Public (social) sciences- sciences about society (society); a major classification group corresponding to:
b) in the context of the utilitarian tasks of managing and planning the educational process, the organizational structure of educational institutions, categorization and rubrication of areas of science for applied needs (for example, bibliography, see UDC) - a certain set disciplines, compiled on the basis of the object (subject) of study: attitude towards society, its social groups and individuals.
Basic social sciences: jurisprudence, economics, psychology, philology, linguistics, rhetoric, sociology, history, political science, pedagogy, cultural studies, geography, anthropology.
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Attribution to the social sciences may vary depending on the difference between tasks (fundamental, utilitarian-applied) and, in part, objects (areas covered by the knowledge of mankind in the course of the general civilizational process, on the one hand, and discipline in the educational and academic understanding, on the other) .
Methodology and principles underlying this or that utilitarian classification, may differ for reasons: state-specific, religious-cult, historical (opportunistic), subjective-authorial, etc. At the same time, regardless of the wording presupposed for such lists of sciences, when comparing them one should bear in mind the inevitable influence of utilitarian and / or highly specific tasks of the "customer" and / or "consumer" of a particular classification.
Remaining correct in the context of the conditions of its appearance and the tasks facing it, none of the variants of the utilitarian classification can claim absolute objectivity. Pairwise comparison of options can be useful, for example, in terms of improving a particular national-state classification system. However, beyond this goal-setting, disputes over “which classification is more correct” are most often unscientific and scholastic. cannot lead to positive result and attempts to oppose any of the utilitarian classifications with fundamental epistemological ones: the latter is formulated at a qualitatively different philosophical level, which implies an abstraction not only from the national-cultural, but also from, in in a certain sense, historical specificity (simultaneously covering the entire history of knowledge, from the undivided philosophy of antiquity to the deeply differentiated system of modern sciences).
The place of philosophy in the system of scientific knowledge
Most a prime example collisions of fundamental and utilitarian approaches - determining the place of philosophy in the system scientific knowledge.
As can be seen from the list below, utilitarian classification philosophy by subject placed in the category of social sciences along with with other social sciences. However, when solving the issue of classification of sciences in its fundamental The science of science distinguishes between two principles: objective(when the connection of sciences is derived from the connection of the objects of study themselves), and subjective when the classification of sciences is based on the features of the subject. At the same time, methodologically, the very principles of classification are distinguished according to how the connection between the sciences is understood (as external- when the sciences are only placed next to each other in a certain order, or as internal, organic - when they are necessarily derived and developed from one another).
The question of the relationship between philosophy and particular sciences is a kind of core of the whole history of the classification of sciences. There are three main stages in this history, corresponding to: 1) undivided philosophical science antiquity (and partly the Middle Ages); 2) differentiation of sciences in the XV-XVIII centuries. (analytical division of knowledge into separate branches); 3) reintegration (synthetic reconstruction, linking the sciences into a single system of knowledge), which has been observed since the 19th century. According to these stages, the search for the very principles of the classification of science is also being carried out.
Taking, as an example, the so-called. an encyclopedic series compiled by Saint-Simon and developed by Comte (here the sciences are classified according to the transition from simpler and more general phenomena to more complex and particular ones, and the mechanics of earthly bodies is included in mathematics, psychology is included in physiology, and sociology Comte is one of the creators of this science - takes a special place):
we see that philosophy, on the one hand, as if absorbed by sociology, but on the other hand, it is present in mathematics in the form logic. Later, as the reintegration (and the realization of its necessity came in the 20th century due to the emergence of many sciences that are “at the junction” of previously differentiated categories) of scientific knowledge, the coil closed dialectically, and science of science came to the need to single out philosophy - not so much as “historically the first”, how much as a backbone, into a separate category.
Soviet science of science adhered to this principle as well. The table below ( source: TSB, article "Science") is one of options linear forms of representation of the hierarchy of sciences (it corresponds to a complex two-dimensional scheme, where many connecting lines are drawn that are not reflected here, demonstrating the relationship between sciences).
Philosophical Sciences Dialectics Logics Mathematical Sciences mathematical logic and practical mathematics, including cybernetics Mathematics Natural and technical sciences Astronomy and astronautics Astrophysics Physics and technical physics Chemical physics Physical chemistry Chemistry and chemical-technological sciences with metallurgy Geochemistry Geophysics Geology and mining Physiography Biology and s.-x. Sciences human physiology and medical sciences Anthropology Social sciencies Story Archeology Ethnography public geography Socio-economic statistics Base and superstructure sciences: political Economy, sciences of state and law, art history and art criticism, etc. Linguistics Psychology and pedagogical science The conflict lies in the fact that, recognizing philosophy as a special place in the entire system of scientific knowledge within the framework of fundamental classification, upon transition to utilitarian schemes Soviet science scholars - like modern systematizers - were forced to place philosophy to one system group with political economy, scientific communism, etc. curricula, organizational structure In universities, this group appeared under the name of the departments of social sciences (KON; in technical schools and vocational schools - commissions on social sciences). This, we repeat, is not a contradiction, but a functional difference due to utilitarian necessity; both approaches - both fundamental and utilitarian - have an equal right to exist in the context of the tasks they are aimed at solving.
Comment: the term "Social sciences" is used in the original source as a synonym for "social sciences" (partly due to the need to formally avoid this conflict). The descriptive term "Sciences of the basis and superstructures" roughly corresponds to modern political science. The didactic and illustrative task was the main one in compiling the table, and therefore general list The sciences indicated in it do not claim to be exhaustive. At the same time, some of the names corresponding to well-known independent sciences, used as a collective, under which supposed whole groups of "sub-sectors" - for example, astronautics.
Antagonistic collisions
Antagonistic, i.e. unresolvable contradictory friend (see Laws of Philosophy) collisions in the classification of certain sciences (including social Sciences) bring to the sensitive issues of the relationship between the concepts of "science" and "pseudoscience". Some examples of such antagonism are generated fundamental differences basic forms worldview: idealistic and materialistic. Taking a detached position, it is impossible to give a positive answer to the question whether some of the disciplines studied in religious educational institutions, to the category social sciences? Is the discipline "Scientific Communism", which appears in the diplomas of tens of millions of students, a social science? Soviet specialists with higher education? Based on the principle of respect for the personal right of everyone to own worldview, protected by the rules of Wikipedia, here are these (and similar ones) aggressive opposition on ideological and worldview grounds should be recognized as inappropriate. Leaving behind everyone choice the “correct” answer - in the literature of the corresponding worldview direction, where this answer is properly substantiated in the system of those categories of world knowledge that this or that current of social thought operates with.
The above collisions should be distinguished from attempts to supplement the "official" list of social sciences with categories designed for purely commercial purposes of extracting income from the sale of knowledge from an allegedly "new" field of science. An example of this is euphemisms, which hide a set of disciplines previously sold under other "brand names": marketing, PR, NLP, etc. Spamming their paid courses under the guise of articles about the relevant "sciences" climbs with enviable persistence on the pages of Wikipedia. Without giving specific names, here we can recommend an effective litmus indicator that allows you to distinguish true science from pseudoscience: study the list (and origin) of publications displayed by search engines when entering a controversial name in English or another common foreign language.
Other collisions
A number of collisions, that is, inconsistencies or, conversely, unjustified intersections in the definitions and interpretations of the concept of "social sciences" and its accompanying categories, are due to the following main groups of reasons: a) linguistic, b) cross-cultural, c) subjective-academic.
Linguistic center around the concepts public" and " social". Historically, the term "social sciences" came to Russian from European languages, where most often it is formed on the basis of the Latin proto-forms scientia = knowledge, and soci(etas) = society (cf. English social sciences, fr. sciences sociales, etc.). Simultaneous introduction in the 19th century into the Russian language, along with " public", concepts " social» was not due to objective necessity (for example, a description of a qualitatively new object that was not previously known to this language culture). Despite the obvious harm (unjustified confusion with cognate Latin terms from the series " socialist”), the term “ social” has not gone out of circulation. In a number of cases, with his participation, new concepts were formed at the end of the 20th century, for example. "social sphere".
Having a long history of using social" as a synonym for Russian " public" (in conjunction with " sciences”) makes it impossible to oppose one another, forming on their basis qualitatively different categorical series. Such attempts would be far-fetched and their results counterproductive. Without denying the equality of categories " social Sciences" and " Social sciencies", apparently, preference should be given to Russian" public» - due to the above-mentioned intersection with other categorical series, ascending to the same Latin soci (etas).
Cross-cultural collisions, as a result of the national-state isolation of the processes of formation of systems of scientific knowledge, are observed in Wikipedia. Comparing the Russian, English, Italian versions of this page with each other, it is easy to see that the lists of “social sciences” given on them as sets are by no means congruent; they are only "largely overlapping." Blindly copying from one national page to another, or taking any of them as a model, is unacceptable. Seeming “omissions” are most often the result not of an oversight, but of the national specificity of the formation of lists of academic disciplines for utilitarian purposes. The expediency of their unification, bringing them under a single "world standard" (in fact, the transition to someone else's, already existing) is also doubtful: the fight against the national specifics of the processes of scientific world knowledge would mean de facto recognition of the anti-scientific hypothesis of the presence of a "monopoly on truth" (which also goes contrary to the democratic right to the uniqueness of philosophical and ideological positions, especially at the aggregate level of the sovereign state components of modern civilization).
Subjective academic conflicts arise, as a rule, between the developments of competing scientific schools, although sometimes the authors of disputed classifications can also be individual scientists seeking to say a new word in science. It is unscientific and unproductive to evaluate these attempts a priori (especially in the system of emotional-subjectivist criteria of "ambition" of one side and "inertia" of the other side). Ascertaining the absence of a monopoly on truth and democratic freedoms, and based on the presumption of scientific good faith, it is possible to compare them with each other, for example, on the basis of ultimate expediency. Like other sciences, social sciences do not stand still, in their development they inevitably invade the field of previously “alien” sciences, causing, sooner or later, the need for differentiation or, conversely, integration.
Correlation of categories of social and human sciences
The use of the phrase "humanitarian disciplines" in Russian is limited to a highly specific area of organization educational process in classical universities, that is, educational institutions, which include faculties of both "natural" (physics, chemistry, biology) and other sciences - philosophy, linguistics, geography, etc.
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This article or section needs revision. Please improve the article in accordance with the rules for writing articles ... Wikipedia
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See Social Sciences... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Social Sciences- SOCIAL SCIENCES. On the eve of the Soviet war philosophers, historians, economists, jurists, linguists, literary critics and others. on the basis of Marxist-Leninist teachings developed the problems of socialist. basis and superstructure, transformation of the social ... ... Great Patriotic War 1941-1945: encyclopedia
Scientific interdisciplinary journal of the Russian Academy of Sciences, since 1976 (originally published under the name "Social Sciences", since 1991 modern name), Moscow. Founder (1998) Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 6 issues per year… encyclopedic Dictionary
- "Social Sciences", a quarterly scientific journal of the Russian Academy of Sciences on English language, since 1970, Moscow. Prints a selection of original articles prepared by scientists from 30 institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published and distributed also in the USA ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Philosophy Being integral integral part world philosophy, the philosophical thought of the peoples of the USSR went through a large and complex historical path. In the spiritual life of primitive and early feudal societies on the lands of the ancestors of modern ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
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Books
- , . Social and natural sciences in the historical relationship of their methods, essays on the history and methodology of the social sciences. Scientific notes of the Imperial Moscow University. The Department…
- Social and natural sciences in the historical relationship of their methods, . This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. Social and natural sciences in the historical relationship of their methods, essays on the history and ...
Social (social-humanitarian) sciences- a complex of scientific disciplines, the subject of study of which is society in all manifestations of its life and a person as a member of society. The social sciences are theoretical forms knowledge, such as philosophy, sociology, political science, history, philology, psychology, cultural studies, jurisprudence (jurisprudence), economics, art history, ethnography (ethnology), pedagogy, etc.
Subject and methods of social sciences
The most important subject of research in social science is society, which is considered as a historically developing integrity, a system of relations, forms of associations of people that have developed in the process of their joint activities. Through these forms, the comprehensive interdependence of individuals is represented.
Each of the above disciplines examines social life with various parties, from a certain theoretical and philosophical position, using their own specific research methods. So, for example, in the tool for studying society is the category "power", due to which it appears as an organized system of power relations. In sociology, society is viewed as a dynamic system of relations social groups different degrees of generality. Categories "social group" social relations"," socialization " become a method of sociological analysis social phenomena. In cultural studies, culture and its forms are considered as valuable aspect of society. Categories "truth", "beauty", "good", "benefit" are ways of studying specific cultural phenomena. , using categories such as "money", "commodity", "market", "demand", "supply" etc., explores the organized economic life of society. studies the past of society, relying on the surviving various sources about the past, in order to establish the sequence of events, their causes and relationships.
First explore the natural reality by means of a generalizing (generalizing) method, identifying Nature laws.
Second through the individualizing method, non-repeatable, unique historical events are studied. The task of the historical sciences is to understand the meaning of the social ( M. Weber) in various historical and cultural contexts.
AT "philosophy of life" (W. Dilthey) nature and history are separated from each other and opposed as ontologically alien spheres, as different areas being. Thus, not only the methods, but also the objects of knowledge in the natural and human sciences are different. Culture is a product of the spiritual activity of people of a certain era, and in order to understand it, it is necessary to experience it. the values of this era, the motives of people's behavior.
Understanding how direct, direct comprehension of historical events is opposed to inferential, indirect knowledge in the natural sciences.
Understanding sociology (M. Weber) interprets social action, trying to explain it. The result of such an interpretation are hypotheses, on the basis of which the explanation is built. History thus appears as a historical drama, the author of which is the historian. The depth of understanding of the historical era depends on the genius of the researcher. The subjectivity of the historian is not an obstacle to knowledge public life, but a tool and method for understanding history.
The separation of the sciences of nature and the sciences of culture was a reaction to the positivist and naturalistic understanding of the historical existence of man in society.
Naturalism considers society from the standpoint vulgar materialism, does not see fundamental differences between cause-and-effect relationships in nature and in society, explains social life by natural, natural causes, applying natural scientific methods for their knowledge.
Human history appears as natural process”, and the laws of history become a kind of laws of nature. So, for example, supporters geographical determinism(geographical school in sociology), the main factor of social change is the geographical environment, climate, landscape (Ch. Montesquieu , G. Bockl, L. I. Mechnikov) . Representatives social darwinism reduce social patterns to biological ones: they consider society as an organism (G. Spencer), and politics, economics and morality - as forms and methods of struggle for existence, a manifestation of natural selection (P. Kropotkin, L. Gumplovich).
naturalism and positivism (O. Comte , G. Spencer , D.-S. Mill) sought to abandon the speculative, scholastic reasoning characteristic of the metaphysical studies of society, and create a "positive", demonstrative, generally valid social theory in the likeness of natural science, which has already basically reached the "positive" stage of development. However, on the basis of this kind of research, racist conclusions were made about the natural division of people into superior and inferior races. (J. Gobineau) and even about the direct relationship between class and anthropological parameters of individuals.
At present, we can talk not only about the opposition of the methods of the natural and human sciences, but also about their convergence. In the social sciences are actively used mathematical methods, which are a characteristic feature of natural science: in (especially in econometrics), in ( quantitative history, or cliometry), (political analysis), philology (). In solving the problems of specific social sciences, techniques and methods taken from the natural sciences are widely used. For example, to clarify the date historical events, especially remote in time, knowledge from the field of astronomy, physics, biology is used. There are also scientific disciplines, combining the methods of social sciences and the natural sciences, for example, economic geography.
The rise of the social sciences
In antiquity, most of the social (social-humanitarian) sciences were included in philosophy as a form of integrating knowledge about man and society. To some extent, we can talk about separating into independent disciplines about jurisprudence ( Ancient Rome) and history (Herodotus, Thucydides). In the Middle Ages, the social sciences developed within the framework of theology as an undifferentiated comprehensive knowledge. In ancient and medieval philosophy, the concept of society was practically identified with the concept of the state.
Historically, the first most significant form of social theory is the teachings of Plato and Aristotle I. In the Middle Ages, thinkers who made a significant contribution to the development of social sciences include Augustine, John of Damascus, Thomas Aquinas , Gregory Palamu. An important contribution to the development of the social sciences was made by figures renaissance(XV-XVI centuries) and new time(XVII century): T. More ("Utopia"), T. Campanella"City of Sun", N. Machiavellian"Sovereign". In modern times, the final separation of the social sciences from philosophy takes place: economics (XVII century), sociology, political science and psychology (XIX century), cultural studies (XX century). University departments and faculties in the social sciences arose, specialized journals devoted to the study of social phenomena and processes began to appear, associations of scientists engaged in research in the field of social sciences were created.
The main directions of modern social thought
In social science as a set of social sciences in the XX century. two approaches have emerged: scientist-technocratic and humanistic (anti-scientist).
The main theme of modern social science is fate capitalist society, and the most important subject is post-industrial, “mass society” and the features of its formation.
This gives these studies a clear futurological tone and journalistic passion. Assessments of the state and historical perspective of modern society can be diametrically opposed: from foresight global catastrophes to predicting a stable, prosperous future. worldview task such research is the search for a new common purpose and ways to achieve it.
The most developed of modern social theories is an concept of post-industrial society , the main principles of which are formulated in the works D. Bella(1965). The idea of a post-industrial society is quite popular in modern social science, and the term itself combines whole line research, the authors of which seek to determine the leading trend in the development of modern society, considering the production process in various, including organizational, aspects.
In the history of mankind stand out three phase:
1. pre-industrial(agrarian form of society);
2. industrial(technological form of society);
3. post-industrial(social stage).
Production in a pre-industrial society uses raw materials rather than energy as the main resource, extracts products from natural materials, and does not produce them in the proper sense, intensively uses labor, not capital. The most important public institutions in the pre-industrial society are the church and the army, in the industrial society - the corporation and the firm, and in the post-industrial society - the university as a form of knowledge production. The social structure of post-industrial society loses its pronounced class character, property ceases to be its basis, the capitalist class is supplanted by the ruling class. elite, possessing high level knowledge and education.
Agrarian, industrial and post-industrial societies are not stages of social development, but are coexisting forms of organization of production and its main trends. The industrial phase begins in Europe in the 19th century. Post-industrial society does not displace other forms, but adds a new aspect related to the use of information, knowledge in public life. The formation of a post-industrial society is associated with the spread in the 70s. 20th century information technologies, which radically influenced production, and, consequently, the way of life itself. In the post-industrial (information) society, there is a transition from the production of goods to the production of services, a new class of technical specialists arises, who become consultants, experts.
The main source of production is information(in a pre-industrial society it is raw materials, in an industrial society it is energy). Science-intensive technologies are replaced by labor-intensive and capital-intensive ones. Based on this distinction, it is possible to single out the specific features of each society: pre-industrial society is based on interaction with nature, industrial society is based on the interaction of society with transformed nature, post-industrial society is based on interaction between people. Society thus appears as a dynamic, progressive developing system, the main driving trends of which are in the sphere of production. In this regard, there is a certain closeness between post-industrial theory and Marxism, which is determined by the general ideological prerequisites of both concepts - educational worldview values.
Within the framework of the post-industrial paradigm, the crisis of modern capitalist society appears as a gap between a rationalistically oriented economy and a humanistically oriented economy. oriented culture. The way out of the crisis should be the transition from the domination of capitalist corporations to research organizations, from capitalism to the knowledge society.
In addition, many other economic and social shifts are planned: the transition from an economy of goods to an economy of services, an increase in the role of education, a change in the structure of employment and orientation of a person, the formation of a new motivation for activity, a radical change social structure, the development of the principles of democracy, the formation of new policy principles, the transition to a non-market welfare economy.
In the work of the famous modern American futurologist O. Toflera“Shock of the Future” notes that the acceleration of social and technological changes has a shock effect on the individual and society as a whole, making it difficult for a person to adapt to a changing world. The cause of the current crisis is the transition of society to the civilization of the "third wave". The first wave is an agrarian civilization, the second is an industrial one. Modern society can survive in existing conflicts and global tension only under the condition of transition to new values and new forms of sociality. The main thing is the revolution in thinking. Social changes are caused, first of all, by changes in technology, which determines the type of society and the type of culture, and this influence is carried out in waves. The third technological wave (associated with the growth of information technologies and a radical change in communication) significantly changes the way and style of life, the type of family, the nature of work, love, communication, forms of economy, politics, and consciousness.
The main characteristics of industrial technology, based on the old type of technology and division of labor, are centralization, gigantism and uniformity (mass character), accompanied by oppression, squalor, poverty and ecological catastrophes. Overcoming the vices of industrialism is possible in the future, post-industrial society, the main principles of which will be integrity and individualization.
Concepts such as “employment”, “ workplace”, “unemployment”, non-profit organizations in the field of humanitarian development are spreading, there is a rejection of the dictates of the market, of narrow utilitarian values that led to humanitarian and environmental disasters.
Thus, science, which has become the basis of production, is entrusted with the mission of transforming society, humanizing social relations.
The concept of a post-industrial society has been criticized from various points of view, and the main reproach was that this concept is nothing more than apology for capitalism.
An alternative route is suggested in personalistic concepts of society , in which modern technologies (“machinization”, “computerization”, “robotization”) are evaluated as a means of deepening self-alienation of man from of its essence. Thus, anti-scientism and anti-technism E. Fromm allows him to see the deep contradictions of the post-industrial society, threatening the self-realization of the individual. Consumer values of modern society are the cause of depersonalization and dehumanization of social relations.
The basis of social transformations should be not a technological, but a personalist revolution, a revolution in human relations, the essence of which will be a radical value reorientation.
The value orientation towards possession (“to have”) must be replaced by a worldview orientation towards being (“to be”). The true vocation of a person and his highest value is love. . Only in love is the attitude toward being realized, the structure of a person's character changes, and the problem of human existence finds a solution. In love, a person's respect for life increases, the feeling of attachment to the world, fusion with being is sharply manifested, the alienation of a person from nature, society, another person, from oneself is overcome. Thus, the transition from egoism to altruism, from authoritarianism to genuine humanism in human relations is carried out, and personal orientation towards being appears as the highest human value. The project of a new civilization is being built on the basis of criticism of modern capitalist society.
The purpose and task of personal existence is the construction personalistic (communal) civilization, societies where the customs and way of life, public structures and institutions would correspond to the requirements of personal communication.
It should embody the principles of freedom and creativity, consent (while maintaining the distinction) and responsibility . The economic basis of such a society is the gift economy. The personalist social utopia opposes the concepts of "affluent society", "consumer society", " legal society”, which are based on various types of violence and coercion.
Recommended reading
1. Adorno T. Towards the logic of the social sciences
2. Popper K.R. The logic of the social sciences
3. Schutz A. Methodology of social sciences
;Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences, it is possible to fully and consistently describe and study the most complex education, which only exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social science. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. This is fundamental sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, scientific schools.
Social science, having arisen later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual schemes, theoretical categories.
The whole set of sciences related to social science is divided into two varieties - social and humanitarian.
If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. In other words, the subject of the social sciences is society, the subject humanitarian disciplines- culture. The main subject of the social sciences is study of human behavior.
Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. A group of other related disciplines adjoins it: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, and literary criticism. They are referred to humanitarian knowledge.
Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very arbitrary. At their intersection constantly arise interdisciplinary sciences, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and economic psychology at the intersection of economics and psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, and historical sociology.
Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:
Economy- the science that studies the principles of organization economic activity people, the relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the foundations rational behavior producer and consumer of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and privacy- people cannot take a step without affecting economic relations. When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, calculating our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going to visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of economy.
Sociology- a science that studies the relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, the problems of social inequality and the principles of resolving social conflicts.
Political science- a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics of social management, relations that arise in the process of implementing state-power activities.
Psychology- the science of the patterns, mechanism and facts of the mental life of humans and animals. The main theme of the psychological thought of antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study persistent and repetitive behavior in individuals. The focus is on the problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development of the human personality. AT modern psychology many branches of knowledge, including psychophysiology, animal psychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, age-related psychology, psychology of work, psychology of creativity, medical psychology, etc.
Anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of man, education human races and about normal variations physical structure person. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, manners of behavior.
Social Psychology studies small group (family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a borderline discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on those tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly affect the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This world of friends, acquaintances and relatives, closest to a person, plays an exceptional role in our life. We generally live in small, not in big worlds- in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes affects us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which came to grips with it very seriously.
Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man, his activities throughout the existence of human civilization. The word "history" is of Greek origin and means "research", "search". Some scholars believed that the object of study of history is the past. The well-known French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. "The very idea that the past as such is capable of being the object of science is absurd."
The emergence of historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The "father of history" is considered to be the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to Greco-Persian Wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. Much more reason considered the fathers of history by Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus. These ancient historians used documents, their own observations, and eyewitness accounts to describe events. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “The lessons learned from history most truly lead to enlightenment and prepare for engaging in public affairs, the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or only mentor that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”
And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach future generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky in his reflections on history wrote: “History does not teach anything, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”
Culturology primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, educational institutions and science. Subjects cultural creativity act a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, culturology covers all types of people's associations, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.
Demography studies the population - the whole set of people that make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what quantity they die, where they move large masses of people. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living beings are born, die and multiply. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. Such is its biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live up to 60-70 years. But this is today, and two hundred years ago average duration life did not exceed 30-40 years. In poor and underdeveloped countries, even today people live less than in rich and very developed ones. In humans, life expectancy is determined both by biological, hereditary characteristics, and by social conditions (life, work, rest, nutrition).
3.7 . Social and humanitarian knowledge
social cognition is the knowledge of society. Cognition of society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.
1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. In social life, all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.
2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relations are explored. These relations are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than the connections in nature.
3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own own history and they know it.
Speaking of specifics social cognition extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for the historical backwardness of Russia with the help of Einstein's theory of relativity. On the other hand, one cannot assert that all those methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.
The primary and elementary method of cognition is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, knowledge concerns animate objects endowed with consciousness. And if, for example, the stars, even after observing them for many years, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, a back reaction is detected on the part of the object under study, something makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces into it such interference that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science gives insufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called included observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object under study ( social group), but from within it.
For all its importance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. Observing, we cannot change the object in the direction we are interested in, regulate the conditions and course of the process under study, reproduce it as many times as is required for the completion of the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.
The experiment is active, transformative. In the experiment, we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective patterns and consisting in influencing the object (process) under study by means of special tools and devices. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of secondary, insignificant and obscuring its essence phenomena and study it in a “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process in strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to get the desired result.
social experiment has a number of significant features.
1. The social experiment has a concrete historical character. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different epochs, in different countries, because the laws of the development of nature do not depend on the form and type industrial relations, nor from national and historical features. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the system of upbringing and education, etc., can lead to various historical eras, in different countries not only different, but also directly opposite results.
2. The object of the social experiment has much lesser degree isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and all the influences of a given society as a whole. Here, reliable isolation devices such as vacuum pumps, protective screens, etc., used in the process, are not possible. physical experiment. And this means that the social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to "pure conditions".
3. A social experiment imposes increased requirements for observing “safety precautions” in the process of its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments performed by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on well-being, well-being, physical and mental health people involved in the "experimental" group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure in the course of the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people, and no good intentions of its organizers can justify this.
4. A social experiment may not be carried out for the purpose of obtaining directly theoretical knowledge. To put experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is a stating, confirming experiment.
One of theoretical methods knowledge is historical method research, i.e. a method that reveals significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately allows you to create a theory of the object, reveal the logic and patterns of its development.
Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as such a method of scientific knowledge, in which the study is carried out not on the object of interest to us (original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, it does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical reasons. considerations.
In his goal-setting activity, which makes history, man has always sought to comprehend the future. Interest in the future in the modern era has become especially aggravated in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of mankind. foresight came out on top.
scientific foresight is such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about their tendencies further development. Scientific foresight does not claim to be absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, to its obligatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of certainty.
Spiritual life of society
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Page creation date: 2016-02-16The classification of scientific activity is not so great, if it is divided into those that have axiomatic confirmation and those that have an "inaccurate" formulation, then there are only two options. Speaking in terms, science is divided into humanitarian and natural Sciences. There is also the concept of social sciences, which is not immediately explained by many citizens. Let's figure out how the humanities differ from the social sciences.
Humanitarian sciences
As already noted, the humanities do not have exact confirmation and postulate. These include: psychology, economics, philosophy, sociology, jurisprudence. Understanding and acquiring new knowledge human nature and the arts are the most important features of the humanities. This is the normative knowledge of an educated person. By deepening science, the settlement of integrity in relation to man and the core of nature is being explored by scientists and professors.
Although quite recently the humanities were limited in the study of social control, now modern science, on the contrary, seeks to solve the problem of the social construction of a social population. The main direction of which today has gained some progress and interest among many humanist scientists is the study of society and its capabilities before technological discoveries, as well as knowledge social statistics.
Social Sciences
The social sciences, in addition to the listed humanities, also cover social circle research- this is history, jurisprudence, linguistics, rhetoric, political science, pedagogy, cultural studies, geography, anthropology. Such a wide range of sciences studies historical stages the past, as well as what may happen in the history of the future. Solves fundamental theorems of social society. This science explores human relationships and attitudes.
Even in the recent past, the social sciences had no basis and were considered only from the point of view of necessity in one area or another. Today they are relevant for all segments of society. The theory that people will be able to manage themselves through social statistics and research is gaining popularity and consideration.
The similarity of the two sciences
Some sciences such as history, political science and sociology are to some extent harbingers of the future, i.e. guided by the skills of the historical past and the analysis of the social political mood societies, political scientists and sociologists can predict an assessment of what might happen in the future. Thus, sociology, history and political science are closely linked. A characteristic difference is the fact that political science studies theories, while sociology studies entire social corporations.
Philosophy, political science and psychology have among themselves common features. All these sciences mainly investigate social views and human image actions in any given situation. The experience of philosophy advises political scientists on some issues concerning the relations of peoples and the role of the state in public welfare. Psychology can also be both a humanitarian science and a social one. The opinion about why a person will do this and what he was guided by is very appropriate and, to some extent, necessary for the development of the correct promising tops.
The sciences that are part of the humanities cannot be standard and isolated theories alone, they are in demand and cover the sciences of the social environment. And vice versa - they find a common basis in their search.
Distinction between humanities and social sciences
In simple terms, the humanities are aimed at studying a person from the point of view of his inner nature: spirituality, morality, culture, ingenuity. In turn, social ones are aimed at studying not only the inner nature of a person, but also his actions in a given situation, his worldview on what is happening in society.
There are several major differences between the humanities and the social sciences:- Abstract concepts that reveal signs and properties are oriented in the humanities. For example, " experienced person", in this case it is not the person himself that is considered, but the very experience that he received. The social sciences focus their attention on man and his activities in social society.
- In order to theoretically navigate the study social development society, social scientists use proven tools and rules. In the humanities, this is rarely practiced.
