The emergence of science is closely connected with the natural process of the division of social labor, the growth of people's intellect, their desire to know the unknown, everything that exists, forms the basis of their existence. At the same time, science is one of the forms of social consciousness, it gives an objective picture of the world, a system of knowledge about the laws of development of nature and society.

Science is often defined as a field research activities for the production of new knowledge. However, any production occurs when there is a need for it. What is the reason historical origin science?

The origin of science is connected with the demands of the material practical life of people, the constant accumulation and separation of knowledge about various aspects of reality. One of the founders of the science of science, J. Bernal, noting that "it is essentially impossible to define science," outlines ways in which one can come closer to understanding what science is (Fig. 2.3).

Rice. 2.3. Definition of the concept of "science" by J. Bernal

Now development is impossible without a scientific approach. The role of engineering labor is growing. The time has come when the efficiency of production is determined not by the amount of labor expended, but by the general level of scientific solution specific production tasks, the introduction of scientific achievements into practice.

In the studies of science by the famous Western philosopher E. Agazzi on the results of its influence on society and nature, it is indicated that science should be considered as follows (Fig. 2.4).

Rice. 2.4. Definition of the concept of "science" according to E. Agazzi

Definition

In a broad sense, science is a harmonious, logically consistent, historically developed system of human activity with the aim of obtaining new knowledge about the world, about the objective processes that exist in nature and society. Science operates with a system of concepts and categories that reflect theoretical provisions and express essential connections between them and the laws of reality. From ascertaining and accurately describing individual facts, science must go to explaining their essence, determining their place in the general system, and revealing the laws contained in the basis of these facts.

In addition to the above, there are numerous definitions of the concept of "science", outlined by various scientists. The most interesting and meaningful are such definitions (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).

Table 2.2

Variants of the definition of the term "science"

Scientist (scientists)	characteristic	source
Charles Richet	Science requires more and more sacrifices. She doesn't want to share with anyone. It demands that individuals devote their entire existence, their entire intellect, their entire work to it. ... To know when to persevere, when to stop, is a gift inherent in talent and even genius.
Arbiter Gay Petronius	Science is a treasure and a learned man will never be lost
Francis Bacon	Science is nothing but a reflection of reality. If science in itself did not bring any practical benefit, then even then it would not be possible to call it useless, if only it would make the mind elegant and put it in order.	Bacon Francis. Philosophy of Science. Reader [ Electronic resource]. - Access mode: philsci.univ.kiev.ua/biblio/Bekon.htm.
Pierre Bourdieu	Science is made to be irresistible	Bourdieu Pierre. Les Conditions socials Internationale des idees / Pierre Bourdieu II Romanistische Zeitschriftfur Literaturgeschichte. - Heildelberg. - No. 14-1 / 2. - 1990.-p. 1-10.
John Desmond Bernal	Science is not the subject of pure thinking, but the subject of thinking, is constantly drawn into practice and constantly reinforced by practice. This is why science cannot be studied in isolation from technology	Kondrashov A. Anthology of success in aphorisms / A. Kondrashov. - M.: Lamartis, 2010. - 1280 p.
1mre Lakatos	If the goal of science is truth, science must seek consistency	Lakatos I. History of science and its rational reconstructions / I. Lakatos. - M.: 1978. - 235 p.
Bertrand Russell	Science is what we know, philosophy is what we do not know	Krysova Yu.A. Formation of liberal ideas in the philosophy of Bertrand Russell / Yu.A. Krysova II Comparative vision of the history of philosophy. - SPb., 2008. - S.119-125
Thomas Gwnry Huxley (Huxley)	The eternal tragedy of science: ugly facts kill beautiful hypotheses	Dushenko K. V. The big Book aphorisms / K. V. Dushenko. - Fifth ed., Rev. - M.: EKSMO-press, 2011. - 1056 p.
Louis Pasteur	Science should be the most exalted embodiment of the fatherland, for of all peoples, the first will always be the one who is ahead of others in the field of thought and mental activity.	Patrice Debre. Louis Pasteur / Debre Patrice. - JHU Press, 2000. - 600 p.
S. I. Vavilov	Science is a very special field of work that attracts with irresistible force. A scientist almost always completes his research activity by walking 3 life	Yushkevich A.P.. S.I. Vavilov as a researcher of I. Newton's creativity / A. P. Yushkevich II Proceedings of IIET. - T. 17. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1957. - P. 66-89
A. M. Gorky	Science is nervous system our era	Dushenko K. V. Big book of aphorisms / K. V. Dushenko. - Fifth ed., Rev. - M.: EKSMO-press, 2011. - 1056 p.
J. Geant	Science in modern understanding means the project of obtaining objective knowledge, developed by the mind. From the point of view of reason, this project means calling all things in the world to the judgment of the subject and investigating their existence so that they themselves give us the reason why they objectively are what they are.	Grant P. Philosophy, culture, technology / P. Grant II from the technological wave in the West. - M.: Science. - S. 156
V. S. Mariino, N. G. Mitsenko. A. A. Danilenko	Science is dynamic system reliable, most essential knowledge about the objective laws of development of nature, society and thinking	Fundamentals of scientific research: textbook. allowance. / V. S. Martsin, N. G. Mitsenko, A. A. Danilenko. - L.: Romus-Polygraph, 2002.-128 p.

Table 2.3

Definitions of the concept of "science" in dictionaries

definition	source
Science is a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; one of the forms of social consciousness; includes both the activity of acquiring new knowledge and its result - the knowledge underlying the scientific picture of the world; definition of individual industries scientific knowledge	Big encyclopedic Dictionary[Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http: //onlinedics.ru/s1оvar/bes/n/nauka.html.
Science is one of the spheres of human activity, the function of which is the development and systematization of knowledge about nature, society and consciousness.	Dictionary of logic [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: onlinedics.ru/slovar/log/n/nauka.html.
Science is a system of knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society and thinking	Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Ozhegov [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: onlinedics.ru/slovar/ojegov/n/nauka.html.
Science is a system of knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society and thinking and about the ways of systematic impact on the world around	Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Ushakov [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: onlinedics.ru/slovar/ushakov/n/nauka.html
Science is a sphere of activity, development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality, one of the forms of social consciousness, including the activity of acquiring knowledge, as well as its result - knowledge underlying the scientific picture of the world	Historical Dictionary [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: slovarionline.ru/word/historical-dictionary/science. htm
Science is a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.	Political Dictionary [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: slovarionline. ru / word / political-dictionary / science.htm
Science is a system of knowledge about the laws of nature, society, and thinking. Sciences are distinguished: by the nature of the subject of study (natural, technical, humanitarian, social, etc.); by the method of data collection and the level of their generalization (empirical, theoretical, fundamental) by the research method (nomothetic, ideographic) by the degree of practical application (pure, applied)	Sociological Dictionary [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: slovarionline. ru / word / sociological-dictionary / science.htm
The science - special kind cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge about the world	Philosophical Dictionary [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: slovarionline.ru/word/philosophical-dictionary/science.htm

Science as specific kind activities aimed at obtaining new theoretical and applied knowledge about the laws of development of nature, society and thinking and is characterized by the following main features:

The presence of systematized knowledge (ideas, theories, concepts, laws, principles, hypotheses, basic concepts, facts);

The presence scientific problem, object and subject of research;

The practical significance of the studied.

Being very multifaceted, science in various ways touches various areas public life. The main task of science is to identify the objective laws of reality, and its the main objective- true knowledge (Fig. 2.5).

It follows that science must answer the question: What? How? Why? Which? How? To the question: "How to do it?" corresponds to the methodology. To the question: "What to do?" corresponds to practice. The answers to these questions evoke the immediate goals of science - descriptions, explanations and predictions of the processes and phenomena of objective reality that are the subject of its study, on the basis of the laws that it discovers, that is, in a broad sense - the theoretical reproduction of reality.

Rice. 2.5. task of science

The criteria of scientific character, by which science differs from other forms of cognition, are (Fig. 2.6):

Rice. 2.6. scientific criteria

The object of reflection in science is nature and social life. In connection with this subject and method of cognition, all specific sciences are divided into the following types (Fig. 2.7).

Rice. 2.7. The division of sciences into types according to the subject and method of knowledge

Social Sciences(economic, philological, philosophical, logical, psychological. Historical, pedagogical, etc.) various parties social life, the laws of functioning and development of the social organism. their subject of study is the study of socio-economic, political and ideological patterns of development of social relations.

Natural Sciences(physics, chemistry, biology, geography, astrology, etc.) They study the regular properties and relationships (laws) of living and inanimate nature; the subject of their study with different types of matter and forms of their movement, their relationship and patterns.

Technical science(radio engineering, mechanical engineering, aircraft building), are engaged in the study of not only the productive forces in a certain area of ​​the economy, but also industrial relations; the subject of study is the study of specific technical characteristics and their relationships.

In relation to practice, these types of science are distinguished (Fig. 2.8).

Rice. 2.8. The division of sciences into types in relation to practice

Basic sciences do not have a direct practical orientation and are not directly focused on obtaining practical benefits.

Applied Science are aimed at the direct practical use of scientific results.

Scientific and practical developments - is a creative activity that is carried out on systemic basis in order to increase the volume of scientific knowledge, including about man, nature and society, as well as the search for new areas of application of this knowledge.

The basis of the development of science, as well as other social phenomena, is material production, a natural change in the mode of production. 60

Mathematics and mechanics, biology and physics, and all Technical science grew, developed and flourished thanks to the development of productive forces, the growth of production needs, as well as social Sciences- on the basis of changing the conditions of social life and the inevitable tasks of transforming social relations into human ones.

Each scientific discovery, responding to the emerging demands of life, is simultaneously based on previously accumulated knowledge in a particular area. Science is a coherent system of laws and conclusions, has its own internal logic of development, special consistency and capriciousness. Individual thinkers, relying on all the achievements of science, can sometimes make such discoveries for the implementation of which the production and technical conditions are not yet ripe.

Science develops in close interaction with all other aspects and phenomena of society. Its development is influenced by political and legal relations in society.

In the methodology of science, the following functions of science are distinguished: description, explanation, prediction, understanding, knowledge, design, organization, education, knowledge, which are the subject of its study on the basis of the laws it discovers (Fig. 2.9).

Rice. 2.9. functions of science

Exist different opinions scientists regarding the functions of science.

With all the empiricism characteristic of I. Kant, he was not inclined to reduce science to a collection of single facts. He considered predictions to be the main function of science.

I. Kant wrote: "True positive thinking lies mainly in the ability to know in order to foresee, to study what is, and from here to conclude what should happen according to the general position of the immutability of natural laws."

E. Mach considered the description to be the only function of science: "It gives a description of everything that may require scientific researcher? I think so!". Mach essentially reduced explanation and prediction to description. Theories, from his point of view, are like compressed empiricism.

Science is characterized by cognitive and practical activities. In the first case, science can be spoken of as information system, which systematizes previously accumulated knowledge, which serves as the basis for further knowledge of objective reality, and in the second - about the system for implementing the identified patterns in practice.

Summarizing, we can say that the concept of science must be considered from two main positions (Fig. 2.10).

Rice. 2.10. Interpretation of science from two main positions

In the first case, science is considered as a system of already accumulated knowledge, as a form of social consciousness that meets the criteria of objectivity, adequacy and truth; in the second - as certain kind social division of labor as a scientific activity associated with a whole system of relations between scientists and external contractors. At the same time, science is understood as special way activities aimed at actually verified and logically ordered knowledge of objects and processes of the surrounding reality.

Science is a sphere professional activity of a person, like any other - industrial, pedagogical, etc. Its only difference is that the main goal that it pursues is the acquisition of scientific knowledge. This is its specificity.

History of the development of science

Ancient Greece is considered the European birthplace of science. The inhabitants of this particular country were the first to realize that the world surrounding a person is not at all the same as people who study it only through sensory knowledge think. In Greece, for the first time, the transition of the sensual to the abstract was made, from the knowledge of the facts of the world around us to the study of its laws.

Science in the Middle Ages turned out to be dependent on theology, so its development slowed down significantly. However, over time, as a result of the discoveries received by Galileo, Copernicus and Bruno, she began to provide all greater influence to the life of society. In Europe in the 17th century, the process of its formation took place as public institution: academies and scientific societies are established, scientific journals are published.

New forms of its organization arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: scientific institutes and laboratories, research centers. Science began to exert a great influence on the development of production around the same time. It has become a special kind of it - a spiritual production.

Today, in the field of science, the following 3 aspects can be distinguished:

• science as a result (obtaining scientific knowledge);
• as a process (itself ;
• how social institution(a set of institutions of science, a community of scientists).

Science as an institution of society

Design and technological institutes(as well as hundreds of different research), libraries, reserves and museums are part of the system of institutions of science. A significant part of its potential is concentrated in universities. In addition, more and more doctors and candidates of sciences are working in general education schools, gymnasiums, and lyceums, which means that these educational institutions will be more actively involved in scientific work.

Personnel

Any human activity implies that it is carried out by someone. Science is a social institution, the functioning of which is possible only if there are qualified personnel. Their preparation is carried out through postgraduate studies, as well as the degree of Candidate of Science, awarded to people with higher education who have passed special examinations, as well as published the results of their research and defended publicly. PhD thesis. Doctors of Sciences are highly qualified personnel who are trained through the competition or through doctoral studies are nominated from among

Science as a result

Let's move on to the next aspect. As a result, science is a system of reliable knowledge about man, nature and society. Two essential features should be emphasized in this definition. First, science is an interconnected body of knowledge acquired by mankind to date on all known issues. It meets the requirements of consistency and completeness. Secondly, the essence of science lies in the acquisition of reliable knowledge, which should be distinguished from everyday, everyday, inherent in every person.

Properties of science as a result

1. The cumulative nature of scientific knowledge. Its volume doubles every 10 years.
2. The accumulation of scientific knowledge inevitably leads to fragmentation and differentiation. New branches of it are emerging, for example: gender psychology, social Psychology and etc.
3. Science in relation to practice has the following functions as a knowledge system:

• descriptive (accumulation and collection of facts, data);
• explanatory - explanation of processes and phenomena, their internal mechanisms;
• normative, or prescriptive - its achievements become, for example, mandatory standards for implementation at school, in production, etc .;
• generalizing - the formulation of patterns and laws that absorb and systematize many disparate facts and phenomena;
• predictive - this knowledge makes it possible to foresee in advance some phenomena and processes that were previously unknown.

Scientific activity (science as a process)

If a practical worker in his activity pursues the achievement of high results, then the tasks of science imply that the researcher should strive to obtain new scientific knowledge. This includes an explanation of why the result in one case or another turns out to be bad or good, as well as a prediction in which cases it will be one way or another. In addition, if a practical worker takes into account in a complex and simultaneously all aspects of activity, then the researcher, as a rule, is interested in a deep study of only one aspect. For example, from the point of view of mechanics, a person is a body that has a certain mass, has a certain moment of inertia, etc. For chemists, it is the most complex reactor, where millions of different chemical reactions. Psychologists are interested in the processes of memory, perception, etc. That is, each science investigates various processes and phenomena from a certain point of view. Therefore, by the way, the results obtained can only be interpreted as relative in science is unattainable, this is the goal of metaphysics.

The role of science in modern society

Nowadays scientific and technological progress the inhabitants of the planet are especially clearly aware of the significance and place of science in their lives. Everything today more attention in society is given to the implementation of scientific research in various fields. People strive to obtain new data about the world, to create new technologies that improve the process of production of material goods.

Descartes method

Science today is the main human being in the world. At the core is complex creative process subject-practical and mental activity of a scientist. Descartes formulated the general rules for this process as follows:

• nothing can be accepted as true until it appears distinct and clear;
• need to share difficult questions on the number of parts required to resolve them;
• it is required to start the study with the most convenient and simple things for knowledge and gradually move on to more complex ones;
• the duty of the scientist is to pay attention to everything, to dwell on the details: he must be completely sure that he has not missed anything.

The ethical side of science

Of particular relevance in modern science are issues that relate to the relationship of the scientist with society, as well as the social responsibility of the researcher. We are talking about how the achievements made by scientists will be applied in the future, whether the knowledge gained will turn against a person.

Discoveries in genetic engineering, medicine, biology provided the opportunity to influence purposefully the heredity of organisms to the point that today it is possible to create organisms with some predetermined properties. The time has come to abandon the principle of freedom of scientific research, which was previously not limited by anything. We must not allow the creation of weapons of mass destruction. The definition of science today, therefore, must also include the ethical side, since it cannot remain neutral in this respect.

Science in a broad sense includes all the conditions and components of the relevant activity:

• division and cooperation of scientific work;
• scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;
• conceptual and categorical apparatus;
• system scientific information;
• the total amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.

Story

In the development of science, extensive and revolutionary periods alternate - scientific revolutions leading to a change in its structure, principles of cognition, categories and methods, as well as forms of its organization. Science is characterized by a dialectical combination of the processes of its differentiation and integration, the development of fundamental and applied research.

Community

The totality of people involved in science makes up the scientific community. The scientific community is a complex self-organizing system in which both state institutions and public organizations, and informal groups. A hallmark of this community is the increased recognition of authority achieved scientific success, and a reduced level of recognition of the authority of the powerful, which sometimes leads to a conflict between the state and scientific community. It should also be noted that informal groups, and especially individuals, are more effective than in other social spheres. The most important functions of the scientific community are the recognition or rejection of new ideas and theories, which ensures the development of scientific knowledge, as well as support for the education system and training of new scientific personnel.

The lifestyle and worldview of people in the scientific community can differ significantly from those common in society. It is believed that atheistic and skeptical views now prevail in the scientific community. Studies conducted in the 1990s showed that only 7% of the members of the US National Academy of Sciences and 3.3% of the members of the UK Academy of Sciences turned out to be believers. At the same time, according to a nationwide survey, 68.5% of the country's population consider themselves believers. If we take American scientists as a whole, then the number of believers is about 40% and almost does not change over time. Among the teachers of American universities, the proportion of believers is already up to 73%. According to data published in June 2005 by researchers from the University of Chicago, 76% American doctors consider themselves believers. The history of science testifies to the variability of the dominant ideas and doctrines in science, as well as their dependence on the political situation of the corresponding state and historical period.

Scientists

Scientist - a representative of science, carrying out meaningful activities to form a scientific picture of the world, whose scientific activities and qualifications in one form or another have been recognized by the scientific community. The main formal sign of recognition of qualifications is the publication of research materials in reputable scientific publications and reports at reputable scientific conferences. A report at all-Russian and international scientific conferences is equated to a scientific publication, however, there are a number of restrictions for applicants for a scientific degree. A formal attempt has been made in Russia to separate the authoritative scientific publications from others in the form of a list of publications in which publications are recognized by the Higher Attestation Commission. However, even among reputable publications and conferences, there is a system of priorities that is not clearly understood. As a rule, international publications and conferences have the highest priority, and recognition at the international level is higher than the national one. The authority and recognition of the qualifications of a scientist is associated with his fame in narrow circles specialists. There are attempts to build ratings according to the number of references to the works of this scientist from the works of other scientists.

Pedagogical work is highly valued in the scientific community. The right to lecture at a prestigious educational institution is a recognition of the level and qualifications of a scientist. The creation of a scientific school is also highly valued, that is, the training of several scientists who develop the ideas of a teacher.

To belong to professional science and the level of qualification of a scientist can be formally determined by local and national qualification commissions (council for the defense of dissertations, attestation commission, VAK). In the USSR and Russia, the qualification of a scientist is formally confirmed by an academic degree (candidate or doctor of science) and an academic title (associate professor or professor). The assignment of both degrees and titles is controlled by the Higher Attestation Commission. Academic degrees are awarded in areas of science, for example, a candidate of physical and mathematical sciences, a candidate of legal sciences, etc. - currently, the HAC recognizes 22 such areas. To obtain an appropriate academic degree, it is necessary to write and defend a dissertation in a specialized council, as an exception and with large scientific merit the dissertation can be replaced by a report on the work done. An exception is made very rarely, for example, for General Designers. A prerequisite successful defense is the publication and testing of the results of scientific work. Approbation is usually understood as presentations at conferences, since this form allows discussion of the results and, accordingly, open criticism, if the scientific community does not agree. To obtain an academic title (associate professor or professor), in addition to an academic degree, it is required to conduct pedagogical work, in particular, to have educational and methodical publications. There are also smaller formal signs of recognition of qualifications, for example, permission to supervise the scientific work of graduate students is a necessary step in the transition from a candidate to a doctor.

The first scientific societies appeared in Italy in the 1560s - these were the "Academy of the Secrets of Nature" (Academia secretorum naturae) in Naples (1560), the "Lincei Academy" (Accademia dei Lincei - literally, "lynx-eyed academy", that is, having a special vigilance) in Rome (1603), "Academy of experimental knowledge" ("Academy of experiments", 1657) in Florence. All these Italian academies, in which many significant thinkers and public figures participated, headed by an invited honorary member Galileo Galilei, were created with the aim of promoting and expanding scientific knowledge in the field of physics through regular meetings, exchange of ideas and experiments. Undoubtedly, they influenced the development of European science as a whole.

The need for the accelerated development of science and technology demanded from the state more active participation in the development of science. Accordingly, in a number of countries, for example, in Russia, the Academy was created by decree from above. However, most Academies of Sciences have adopted democratic statutes that provide them with relative independence from the state.

Scientific organizations:

• UNESCO (The organization promotes cooperation between scientists and other scientific organizations around the world).
• IUPAC ( international organization, promoting progress in the field of chemistry).
• International Astronomical Union (recognized as the highest international authority in dealing with astronomical issues that require cooperation and standardization, such as the official name of astronomical bodies and details on them).

International institutions

Some distribution attempts are perceived with strong misunderstanding. For example, there was a telephone conversation between the compilers of the collection "Physicists are joking" with other scientists, in which the interlocutors of the compilers said that "our employees are engaged in serious matters and they are not in the mood for jokes."

scientific method

• Basic scientific research- this is a deep and comprehensive study of the subject in order to obtain new fundamental knowledge, as well as to clarify the patterns of the phenomena being investigated, the results of which are not intended for direct industrial use. The term fundamentality (lat. Fundare- "foundation") reflects the focus of these sciences on the study of the underlying, basic laws of nature.
• Applied Research are studies that use the achievements fundamental science, to solve practical problems. The result of the study is the creation and improvement of new technologies.
• Research and Development(R&D) - here science is combined with production, thereby providing both scientific and technical and engineering studies of this project. Sometimes the results obtained can lead to a scientific and technological revolution.

Experiences on myself

Many scientists have carried out scientific experiments on themselves.

• Successful experience with self-infection of one of the discoverers of the microorganism Helicobacter pylori - Professor Barry Marshall and a group of volunteers served as another convincing scientific evidence the existence of a factor that today is given one of the first places in the etiology of chronic gastritis. In 2005, Barry Marshall and his partner Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery.

Philosophy

The philosophy of science is represented by many original concepts that offer certain models of cognitive activity and the development of science. It is focused on identifying the role and significance of science, the characteristics of science that make it possible to distinguish it from other types of cognitive activity.

The philosophy of science has the status of historical socio-cultural knowledge, regardless of whether it is focused on the study of natural sciences or social sciences and the humanities. The philosopher of science is interested scientific research, "algorithm of discovery", dynamics of development of scientific knowledge, methods of research activity. (The philosophy of science, although it is interested in the rational development of the sciences, is still not called upon to directly ensure their rational development, as is the case for a diversified metascience).

If the main goal of science is to obtain truth, then the philosophy of science is one of the most important areas for humanity to apply its intellect, within which the question “how is it possible to achieve truth?” is discussed.

Frontiers of Knowledge

The belief in the omnipotence of science and the belief that, due to the continuous process of accumulating scientific knowledge, the unknown remains such only temporarily, is a continuous stimulus for the productive activity of a constantly renewing scientific society. [non-authoritative source?] Meanwhile, this postulate cannot, within the framework of scientific method neither be experimentally refuted nor proven, and therefore, by virtue of Popper's criterion, it has nothing to do with science.

However, it is possible to separate the area in which science is competent in relation to the cognition of an objectively existing reality, from knowledge about that part of this reality, which in principle cannot be investigated using the scientific method. This section goes along the line of delimitation of questions asked of nature, into those that imply the fundamental possibility of obtaining reliable answers to them empirically, and those that only seem to be so.

For example, Gödel's second theorem is widely known, according to which, within the framework of any formal system, including the arithmetic of natural numbers, if this system is consistent, its consistency cannot be proved.

Science operates with models of real objects that differ to some extent from the real world.

Reliability of knowledge

One of the problems of the philosophy of science, epistemology, is the problem of the reliability of scientific knowledge. AT general case this problem boils down to the question: "Is scientific knowledge objective?" The most common answer is "moderately relativistic": the achieved scientific knowledge is reliable (objective) if this moment it is confirmed by many independent sources and observations.

Research Motives

One of the strongest motives leading to<…>science is the desire to get away from everyday life with its painful cruelty and inconsolable emptiness<…>This reason pushes people with thin spiritual strings from personal experiences into the world of objective vision and understanding. …

Added to this negative reason is a positive one. A person strives in some adequate way to create in himself a simple and clear picture of the world in order to break away from the world of sensations, in order to replace this world to a certain extent with a picture created in this way.

Scientific picture of the world

The scientific picture (model) of the world is a system of ideas about the properties and patterns of reality, built as a result of generalization and synthesis of scientific concepts and principles.

In the process of development of science there is a constant updating of knowledge, ideas and concepts, more early representations become special cases of new theories. The scientific picture of the world is not a dogma and not an absolute truth. Scientific representations about the surrounding world are based on the totality of proven facts and established cause-and-effect relationships, which allows us to make conclusions and predictions about the properties of our world that contribute to the development of human civilization with a certain degree of confidence. The discrepancy between the results of testing the theory, the hypothesis, the concept, the identification of new facts - all this makes us reconsider the existing ideas and create new, more appropriate realities. This development is the essence of the scientific method.

Classification

Attempts to classify the areas of human knowledge on various grounds have been made since antiquity. So, Aristotle (one of the first attempts) singled out three large groups of such areas: theoretical (physics and philosophy), practical (gives guiding ideas for human behavior, ethics and politics) and creative, poetic (knowledge is carried out to achieve something beautiful, aesthetics). Theoretical knowledge (knowledge is conducted for its own sake) he divided (according to its subject) into: 1) “first philosophy” (later “metaphysics” - the science of higher principles and the first causes of everything that exists, inaccessible to the senses and comprehended speculatively) 2) mathematics 3) physics (studies various states bodies in nature). Aristotle did not identify the formal logic he created with philosophy, he considered it the “organ” (tool) of any cognition.

The classification of the Roman encyclopedist Mark Varro included the following sciences: grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology, music, medicine and architecture.

Attempts at classification continued into the Middle Ages. Hugh of Saint Victor in the Didascalicon divides the sciences into four groups:

1. Theoretical sciences (mathematics, physics).
2. Practical Sciences.
3. Mechanical sciences (navigation, agriculture, hunting, medicine, theater).
4. Logic, including grammar and rhetoric.

Social and Human Sciences	Natural Sciences	Technical science
Cultural anthropology	Astronomy	Agronomy
Archeology	Biology	Aeronautics
Geography (economic)	Geography (physical)	Ballistics
Linguistics (linguistics)	Geology	Bionics
art history	The medicine	Biotechnology
Story	soil science	Geomechanics
cliometria	Physics	Geophysics
local history	Chemistry	Informatics
Culturology	Psychology
literary criticism		Shipbuilding
Pedagogy		Food Technology and Cooking
Political science
Psychology		Cryptography
religious studies		Materials Science
Sociology		Machine learning
Philology		Mechanics
Philosophy and History of Philosophy		Nanotechnology
Economy		Robotics
Ethnography		Systems Engineering
Jurisprudence		Construction and Architecture
library science		Tribology
Bibliology		electrical engineering
Document management		Energy

Such sciences as mathematics, logic, informatics, and cybernetics are distinguished by some scientists into a separate class - formal sciences, otherwise called abstract sciences. The formal sciences are opposed to the natural and social sciences, which receive the general designation empirical sciences. Other scientists consider mathematics to be an exact science, and the rest to be cognitive sciences.

Elements of scientific knowledge

• Natural science (the doctrine of nature, natural sciences)
• Technoscience (the doctrine of technology, technical sciences)
• Social science (the doctrine of society, social sciences)
• Human science (the doctrine of man, the humanities)

Scientific literature

Popularization of science

Popularization of science is the process of disseminating scientific knowledge in a modern and accessible form for a wide range of people.

The popularization of science, the "translation" of specialized information into the language of an unprepared listener, reader is one of the most important tasks facing popularizing scientists.

The task of the popularizer of science is to turn the so-called "boring, dry" scientific information into interesting, understandable and accessible to all information. This information can be directed both to the whole society, and to its part, the younger generation - talented schoolchildren.

Science fiction plays an important role in the popularization of science. It was she who predicted many scientific discoveries. A significant contribution to this was made by the science fiction writer Jules Verne.

Scientists, as carriers of scientific information, are interested in its preservation and enhancement, which is facilitated by the influx of young people into it. After all, the popularization of science increases the number of people interested in science and stimulates their entry into it.

It often happens that when scientific information is popularized, it is simplified and gradually turns into a scientific myth.

It also happens that during the popularization of science, such popular science clichés arise as: the secrets of the universe, “scientists have discovered”, etc.

Tycho Brahe believed that scientific knowledge should be available only to rulers who know how to use it. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ludwig Faddeev spoke about the popularization of science as follows:

We are aware that we still have to explain to people, to taxpayers, what we are doing. But it is necessary to popularize those areas of science that are already fully understood. Modern science is harder to popularize. Talking about all sorts of quarks, strings, Yang-Mills fields ... is not good - with deceptions.

Science and pseudoscience

Pseudoscience is an activity that imitates scientific activity, but in fact it is not. The characteristic features of a pseudoscientific theory are ignoring or distorting facts, non-falsifiability (inconsistency with the Popper criterion), refusal to verify theoretical calculations with observational results in favor of appeals to "common sense" or "authoritative opinion", the use of data not confirmed by independent experiments as the basis of the theory, the impossibility independent verification or repetition of research results, the use of political and religious attitudes, dogmas in scientific work.

Science of Science

Science of science is the science that studies science.

Critical Issues

see also

Notes

1. Whitehead A.N. Selected works in philosophy. M.: Progress, 1990. 716 p.
2. The science- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia
3. High IQ turns academics into atheists
4. Faith in God is incompatible with scientific thinking
5. Sociologist counted scientists who believe in God
6. Answers to frequently asked questions //VAK
7. Physicists are joking
8. Fridtjof Capra. Tao of physics. ORIS. SPb. 1994. ISBN 5-88436-021-5
9. Anselm A. A. Theoretical physics XX century - a new philosophy of Nature. "Star" No. 1 2000
10. Reliability of scientific knowledge Physical Anthropology. Illustrated dictionary. Edwart. 2011
11. A. Einstein. "Motives for scientific research" Collection of scientific papers. Volume 4 -M.: Science, pp. 39-41
12. Sadokhin, Alexander Petrovich. Concepts modern natural science: a textbook for university students studying in the humanities and specialties of economics and management / A. P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006. p. 17 (1.5. Scientific picture of the world)
13. Philosophy for graduate students: textbook / V. P. Kokhanovsky [and others]. - 2nd ed. - Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 2003. - 448 p. - (Higher education). - ISBN 5-222-03544-1
14. Speziali P. Classification of sciences // Dictionary of history of ideas. Vol. 1. P. 464.
15. Speziali P. Classification of sciences // Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Vol. 1. P. 465.
16. C. West Churchman. Elements of Logic and Formal Science. New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1940.
17. James Franklin. The formal sciences discover the philosophers" stone // Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 513-533, 1994.
18. Stephen Leacock. Elements of Political Science. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1906, p. 417.
19. Bernt P. Stigum. Toward a Formal Science of Economics. MIT Press, 1990.
20. Marcus Tomlin. Linguistics and the Formal Sciences. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
21. Mario Augusto Bunge. Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory. - 1998. - S. 24. - ISBN 0-765-80413-1
22. What is cognitive science
23. Second International Conference on Cognitive Science
24. M.V. Falikman. Introduction to Cognitive Science (special course program)

The current understanding of the term "science" correlates it with morality, ideology, law, religion, art, and so on, as one of the components of the spiritual culture of mankind.

What is science?

Science is a certain system of ordered knowledge about society, nature, man, it is also a unique type of production of a spiritual order, which is aimed at the full provision of knowledge, its improvement and storage.

In addition to the above, science is a complex within which the said production takes place.

To be precise in the definition of science, it arose as a cultural phenomenon in the seventeenth century and gave a chance to check the veracity open knowledge by experience. Science is firmly connected with society. It cannot receive an impetus for the emergence or development outside of society. But today's society cannot fully function without it, because the main types of science are aimed at meeting the needs in all aspects of human existence, and also serve as a powerful factor in the development of society. Based on knowledge about the laws of operation and development of objects in its field of consideration, science builds a forecast for the further existence of these objects in order to master the surrounding reality in practice.

Scientific knowledge. Paradigm

Scientific knowledge is governed by specific norms and ideals. scientific activity, which include certain approaches, attitudes, principles developed by scientists at certain stages of the development of scientific reality. They change over time, as, for example, there was a transition from the understanding of physics by Isaac Newton to the views of Albert Einstein. A set of norms and ideals scientific knowledge prevailing on specific stage development, is called the "style of scientific thinking."

US historian of science T. Kuhn has worked on analyzing the nature with which scientific knowledge has evolved. He specified the periods during which science has a gradual development, the facts are accumulated through many proven theories within the boundaries of previously emerging theories. This is a certain state of science, the development of which is based on the norms, attitudes and rules established in the scientific community, Kuhn determined as a paradigm.

While different types of sciences receive new rounds of development within a particular paradigm, there is an accumulation of facts that go beyond the boundaries of existing theories. There comes a time when it is necessary to change the basis of scientific knowledge, methodological guidelines, principles to explain the newly acquired facts. So there's a change scientific paradigm what Kuhn calls the scientific revolution.

Scientific picture of the world

The mentioned process inevitably leads to changes in the scientific picture of the world, that is integrated system principles and concepts regarding the patterns and general characteristics of the surrounding world. There is a general scientific picture of the world, which includes ideas about all aspects of reality, about nature, society and directly knowledge, and a natural-scientific picture of the world. It depends on the subject of knowledge to which it refers. Thus, such a picture of the world can be physical, chemical, astronomical, biological, and so on. In the center of the general scientific picture of the world is the picture of the world of the leading (at the current stage of development of science) field of scientific knowledge.

Any picture of the world is based on specific fundamental theories. With the development of knowledge and practice, they replace one another. For example, natural science and physical model founded in the seventeenth century classical mechanics and was called, respectively, classical, then in the twentieth century - on electrodynamics, the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics and was called the non-classical picture of the world. Today it is based on synergetics and is considered post-non-classical. Scientific pictures of the world serve as a heuristic basis for building fundamental theories. They are intertwined with the worldview, this is one of the most important resources for its formation.

The classification of sciences is controversial in the scientific community. This is important and difficult problem. The system is so ramified that all the diverse and numerous studies that can be distinguished by subject, object, degree of fundamentality, method, scope, and so on, cannot be classified on one basis. In general, the following groups can be listed: technical, natural, social or public and humanitarian.

Natural sciences:

about space in general, its structure and development processes: cosmology, astronomy, astrophysics, cosmogony, cosmochemistry and others;

about the earth, that is, geophysics, geochemistry, geology and others;

about the systems and processes of physics, biology, chemistry, the forms according to which the movement of matter occurs;

about a person in his biological aspect, the origin and development of the organism, for example, this is anatomy.

Technical sciences as a basis have natural sciences. The subject of their study is various aspects and branches of technology development. These are radio engineering, heat engineering, electrical engineering and others.

Social or social sciences have a branched internal system. The subject of study of social sciences is society. Among them are sociology, political science, economics, jurisprudence and others. The types of economic sciences, in particular, have their own hierarchy, like many of the sciences in this category.

Humanities study spiritual world individual, his place in the surrounding world and society, among people. These are psychology, pedagogy, conflictology and others.

Related positions

Some individual sciences can form links between categories, come into contact with different groups. These are medicine, ergonomics, engineering psychology, ecology and others. It is worth noting that a particularly small line is formed by the types of social sciences and the humanities. Such boundary sciences include history, aesthetics, ethics, and so on.

In the system of sciences, a unique position is occupied by mathematics, philosophy, cybernetics, computer science, and the like. These types of sciences are of a general nature, therefore they are guided in all studies.

Science on the way of its development from a solitary occupation becomes unique, in some way, independent form consciousness of society and an aspect of human activity. It is the product of a long process of development of human culture and civilization. It is a separate social organism with special types interaction, separation and management of individual processes of scientific activity.

Functions of Science

The ever-increasing importance of science in today's scientific and technological world cannot be denied. Its functions explain its role:

epistemological, that is, science helps to know the world around us;

ideological, science also gives an explanation of reality;

transformative. The basic types of science are the key to the development of society, it serves as the basis for the processes of current production and the discovery of new ways of doing something, advanced technologies thus greatly increasing the potential of society.

Thus, it is difficult to unambiguously classify all types of science. But it can be divided into several groups that closely interact with each other.

Blessed memory of the wonderful, rare person and physics
Yuri Vladimirovich Gaponov.

All more or less educated (i.e., graduates of at least high school) people know that, for example, astronomy is one of the most interesting and important sciences about nature. But when the word "science" is used, it is assumed that everyone has the same understanding of what is being said. And is it really so?

The scientific approach to the phenomena and processes of the surrounding world is whole system views and ideas developed over millennia of the development of human thought, a certain worldview, which is based on understanding the relationship between Nature and man. And there is pressing need to formulate, in an accessible, if possible, language, considerations on this matter.

This need has increased dramatically today due to the fact that in last years and even for decades, the concept of "science" in the minds of many people turned out to be blurry and unclear due to the huge number of television and radio programs, publications in newspapers and magazines about the "achievements" of astrology, extrasensory perception, ufology and other types of occult "knowledge". Meanwhile, from the point of view of the vast majority of people involved in serious scientific research, none of the named types of "knowledge" can be considered science. What is the basis of a real scientific approach to the study of the surrounding world?

First of all, it is based on a huge human experience, in the daily practice of observing and interacting with objects, natural phenomena and processes. As an example, one can refer to the well-known story of the discovery of the law gravity. Studying the data of observations and measurements, Newton suggested that the Earth serves as a source of gravitational force, proportional to its mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from its center. Then this assumption, which can be called scientific hypothesis(scientific because it generalized the data of measurements and observations), he applied to explain the motion of the moon in a circular orbit around the earth. It turned out that the proposed hypothesis is in good agreement with the known data on the motion of the Moon. This meant that she was very likely to be correct, since she explained well how behavior various items near the surface of the Earth, and the movement of a distant celestial body. Then, after the necessary clarifications and additions, this hypothesis, which can already be considered a scientific theory (since it explained a fairly wide class of phenomena), was applied to explain the observed motion of the planets. solar system. And it turned out that the motion of the planets is consistent with Newton's theory. Here it is already possible to speak of the law to which the movement of earthly and celestial bodies within great distances from the earth. Especially convincing was the story of the discovery "at the tip of the pen" of the eighth planet of the solar system - Neptune. The law of gravity made it possible to predict its existence, calculate its orbit and indicate the place in the sky where it should be looked for. And the astronomer Galle discovered Neptune at a distance of 56" from the predicted place!

Any science in general develops according to the same scheme. First, observational and measurement data are studied, then attempts are made to systematize, generalize them and put forward a hypothesis explaining the results obtained. If a hypothesis explains, at least in essential terms, the available data, it can be expected that it will predict phenomena that have not yet been studied. Verification of these calculations and predictions in observations and experiments is very strong remedy find out if the hypothesis is true. If it receives confirmation, then it can already be considered a scientific theory, since it is absolutely unbelievable that predictions and calculations based on an incorrect hypothesis would accidentally coincide with the results of observations and measurements. After all, such predictions usually carry new, often unexpected information, which, as they say, you can’t invent on purpose. Often, however, the hypothesis is not confirmed. So, we need to continue the search and develop other hypotheses. This is the usual hard way in science.

Secondly, a characteristic feature of the scientific approach is no less important - the ability to repeatedly and independently test any results and theories. So, for example, anyone can explore the law of universal gravitation by independently studying the data of observations and measurements or by doing them again.

Thirdly, in order to talk seriously about science, you need to master the amount of knowledge and methods that the scientific community currently has, you need to master the logic of methods, theories, and conclusions adopted in the scientific community. Of course, it may turn out that someone is not satisfied with it (and in general, what science has achieved at each stage never completely suits real scientists), but in order to make claims or criticize, you need at least a good understanding of what has already been done. If it can be convincingly shown that this approach, method or logic lead to incorrect conclusions, are internally inconsistent, and in return for this to offer something better - honor and praise to you! But the conversation should go only at the level of evidence, not allegations. The correctness should be confirmed by the results of observations and experiments, perhaps new and unusual, but convincing for professional researchers.

There is another very important sign of a true scientific approach. This is the honesty and impartiality of the researcher. These concepts, of course, are rather subtle, it is not so easy to give them a clear definition, since they are associated with the “human factor”. But without these qualities of scientists real science can not be.

Let's say you have an idea, a hypothesis, or even a theory. And here there is a strong temptation, for example, to pick up a set of facts that confirm your idea or, in any case, do not contradict it. And discard the results that contradict it, pretending that you do not know about them. It happens that they go even further, "fitting" the results of observations or experiments to the desired hypothesis and trying to depict its complete confirmation. It is even worse when, with the help of cumbersome and often not very competent mathematical calculations, which are based on some artificially invented (as they say, “speculative”, that is, “speculative”) assumptions and postulates that have not been verified and not confirmed experimentally, they build a “theory with a claim to a new word in science. And faced with criticism from professionals who convincingly prove the inconsistency of these constructions, they begin to accuse scientists of conservatism, retrograde, or even “mafia”. However, real scientists have a strict, critical approach to the results and conclusions, and above all to their own. Thanks to this, each step forward in science is accompanied by the creation of a sufficiently solid foundation for further advancement along the path of knowledge.

Great scientists have repeatedly noted that the true indicators of the truth of a theory are its beauty and logical harmony. These concepts imply, in particular, the extent to which a given theory "fits" into existing ideas, is consistent with a known set of verified facts and their current interpretation. This, however, does not mean at all that the new theory there should be no unexpected conclusions or predictions. As a rule, everything is just the opposite. But if we are talking about a serious contribution to science, then the author of the work must clearly analyze how a new look at the problem or a new explanation of the observed phenomena correlate with the entire existing scientific picture of the world. And if a contradiction arises between them, the researcher must honestly declare this in order to calmly and unbiasedly figure out if there are any errors in the new constructions, whether they contradict firmly established facts, relationships and laws. And only when comprehensive study problems by various independent professional specialists leads to the conclusion about the validity and consistency of the new concept, we can seriously talk about its right to exist. But even in this case, one cannot be completely sure that it is she who expresses the truth.

A good illustration of this statement is the situation with the General Theory of Relativity (GR). Since its creation by A. Einstein in 1916, many other theories of space, time and gravity have appeared that meet the criteria mentioned above. However, until recently, not a single clearly established observational fact has appeared that would contradict the conclusions and predictions of general relativity. On the contrary, all observations and experiments confirm it or, in any case, do not contradict it. So far, there are no grounds to abandon general relativity and replace it with some other theory.

As for modern theories using a complex mathematical apparatus, it is always possible (of course, with the appropriate qualifications) to analyze the system of their initial postulates and its correspondence to firmly established facts, to check the logic of constructions and conclusions, the correctness of mathematical transformations. real scientific theory always allows you to make estimates that can be measured in observations or experiment, checking the validity of theoretical calculations. Another thing is that such a check can turn out to be an extremely complex undertaking, requiring either a very long time and high costs, or a completely new technique. In this regard, the situation is especially complicated in astronomy, in particular in cosmology, where we are talking about extreme states of matter, which often took place billions of years ago. Therefore, in many cases, experimental verification of the conclusions and predictions of various cosmological theories remains a matter of the distant future. Nevertheless, there is an excellent example of how a seemingly very abstract theory has received the most convincing confirmation in astrophysical observations. This is the story of the discovery of the so-called relic radiation.

In the 1930s - 1940s, a number of astrophysicists, primarily our compatriot G. Gamow, developed the "hot Universe theory", according to which radio emission should have remained from the initial era of the evolution of the expanding Universe, uniformly filling the entire space of the modern observable Universe. This prediction was practically forgotten, and was remembered only in the 1960s, when American radio physicists accidentally discovered the presence of radio emission with the characteristics predicted by the theory. Its intensity turned out to be the same in all directions with a very high accuracy. With the higher measurement accuracy achieved later, its inhomogeneities were discovered, but in principle this almost does not change the described picture (see "Science and Life" No. 12, 1993; No. 5, 1994; No. 11, 2006; No. 6 , 2009). The detected radiation could not by chance turn out to be exactly the same as predicted by the “hot universe theory”.

Observations and experiments have been repeatedly mentioned here. But the very setting of such observations and experiments that make it possible to understand what the actual nature of certain phenomena or processes is, to find out which point of view or theory is closer to the truth, is a very, very difficult task. In both physics and astronomy, a seemingly strange question often arises: what is actually measured during observations or in an experiment, do the measurement results reflect the values ​​and behavior of precisely those quantities that are of interest to researchers? Here we inevitably encounter the problem of interaction between theory and experiment. These two aspects of scientific research are closely linked. For example, the interpretation of the results of observations in one way or another depends on the theoretical views that the researcher adheres to. In the history of science, situations have repeatedly arisen when the same results of the same observations (measurements) are interpreted differently by different researchers, since their theoretical ideas are different. However, sooner or later, a single concept was established among the scientific community, the validity of which was proved by convincing experiments and logic.

Quite often, measurements of the same quantity by different groups of researchers give different results. In such cases, it is necessary to find out whether there are gross errors in the experimental methodology, what are the measurement errors, whether changes in the characteristics of the object under study are possible due to its nature, etc.

Of course, situations are possible in principle when observations turn out to be unique, since the observer has encountered a very rare natural phenomenon, and there is practically no possibility of repeating these observations in the foreseeable future. But also in similar cases it is easy to see the difference between a serious researcher and a person engaged in near-scientific speculation. A real scientist will try to clarify all the circumstances under which the observation was carried out, to figure out whether any interference or defects in the recording equipment could have led to an unexpected result, whether what he saw was a consequence of the subjective perception of known phenomena. He will not rush to sensational statements about the "discovery" and immediately build fantastic hypotheses to explain the observed phenomenon.

All this is directly related, first of all, to the numerous reports of UFO sightings. Yes, no one seriously denies that amazing, inexplicable phenomena are sometimes observed in the atmosphere. (However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, it is not possible to obtain convincing independent confirmation of such reports.) No one denies the fact that, in principle, the existence of extraterrestrial highly developed intelligent life is possible, which is capable of studying our planet and has powerful technical means for this. However, today there is no reliable scientific data that allows us to seriously talk about signs of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life. And this despite the fact that for its search, special long-term radio astronomical and astrophysical observations were repeatedly carried out, the problem was studied in detail by the leading experts of the world and repeatedly discussed at international symposiums. Our outstanding astrophysicist Academician I. S. Shklovsky dealt with this issue a lot and for a long time considered it possible to discover an extraterrestrial highly developed civilization. But at the end of his life, he came to the conclusion that terrestrial intelligent life, perhaps very rare or even unique phenomenon and it is possible that we are generally alone in the universe. Of course, this point of view cannot be considered the ultimate truth, it can be challenged or refuted in the future, but I. S. Shklovsky had very good reasons for such a conclusion. The fact is that a deep and comprehensive analysis of this problem, carried out by many reputable scientists, shows that already at the present level of development of science and technology, humanity would most likely have to face "cosmic miracles", that is, physical phenomena in the Universe, which have a clearly expressed artificial origin. However, modern knowledge about the fundamental laws of nature and the processes occurring in accordance with them in space allow us to a high degree confidence to say that the registered radiations are of exclusively natural origin.

Any sensible person will find it at least strange that “flying saucers” are seen by everyone, but not by professional observers. There is a clear contradiction between what is known to science today and the information constantly appearing in newspapers, magazines and on television. This should at least give thought to all those who implicitly believe the reports of repeated visits to the Earth by "space aliens".

There is an excellent example of how the attitude of astronomers to the problem of detection extraterrestrial civilizations differs from the positions of the so-called ufologists, journalists who write and broadcast on such topics.

In 1967, a group of English radio astronomers made one of the largest scientific discoveries of the 20th century - they discovered cosmic radio sources emitting strictly periodic sequences of very short pulses. These sources were later called pulsars. Since no one had previously observed anything like this, and the problem of extraterrestrial civilizations had long been actively discussed, astronomers immediately had the idea that they had detected signals sent by “brothers in mind”. This is not surprising, since at that time it was difficult to assume that natural processes are possible in nature, providing such a short duration and such a strict periodicity of radiation pulses - it was maintained with an accuracy of tiny fractions of a second!

So, this was almost the only case in the history of science of our time (except for works of defense significance) when researchers really sensational discovery a few months kept in the strictest confidence! Those who are familiar with the world of modern science are well aware of how fierce the rivalry between scientists for the right to be called pioneers can be. The authors of a work containing a discovery or a new and important result always strive to publish it as soon as possible and not allow anyone to get ahead of them. And in the case of the discovery of pulsars, its authors deliberately did not report the phenomenon they discovered for a long time. The question is why? Yes, because scientists considered themselves obliged to find out in the most careful way how reasonable their assumption of an extraterrestrial civilization as the source of the observed signals was. They understood what serious consequences the discovery of extraterrestrial civilizations could have for science and for humanity in general. And therefore, it was considered necessary, before declaring a discovery, to make sure that the observed radiation pulses cannot be caused by any other reasons than the conscious actions of extraterrestrial intelligence. Careful study of the phenomenon led to a truly major discovery - was found natural process: near the surface of rapidly rotating compact objects, neutron stars, under certain conditions, generation of narrowly directed radiation beams occurs. Such a beam, like a searchlight beam, periodically hits the observer. Thus, the hope of meeting with "brothers in mind" once again did not materialize (which, of course, from a certain point of view, was disappointing), but it was made very important step in the knowledge of nature. It is not difficult to imagine what a fuss would be made in the funds mass media, if the phenomenon of pulsars were discovered today and the discoverers immediately inadvertently reported the possible artificial origin of signals!

Journalists in such cases often lack professionalism. A true professional should give the floor to serious scientists, real specialists, and keep his own comments to a minimum.

Some of the journalists, in response to the attacks, say that "orthodox", that is, officially recognized, science is too conservative, does not allow new, fresh ideas to break through, which, perhaps, contain the truth. And that in general we have pluralism and freedom of speech, allowing us to express any opinion. It seems to be convincing, but in fact it is just demagogy. In fact, it is necessary to teach people to think for themselves and make free and informed choices. And for this, at least, it is necessary to acquaint them with the basic principles of a scientific, rational approach to reality, with real results scientific research and the existing scientific picture of the surrounding world.

Science is an exciting and interesting business, in which there is beauty, and upsurges of the human spirit, and the light of truth. Only this truth, as a rule, does not come by itself, like an insight, but is obtained by hard and hard work. However, its price is very high. Science is one of those wonderful areas of human activity where creativity is most clearly manifested. individual people and all mankind. Almost any person who has devoted himself to science and honestly served it can be sure that he did not live his life in vain.