do we mean by the word thing.

Complex 2 also speaks of the meaning of the object of the noun, but stipulates that this is a special, grammatical object: “A subject in grammar is everything that can be asked about: who is this? or what's this?".

Complex 3 speaks of “an object in the broad sense of the word”, and about words with an abstract meaning it says that they do not designate an object, but answer the question what?.

All of these explanations seem convincing.

Noun ranks by value

Within the words of different parts of speech, it is customary to distinguish digits by value- groups of words united by lexical meaning that affects their morphological features. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the basis of this word.

Nouns have two groups of digits according to their meaning:

property / common noun;

concreteness / abstractness / materiality / collectiveness. common nouns nouns refer to things not

separating them from the class of the same type (city, river, girl, newspaper).

Own nouns designate objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them (Moscow,Volga, Masha, Izvestia). Proper names must be distinguished from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects ("Evening Moscow"). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name (Moscow statemilitary university).

Specific nouns name sensually perceived objects - things (table), faces (Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.

abstract (abstract) nouns denote abstract concepts (conscience), signs (white), actions (Painting).

Real nouns denote substances (milk,cream, sand).

Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects (foliage) or persons (kids).

The meaning of the morphological selection of precisely these groups of nouns by meaning is that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological sign of the number of this noun. So, common nouns have the form of both numbers (house- Houses). The words of other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only the only one), for example:

Rank by value	Only the only	Plural only
own	Moscow	Carpathians
abstract	courage	chores
real	milk	cream
collective	the youth	seedlings

All three complexes indicate as a rank by value ownvein / common noun, which is absolutely true, but complexes 2 and 3 do not distinguish between proper nouns (Mikhail, Yurievich, Lermontov) and own names (Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov)", as examples of proper nouns complex 3 gives phrases fluffy cat and March 8, and complex 2 in this paragraph talks about quoted names, for example "Uncle Fedor, a dog and a cat", which leads to a misunderstanding of these phrases as proper names.

The allocation of concrete, abstract, material and collective nouns occurs only in complex 2.

Animation as a morphological featurenoun

Nouns have a constant morphological feature of animateness / inanimateness.

The sign of animateness of nouns is closely connected with the concept of living / inanimate. Nevertheless, animation is not a rank by value, as it is presented in all three educational complexes, but a proper morphological characteristic.

All morphological features are characterized by the fact that they have a typified formal expression and can be expressed intra-word - formative morphemes of the word itself (became- table-s) and extra-verbal - formative morphemes of agreed words (new coat- newcoat). Both of these means of expression can be presented together. In this case, one grammatical meaning is expressed several times in a sentence - both intra-verbally and extra-verbally. (new table- new tables).

Animation as a morphological feature also has formal means of expression. First, animateness / inanimateness is expressed by the endings of the noun itself:

animated nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and R. p., and for nouns husband. kind of II declension, this also applies to units. number;

inanimate nouns have coinciding plural endings. numbers V. p. and I. p., and for nouns husband. of the genus II declension, this also applies to units. number.

Nouns are presented in Russian with fluctuation in animation: their V. p. may coincide with both I. p. and R. p. for example: (I see) mzhrob-s / mtrob-s, describe the character-and / person-press-her, creatures-a / creatures-0.

Feminine and neuter nouns that have only singular forms do not formally express animation. (youngdezh, students), formally they are not characterized by animation.

Animation has and extraverbal expression: the ending of an adjective or participle agreed with the noun in V. p. differs depending on the animateness or inanimateness of the noun, cf .: (I see) new students, but new tables.

The out-of-word expression of the animation of nouns is more universal than the intra-verbal one: it expresses animation even if the noun is immutable: (I see) beautiful madam, but beautiful coats.

The animacy of most nouns reflects a certain state of affairs in extralinguistic reality: animate nouns mainly name living beings, and inanimate nouns - inanimate objects, however, there are cases of violation of this pattern:

nouns denoting the living, but framed as inanimate; they can mean: a) aggregates of living beings: (I see) armies, crowds, peoples; b) plants, mushrooms: (collect) chanterelles;

nouns denoting inanimate, but designed as animated; they can mean: a) toys in the form of a person: (see) dolls, nesting dolls, tumblers; b) figures of some games: (play) kings, queens; c) dead: (I see) dead, hanged, drownednicknames(but noun dead body inanimate: (see) corpses); d) fictional creatures: (I see) mermaids, goblin, brownies.

Animation, as already mentioned, is a constant feature of a noun. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that different meanings of one word can be differently designed according to animation, for example: I see genius(person) - appreciate genius-ٱ (mind).

All three training packages, as already mentioned, consider animacy as a category by meaning, with complex 3 placing this material before the paragraph on property / commonality.

Complex 1 only reports that animate nouns answer the question who?, inanimate - to the question what?, that is, it proposes to define animation by the lexical meaning of the word.

Complex 2 reports that animate denote objects of wildlife, a question is asked to them who?, while the inanimate name objects inanimate nature, they are asked a question what?. Animate and inanimate nouns differ not only in meaning, but also in the form of the accusative case: the animate form is В p. pl. h. is the same with the form of R. p. pl. hours, and in inanimate - with the form I. p. pl. h. Further, students are informed that “in works of fiction, objects of inanimate nature can be endowed with the properties of living beings, for example: Suddenly out of my mother'sbedroom, bow-legged and lame, the washstand runs out and shakes his head. In this sentence to the noun wash basin ask a question who?". In other words, on the one hand, the authors talk about the grammatical expression of animation, but, on the other hand, they propose to define animation by lexical meaning (grammatically, the word wash basin inanimate and in the given context: we will not say *saw this sink).

Complex 3 leads even more strange decision animacy status issues. It literally says the following: “Inanimate nouns denote phenomena and objects of inanimate nature and answer the question what?. Animated nouns denote people and various living beings and answer the question who?. The division into animate and inanimate nouns does not always coincide with the division of everything that exists in nature into living and living things. For example, plant names are considered inanimate nouns, while words doll, dead man, dead man, ace, jack, kozyr belong to the animate. Inanimate words also include people, crowd, platoon, flock, kids and etc.". In the absence of a provision on grammatical expression Animation information that some words naming inanimate objects are “considered animate” and vice versa cannot cause anything but bewilderment and does not have any cognitive value.

Thus, as we see, when working on any of educational complexes this material needs teacher comments.

Gender as a morphological feature of a noun

Nouns have a constant morphological gender and are masculine, feminine or neuter.

The main way of expressing the morphological gender is the endings of adjectives consistent with the noun, participles in the position of the attribute and words with a non-permanent sign of the gender in the position of the predicate, primarily the verb in the past tense or conditional mood, as well as a short adjective or participle.

The masculine, feminine and neuter gender includes words with the following compatibility:

male new student has arrivedٱ female a new student has arrived average the big window is open

Some nouns with the ending -a, denoting persons according to their characteristics, properties, in I. p. have a double characterization by gender, depending on the gender of the designated person:

your- ٱ ignorant came- ٱ ,

your-I'm ignorant came-a.

Such nouns are called words of general gender.

There are nouns in the Russian language that call persons by profession, which, when designating a male person, act as masculine words, that is, they attach agreed words with masculine endings; when they denote a female person, the definition is used in the masculine gender, and the predicate in the feminine (mainly in colloquial speech):

new doctor came ٱ (the male),

new doctor came(female).

These words are “candidates” for a common gender, their gender is sometimes called transitional to a common one, but in dictionaries they are characterized as masculine words.

In Russian, there are about 150 words with a hesitation in gender, for example: coffee- masculine / neuter gender, shampoo- masculine / feminine.

Nouns that have only plural forms (cream, scissors), do not belong to any of the genders, since in the plural there are no formal differences between nouns of different genders (cf.: parties- table-s).

As already mentioned, the main expression of the gender is extra-verbal. Internally, gender is consistently expressed only in nouns - substantiated adjectives and participles: watch, ice cream, canteen: in the singular forms, these words have endings that unambiguously indicate their generic affiliation. For nouns of the II declension of the masculine gender and the III declension of the feminine gender, the whole system of their endings is specific, but as for the endings of individual case forms, they may not be indicative, cf. became ٱ - night ٱ .

A certain difficulty is the definition of the gender of compound words (abbreviations) and indeclinable nouns. They have the following rules.

Generic characteristic abbreviations depends on what type the given compound word belongs to.

The genus of abbreviations formed by adding the initial parts (caretaker), the initial part of the first word with the uncontracted second (Sberbank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and / or end of the second (trade mission -> trade mission), is determined by the generic affiliation of the main word in the original phrase: good organizational work, Russian trade mission, new Sberbank,

A genus of abbreviations consisting of initial sounds (GUM) or letters (MSU), as well as mixed type abbreviations, in which the initial part of the first word is connected with the first letters or sounds of other words (Glavk), defined ambiguously. Initially, they also acquire the gender of the main word in the original phrase, for example, Bratsk hydroelectric power station. However, in the process of use, the original generic characteristic is consistently preserved only by abbreviations from the first letters of the original phrase. Abbreviations, consisting of the first sounds, behave differently. Some of them acquire a generic characteristic in accordance with the appearance of the word. Yes, the words BAM, university, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NEP, registry office and some others became masculine words and acquired the ability to decline according to the second declension, like nouns of the type house. Other abbreviations ending in a consonant with a core word of the middle and feminine gender may have fluctuations: they can have a generic characteristic in accordance with the gender of the main word and at the same time not decline (in our ZhEK) or, leaning, used as masculine words (in our ZhEKe). Abbreviations ending in a vowel are not declined and are predominantly neuter (our RONO- district department of public education).

Indeclinable nouns, getting into the Russian language or being formed in it, should acquire a generic characteristic, which will manifest itself only when choosing adjectives, participles and verbs that agree with the noun.

There are the following patterns in the choice of generic characteristics by such nouns: the gender depends either on the meaning of the word, or on the gender of another Russian word, which is considered as a synonym or as a generic name for this unchangeable word. Different criteria are leading for different groups of nouns.

If a noun denotes an object, then it usually has a neuter characteristic: coat, muffler, subway. However, there are exceptions: the feminine word avenue(as well as street), kohlrabi(as well as cabbage), word coffee with fluctuation by gender (masculine / neuter),

masculine characteristics have invariable nouns penalty, euro.

If a noun denotes an animal, then it usually refers to the masculine gender: chimpanzee, cockatoo. Exceptions: iwashi, tsetse--feminine (same as herring, fly).

If a noun denotes a person, then its gender depends on the gender of this person: words monsieur, couturier masculine, as they denote men; the words madam, mademoiselle feminine, because they denote women, and the words vis-a-vis, incognito common gender, as they can denote both men and women.

If a noun denotes a geographical object, then its gender is determined by the gender of the Russian word, which denotes the type of object: Tbilisi masculine, because city(masculine), Misssisipi feminine, because river, Lesotho neuter, as it state. All of the above applies only to indeclinable words, therefore Moscow- a noun is not masculine, but feminine, although it is a city, since it is changeable.

Complex 1 considers the issue of gender in the following way. Material about the gender is studied in both 5th and 6th grades. In grade 5, students are not offered new theoretical material compared to elementary school: the noun has three generic characteristics - male, female and neuter. In two exercises, students are asked to coordinate adjectives and verbs in the past tense with the noun and indicate the generic characteristics of nouns, however, attention is not fixed on the fact that it is the attribute and predicate endings that express the generic characteristics of nouns. In the 6th grade, the topics "Gender of indeclinable nouns and compound words" and "Nouns of the general gender" are studied. Indeclinable nouns are reported to be predominantly neuter (exceptions: penalty, coffee- male, avenue, kohlrabi- female); if a foreign noun denotes a female person, it is feminine (old lady) if the noun denotes a male person or an animal, it is male (English bourgeois, gray kangaroo). About the gender of compound words, it is reported that for abbreviations from initial letters, the gender is determined by the gender of the main word in the original phrase (The UN was established...), for abbreviations from initial sounds, the gender may not coincide with the gender of the main word and be guided by appearance words: words with a stem ending in a consonant can be masculine (university, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, TASS, BAM), with stem on vowel - middle (fleece- district department of public education). Words with the ending -and I),

denoting the qualities of people. These words are masculine if they refer to males, and feminine if they refer to females. (such a bully Andryusha, such a bully Tanya). Some masculine nouns that refer to persons by profession refer to both men and women. The definition-adjective with them is always put in the masculine gender, and the verb-predicate in the past tense is put in the masculine gender, if we are talking about a man, and in the feminine gender, when it comes to a woman (Doctor on duty Ivanov youwrote the recipe. The doctor on duty Ivanova wrote out a prescription).

Complex

Nouns have three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The noun does not change by gender. The gender of a noun can be determined by adding to the noun my(m. R.), my(female), my(cf. p.). In addition, for some nouns, gender can be determined by the meaning of the word, since some words name people and animals of the male sex, while others - of the female. A special group is formed by nouns of the general gender, which can denote both male and female people. In a sentence, they appear either as masculine nouns or as feminine nouns. (What a slut you are!- What a slut you are!). Some indeclinable nouns in modern speech experience gender fluctuations: broad avenue- fifth avenue hot coffee- hot coffee.

Complex 3 deals with this topic in the paragraphs “The gender of nouns. Why are there three genders in Russian” and “Nouns of common gender. The genus of indeclinable nouns”, where the following is said. Gender is a constant attribute of every noun. There are three genders in Russian - masculine, neuter and feminine. At first, only animate nouns were distinguished as masculine and feminine words, but later inanimate nouns began to behave as masculine and feminine words. And “the middle (no) gender included those words that during the development of the language did not have time to become masculine or feminine words” (the theoretical and practical significance of these arguments is doubtful). It is not difficult to determine the gender of nouns correctly, but there is a group of tricky words: under the influence of dialects, vernacular, obsolete variants, their gender is determined incorrectly and therefore they make mistakes in agreeing these words with adjectives and verbs of the past tense. There are nouns of the general gender in the Russian language (in the process of performing several exercises, students should come to the following conclusions: nouns of the general gender are formed from verbs and have the meaning “a person performing an action”, an adjective

and the verb with them can stand in the form of masculine and feminine; this material requires the teacher to generalize, since it is not described theoretically in the textbook). Some masculine nouns denoting a profession, occupation, social status, rank, can be used to designate both male and female persons (the theoretical material presented below is fully consistent with the material of complex 1). The gender of foreign indeclinable nouns is determined as follows. The masculine gender includes nouns that refer to males or animals. To the female - naming female persons. to the middle

naming inanimate objects. The genus of foreign geographical names and journals is determined by the genus of those common nouns with which these names can be replaced (Tbilisi- city- m.r.).

When studying the genus according to any of the complexes, it is important to draw students' attention to the following points.

Gender - a constant feature of a noun, inherent in all nouns, except for words only in the plural; nouns - substantiated adjectives or participles (painNoah and patient, manager and manager) are not forms of one word, but different words;

The gender of a noun is consistently expressed by the endings of words that agree with the noun - adjective, participle, pronominal adjective, verb in the past tense and conditional mood; such an out-of-word expression of the gender of a noun is universal for both inflected and invariable nouns, while the endings of the noun itself cannot be used to determine the gender (with the exception of nouns inflected as adjectives);

The generic characteristic of most nouns is conditional and does not reflect anything in extralinguistic reality; this is the gender of not only inanimate nouns, but also of animate nouns of the neuter gender (child, animal) many animal names (dragonfly, crocodile) as well as words like person, person and names of persons by profession (doctor, teacher). When determining the gender, one must be especially careful in the case when the grammatical sign of the gender and the extralinguistic sign of the gender of the person do not match. Yes, in the proposal He's just a pig noun pig feminine, although it characterizes a man, since one can say He is such a pig and you can't say *He's such a pig. It is especially important to pay attention to the latter, since a typical mistake for a schoolchild is not to distinguish between information about extralinguistic reality and the grammatical form of a word.

Number as a morphological featurenoun

Most nouns have singular and plural forms, that is, they change according to numbers. Some nouns have only singular or only plural forms, that is, the number for them is a constant attribute.

The morphological sign of a number has the following expression:

intra-word - endings of the noun itself; these endings indicate the form of the number and for nouns that have singular and plural forms (mother- moms), and for nouns that have forms of only the singular (foliage) or only plural (scissors);

extra-verbal - endings of the agreed definition and the predicate; all nouns have an out-of-word expression of a number, including immutable ones (new / new coats).

In addition to this, some nouns use the following tricks:

the formation of singular and plural forms from different stems - suppletivism (man®-people, child- children),

base extension: sheet-leaves,

base truncation: nobleman- nobles,

suffix alternation: tel-enokO- tel-yat-a.

Number - a morphological feature associated with an indication of the number of objects. For nouns that have the forms of both numbers, the singular form denotes one thing (table), and the plural form is a set of objects, each of which is called the singular form (tables- many items, each of which table).

shape singular and plural have the following noun groups:

most specific common nouns: house- Houses;

abstract nouns (in their smaller part): thought- thoughts, sound- sounds;

3) some collective nouns: army- army. For these nouns, the number is a fickle sign, they change in numbers.

However, only singular or only plural nouns are also presented in Russian. The number for them is a constant sign.

shape only singular have the following groups of words:

1) most abstract nouns: depth, conscience,

singing",

most real nouns: water, sand, gasoline;

most collective nouns: youth, leafwah, kids;

specific nouns denoting unique, single realities: Moscow, Luna(Earth satellite).

shape plural only have the following groups

some abstract nouns: chores, fees;

some real nouns: cream, perfume, cabbage soup;

some collective nouns: finance, shoots;

specific type nouns sled, in which, both in relation to one object and in relation to a multitude of objects, the plural form is used: alone saneither- many sleighs;

some concrete nouns are proper names of the type Sokolniki, in which the plural form does not have the meaning of a plurality of objects and denotes one object;

specific common nouns denoting realities, including several objects, each of which has its own name: spouses meaning "married couple" (spouse +spouse, but not spouse + spouse or spouse + spouse).

For some of these nouns, the morphological sign of number is conditional, not motivated by anything and has no quantitative meaning (cf. milk- cream), for some nouns, the number form reflects information about the number of objects (Moscow), some contradict it (one glasses, Sokolniki).

Some singular-only nouns may have plural nouns associated with them, but they have shift in meaning:

1) for real:

a) different varieties: wine- guilt,

b) large spaces occupied by a given substance: snow- snow;

2) for abstract ones - concrete manifestations of an abstract feature: the beauty of the landscape- the beauty of the landscape;

3) for own - type of people: Khlestakov- Khlestakov. Such cases are described as different words.

Different meanings of the same word can have different plural forms, for example: sheet-sheets, leaf/s.

Different meanings of one word can be characterized in different ways in terms of number. Yes, the word forest in the meaning of "a set of strings" varies by numbers, and in the meaning of "building material" ([is a word only in the singular.

The singular form can be used to designate not a specific object, but a whole class of objects, for example: un iga - best gift(non-referential use of the name).

Complex 1 considers this issue in the following way.

The authors proceed from the fact that from elementary school students know about 5M, that nouns change in numbers. The study of the morphological feature of number is carried out in grade 5 and includes the topics “Nouns that have only the plural form” and “Nouns that have only the singular form”. The study of this topic begins with an analysis of the language material: students are invited to consider pictures that show one glasses and several pairs of glasses, one scissors and several scissors. Students are asked the question: “Do nouns have scissors, glasses different forms for singular and plural?

Students will learn about groups of words that have only plural forms from the assignment: they are invited to continue listing only plural nouns denoting 1) tools (rakes, pliers...), 2) games (burners, blizzards...), 3) substances (yeast, ink...).

Nouns that have only singular forms are reported in a similar exercise that they can denote 1) groups of people (youth, humanity...), 2) substances (iron,milk...), 3) qualities, actions (darkness, flight...).

Complex 2 offers the following theoretical material on this topic.

Nouns have two numbers - singular and plural. By numbers, specific nouns change. Change in numbers is transmitted using endings. Real, abstract, collective nouns and some others do not change in numbers. They have one form: singular or plural.

Only the singular form has:

real nouns (milk);

abstract (love);

collective (teaching, foliage);

own (Caucasus, "Enlightenment").

They have only the plural form:

real (ink)",

abstract (holiday);

words for pairs (glasses);

own (Alps, "Three Musketeers").

For nouns that have only a plural form, gender and declension type are not determined.

Complex 3 proposes to consider this topic in the following way.

The noun can be either singular or plural. The main meaning of the number forms of nouns is an indication of the number of objects. However, there are other meanings of the number forms. For example, in the phrase Wolf- predatory animal word wolf stands in the singular form, but speech situation contains an indication not of the number of objects, but of the type of object as a representative of a whole class. There is no indication of the number in words denoting objects that cannot be counted at all: love, health, development, pain, oil etc. These words usually have only the singular form. If the plural form is formed from these nouns, then it means something else: or different kinds of substances (cereals), or large spaces filled with matter (sands), or duration, recurrence of phenomena (frost, pain). Number forms not in their meaning are widely used in fiction to create imagery (Swedish, Russian- stabs, cuts, cuts).

In exercises for students through analysis language material it is proposed to define groups of words by meaning, having only singular or only plural forms. For this, the following series of nouns are proposed.

Plural only:

glasses, reins, scissors,

curls, beads, jungle,

perfumes, canned food, pasta,

elections, hide and seek, negotiations,

holidays, days, weekdays,

Athens, Bermuda, Kuriles.

Students are invited to answer an incorrect question, what caused their lack of singular forms.

Nouns of singular number only are given by the following list:

wisdom, beauty, admiration,

peasantry, children,

sand, grain, fat.

When studying the topic "Number of a noun" for any of the complexes, the teacher needs to pay attention to the following:

number - a morphological feature, which is non-permanent for most nouns, and permanent for a smaller part;

the number of a noun is expressed by the endings of both the noun itself (if it is mutable) and the words that agree with the noun; for invariable nouns, it is possible to determine its number by the endings of words that agree with it (new coat);

the number of most nouns carries information about the number of objects, but for a number of words it is not informative (milk, cream) or contradicts information about the number of objects of extralinguistic reality (glasses- when pointing to one object, Carpathians).

It is especially important to pay attention to the latter, since a typical mistake for a schoolchild is not to distinguish between information about extra-linguistic reality and the grammatical form of a word. This non-distinction is also supported by some textbook formulations. So, the example proposed in complex 2 is bewildering. "Threemusketeer, given among words only plural. Firstly, this is not a word, but a phrase, and secondly, there is not a single plural word in it: the numeral does not have the sign of a number, and the noun is in R. p. units. numbers.

Case as a morphological featurenoun

Nouns change in cases, that is, I have! inconstant morphological feature of the case.

There are 6 cases in Russian: nominative (I. p.), genitive (R. p.),! dative (D. p.), accusative (V. p.), instrumental (T. p.), prepositional (P. p.). These case forms are detected in the following contexts (diagnostic contexts may be different): I. p. who is this? what? R. p. no one? what? D. p. glad to whom? what? V. p. see who? what? T. p. proud of who? how? P. p. thinking about who? how?

The case of a noun is expressed both intra-verbally - by the endings of the noun itself, and extra-verbally - by the endings of an agreed definition. For immutable nouns, the extra-word indicator is the only formal indicator of the case, cf.: new coat, new coat, new coat etc.

The endings of different cases are different depending on which declension the noun belongs to (see the declension of nouns).

There are also other descriptions of the Russian case system, according to which Russian nouns can have forms of additional cases, such as the genitive part and local, but they are not studied in school grammar.

Noun declension

The term "declension" is used in linguistics in two senses. First, it is a process of nominal inflection. Secondly, it is a class of names with the same or similar case endings.

For nouns, declension is a change in cases.

Nouns can have such sets of endings that are mainly inherent in this part of speech and only occasionally found in others (substantive declensions).

ToIdeclination include nouns husband. and wives. genus with the ending I. p. units. numbers -and I), including words ending in -ia: mom-a, dad-a, earth-I, lecture-I (lectic-a \). Words with a stem ending in a hard consonant (hard variant), a soft consonant (soft variant) and with a stem in -and] have some differences in endings, for example:

	Singular
	hard version	soft version	on the -and I
	the country	Earth	army
	countries	earth	army and
	countries	earth	army and
	countries	ground	army-yu
	country-oh (-oh)	earth-ey (-ey)	army-her (-her)
	countries	earth	army and

Co. IIdeclination include nouns husband. gender with a zero ending I. p., including words on -neither, and nouns husband. and cf. kind with ending -o(-e), including the words -not: steel, geniuses,small town-o, window-o, half-e, peni-e (peni).

	Singular
	masculine		neuter gender
	become	geniuses	window	field	singing
	table-a	genius	window	half a	peni-i
	table-at	genius	window-y	half a	penny-yu
	R. p. at odush./=I. n. in inhospitable.		window	field	singing
	table-ohm	genius	window-ohm	half eat	penny-em
	table-e	geniuses	window-e	field	penalties

ToIIIdeclination include nouns of women. genus with zero ending in I. p .: dust, night

	Unit number
	nightOh
	night and
	night and
	nightOh
	at night
	night and

This material is mainly studied in elementary school, so attention is fixed on the spelling of endings, with an emphasis on the declension of nouns on -y, -yy and -s. In connection with their study, it is necessary to draw the attention of students to the fact that these segments are not the endings of nouns: in words on -th this segment is included in the stem, and words like army, singing merged as follows: army-i, peni-e(in complex 2 - armsch-I, pensch-e). It is useful to compare the spelling of words in indirect cases for couples like in silence- in silence.

In addition to nouns that have endings in only one of the three declensions, there are words that have some endings from one declension, and some from another. They are called divergent. It's 10 words per -mya (burden, time, stirrup, tribe, seed, name, flame, banner,udder, crown) and way. Words on -me combine the endings of the I declension (I. p., V. p.), the III declension (R. p., D. p., P. p.) and the II declension (T. p.). Word way has endings of the III declension in all cases, except for T. p., where the ending of the II declension is presented.

Declension of nouns in plural unified.

In the plural, all nouns have the same endings in the following cases:

D.p.: -am / -yam: wall-ohm, table-am, windows-am, door-pits,

T. p.: -ami / -ami, -mi: walls, tables, windows, doors / doors,

P. p.: -ah / -ah: wall-ah, table-ah, window-ah, door-ah.

The exception is I. p. and R. p.

In I. p. plural nouns of substantive declensions have the following endings:

In R. p., nouns can have the following endings:

zero: country, house, stocking;

-s: socks,

-her: candle-her, sea-her.

Material about the endings of I. p. and R. p. pl. numbers are studied in the aspect of speech development: in complexes, words are given in which errors are most often made, for example: I. p. director-a, but engineer-s, R. p. pasta, but tomatoes

If any noun is declined according to the substantive declension, but has only plural forms. numbers, it is impossible to determine which of the varieties of the substantive declension it is inclined to. About words like sleigh, cream we can say that they are declined according to the substantive declension, however, in school grammar, the type of declension of words only in the plural is not determined.

Some nouns have endings that are characteristic of adjectives; these are substantiated adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers, for example: guard, ice cream, second, manager, tips. Such a decline is called adjectival. However, unlike adjectives, such nouns do not change by gender, and some of them do not change by number either.

Some nouns combine the endings of substantive declensions with the endings of adjectives when declining; a declension that combines the features of these two types of declension is called mixed. So surnames tend to -ov and -in (Ivanov, Nikitin), as well as the words draw, third. For example, forms I. p. units. numbers have a zero ending, like nouns husband. kind of the second substantive declension, and the forms of T. p. units. numbers - ending -th / -im, like adjectives. Attention is not fixed on the words of adjective and mixed declension in school grammar.

Geographical type names Kashin and foreign surnames like Herzen decline according to the II substantive declension, that is, they form T. p. "units, with the ending -om, compare: with Ivan Kashin- the city of Kashin;with Petya Borodin- battle near Borodino, with Herzen, Darwin.

The Russian language has immutable(so called reluctantlymy) nouns. These include

many common and own borrowings (coffee, Dumas),

some abbreviations (MSU, HPP),

Russians and Ukrainian surnames on the -th, -them, -in, -ko (Petrovs,Dolgikh, Durnovo, Kovalenko).

These words are usually described as words without endings. However, one should not think that these words cannot stand in the form of a definite

numbers and cases. The number and case of these nouns is expressed out-of-word, it can be determined by the end of definitions consistent with this noun: nice coat(R. p. unit number), beautiful coats(T. p. pl. numbers). Indeclinable nouns, in some of their uses, do not allow one to conclude in what form they stand. Yes, in the proposal In the store, he becamerip coat there is no extra-verbal information to determine the number of a noun coat(cf.: In the store, he began to try on graycoat and In the store, he began to try on all gray coats).

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns

The lexico-grammatical category is a subclass of words within one part of speech, characterized by a common semantic feature, morphological and often derivational properties.

LGR noun

animate/inanimate,

Proper/common noun

adv.=> specific / non-specific

non-concrete => collective/real/abstract.

Common nouns call an object, action, event in a generalized way, in a series of homogeneous ones (a person, a book, a tree, silence).

Proper names are called individual objects (Russia, Oka, Kyiv, Baikal, Carpathians) or represent an object from the class of homogeneous as an individual: these are names, patronymics, surnames, people (Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin), animal nicknames (Belka, Rex, Pushok), newspaper names , magazines, works of art, publishing houses ("Izvestia", "Volga", "Life and fate", "Science") institutions, shops, etc.

Proper and common nouns differ not only in meaning, the nature of the naming of the subject, there are also morphological and orthographic features: proper names are used, as a rule, in the form of a single number - singular (most often) or plural and are written with capital letter, while common nouns are written with a lowercase letter. Since the boundaries between these types of names are flexible, the spelling makes it possible to distinguish between homonyms: Ampere - a surname and ampere - a unit of measurement, Oblomov - literary hero and Oblomovs are weak-willed, lazy people.

Common nouns are divided into specific and non-specific. Specific nouns stand for individual items(living beings, things, phenomena), discretely existing realities that can be counted. That is why specific nouns, unlike non-specific ones, can be combined with cardinal numbers (three boys, eight pens, five groups) and change by numbers (institute - institutions, hurricane - hurricanes, flock - flocks), with the exception of words used only in plural form (harp, glasses, day) and proper names.

Non-specific nouns are characterized by the absence of the idea of ​​counting; they include three categories: real, collective and abstract (abstract) nouns.

Real nouns denote a homogeneous substance (solid, friable, liquid, gaseous) substance. These are the names of food products (cheese, flour, pasta), chemical elements (oxygen, sulfur, silicon), fabrics (velvet, chintz), metals (iron, copper), plants (rye, mint), etc. Most real nouns are used only in the form of a unit numbers (milk), the smaller part - in the form of plural. numbers (cream).

Pay attention to the peculiarities of the use of real nouns. Some words complete the paradigm by number, forming a plural form. numbers, at the same time change the main meaning: they denote the variety, type of substance (oil and vegetable oils - linseed, soybean, olive), the mass of the substance over a large area (play in the sand and in the sands of the Sahara), the product from this substance (crystal and the table is filled with crystals ).

Collective nouns denote the total set of living beings or objects and are used in the form of units. numbers, with the exception of only some words (money, firewood, finance). The collective meaning, as a rule, is expressed suffixally (students, mosquitoes, poor people, mosquitoes, foliage).

Abstract (abstract) nouns are called abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions, states, and are more often used only in the form of units. numbers (idealism, freshness, whiteness, nobility, walking, welding, recognition, joy). Some of them form a plural form, while developing new meanings: a different manifestation of quality, properties, actions (high, low speeds), duration , the intensity of the manifestation of the state (frost, pain), repetitive action (tapping, screaming).

All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns name living beings - people and animals, inanimate nouns - inanimate objects. Grammatically, animation / inanimateness is manifested in the coincidence of the form of wines. case in plural number with the form of the genus case of animate nouns (I see brothers, sisters, animals), with the form of them. case of inanimate nouns (I see trees, benches, lanterns). In masculine words, animation is also expressed in units. number (stopped the truck and questioned the driver).

Animation / inanimateness of words is also regularly expressed syntactically - in the form of the wine case pl. number of matched words. For indeclinable nouns, this is the only means of expression: we met the arriving couturiers, adult cockatoos, huge chimpanzees; put on beautiful scarves, fashionable coats.

The grammatical expression of animateness/inanimateness is all the more important because the idea of ​​living and inanimate in the human mind (this is just reflected in the language) and in science, reality does not always coincide. For example, the names of plants, concrete nouns denoting the totality of living beings (people, regiment, flock, herd) turn out to be inanimate. To inanimate words include all non-specific nouns, including collective ones, denoting the total set of persons (children, peasantry).

At the same time, words denoting inanimate objects are also classified as animate nouns: the names of dolls (matryoshka, tumbler, parsley, puppet, aibolit), names mythical creatures(centaur, Jupiter), card terms (jack, king, ace), names chess pieces(horse, elephant, queen, king), the words dead man, dead man, drowned man (Compare: corpses are an inanimate noun).

Fluctuations in the definition of animate / inanimate are observed in the words: bacterium, bacillus, pupa, microbe, larva (Green fly larvae contain bacteria, study bacteria.

A noun is a special part of speech that designates an object and expresses given value in such inflectional categories as case and number, as well as with the help of gender, which is a constant category.

This article discusses the ranks of nouns by meaning. We will describe each of them and give examples.

The noun denotes objects in the broadest sense of the word: the names of things ( sleigh, scissors, window, wall, table), persons ( person, woman, boy, girl, child), substances ( cream, sugar, flour), living organisms and creatures ( microbe, pike, woodpecker, cat), phenomena, events, facts ( performance, fire, holidays, conversation, fear, sadness), as well as procedural and non-procedural features, named as independent independent substances - properties, qualities, states, actions ( hustle, decision, run, blue, stupidity, kindness).

The main lexical and grammatical categories of nouns

The following main categories are distinguished into which nouns are divided: 1) common nouns and proper ones; 2) real; 3) collective; 4) abstract and concrete; 5) inanimate and animate. These ranks of nouns intersect in meaning. Proper names, for example, can include the names of both inanimate and animate objects. Real nouns that denote the mass of a substance can have a collective meaning ( sugar, grapes, cranberries). Concrete (as a lexical and grammatical category) unite animate and inanimate names of objects that are called considered. Other examples can be cited. However, the words that are included in certain categories of nouns by meaning have common morphological and sometimes word-forming characteristics, which unites them.

Common and proper nouns

This division occurs on the basis of the name of the object as a representative of a class or as an individual. Proper as a lexical and grammatical category of nouns (in other words - "proper names") - words that name individual objects that are included in the class of homogeneous ones, but do not in themselves carry a special indication of this belonging.

Common nouns are names that name an object by its inclusion in a certain class. This lexical and grammatical category of nouns denotes the name, respectively, as a carrier of features characteristic of objects of this class.

The border between common nouns and proper names is mobile and inconstant: common nouns often become proper (nicknames and nicknames). Own are often used to refer to homogeneous objects in general, and thus become common nouns: donquixote, dzhimorda, don juan.

Proper names in the narrow sense

Among proper names, such nouns are distinguished by meaning, as proper ones in the narrow sense, and denominations. The first are astronomical and geographical names and the names of animals and people. This is a slowly replenished, lexically limited circle, consisting of names that are assigned to one subject. Here repetitions, coincidences (names of settlements, villages, rivers) are possible, they are also high-frequency in relation to the system of proper names various persons and animals.

Names

The names are used for different common names or combinations of words. common noun at the same time, it does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function. For example: newspaper "Izvestia", perfume "Lilac". They can also serve as names proper names: ship "Ukraine", hotel "Moscow".

Collective nouns

Collective nouns make up a separate category (lexico-grammatical) among them. They include words that name a collection of some homogeneous objects, and also express this meaning with the help of various suffixes: -stv(o) ( youth, students); -and I ( aristocracy, pioneer); -from(a) ( poor) other. To collective noun in a broad sense, names that denote a set of objects can also be assigned: furniture, trash, small fry, haulm. Such words express collectiveness lexically, and not word-formation. hallmark these nouns - what they don't have

Real nouns

They name various substances: materials ( cement, plaster), food products ( sugar, flour, cereals, fat), types of fabrics ( chintz, velvet), metals, minerals (jasper, emerald, steel, tin, coal, iron), medicines, chemical elements ( aspirin, pyramidon, uranium), agricultural crops ( wheat, potatoes, oats), as well as other divisible homogeneous masses.

Real nouns, unlike collective nouns, as a rule, do not have suffixes to denote a real meaning. It is expressed only lexically.

Real nouns are usually used either only in the singular or in the plural: cream, perfume, yeast; tin, flour, tea, honey. A real noun, which is usually used in the singular, taking the form of the plural, is separated lexically from the corresponding form: groats(crushed or whole grains of plants), but cereals(varieties of cereals).

and specific nouns

Among the names, such categories of nouns by meaning are distinguished as abstract and concrete. Specific are words that name facts, persons, things, phenomena of reality that can be counted and presented separately: war, duel, engineer, ring, pencil.
This lexico-grammatical category of nouns, in other words, represents singular objects and their plural forms.

With the exception of names that do not have a singular (pluralia tantum), all concrete nouns have plural and singular forms. Specific nouns are not only opposed to abstract ones. They are also opposed by the material and collective categories of nouns, pluralia tantum; and their meanings are also different.

Abstract (abstract) - words that denote abstract concepts, qualities, properties, states and actions: movement, running, dexterity, intimacy, kindness, captivity, goodness, laughter, fame. Most of them are nouns motivated by verbs and adjectives, formed with the help of a zero suffix ( replacement, export, ailment, bitterness), suffix -ost ( cowardice, beauty b), -stvo(o) ( majority, insignificance, boasting, primacy), -chin(a)/-chin(a) ( piecework), -ism ( humanism, realism), -from (a) ( hoarseness, kindness, acid) and others. A smaller part is made up of various unmotivated words: essence, sadness, comfort, grief, passion, sadness, torment, fear, temper, mind, trouble.

Usually there are no plural forms for abstract nouns.

Animate and inanimate nouns

Nouns are divided into two categories: - names of animals and people: insect, pike, starling, cat, student, teacher, son, man.

Inanimate - the names of all other phenomena and objects: book, table, wall, window, nature, institute, steppe, forest, kindness, depth, trip, movement, incident.

These words have different roles and meanings. The ranks of nouns by meaning have their own specific features. Animate ones often derivate and morphologically differ from inanimate ones. These are the names of various persons, as well as female animals, which are often motivated by a word that names an animal or person without indicating gender or male: student-student, teacher-teacher, student-schoolgirl, grandson-granddaughter, Muscovite-Muscovite, lion-lioness, cat-cat and others

As a rule, animate nouns have a morphological meaning of the feminine or masculine gender, and only a few have a neuter meaning, while semantically belonging to one or another gender of the noun is determined (except for the neuter, which are called living beings regardless of gender: the name of a non-adult person (child), or type name creature, face, insect, mammal, animal). Inanimate nouns are divided into three morphological genders - neuter, feminine and masculine.

Paradigms of inanimate and animate nouns

The paradigms of inanimate and animate consistently differ in the plural: animate in it have the same form as the genitive. Example: no animals, no sisters and brothers(R.p.), saw animals, saw sisters and brothers(V. p). Plural inanimate nouns have the accusative form, which is the same as the nominative. Example: apples, pears and peaches are on the table(I.p.); bought apples, pears and peaches(V.p.).

We have considered a noun as a part of speech, categories of nouns. We hope you found this article helpful. If the information is not enough, we recommend that you familiarize yourself with the works that Kochanova O.N. wrote on this topic. The ranks of nouns by meaning are discussed in some detail in her articles.