Annotation: The purpose of the lecture: to reveal the key factors of social behavior and activity, contradictions in social behavior, the category of social character and its pathologies, types and types of deviant behavior of a person.

Social interaction (interaction) is made up of separate acts called social actions and includes statuses, roles, social relations, symbols and values. It is no coincidence that it is actions, behavior as the most objective fact that constitute the core of the attention of modern sociology. It is impossible to understand what society, social groups, personality, social interactions are without analyzing how certain people behave; entire social groups and even society as a whole in a given situation. The problem of social behavior was the core of the theories of many classics of sociology - M. Weber, P. Sorokin, E. Fromm, T. Parsons, P. Merton and others.

Social action, social activity, social behavior as concepts of sociology

Social action is an elementary unit of the social life of society. Social actions form social interactions, they form the basis of social activity and social behavior of the subjects of society. This concept was introduced into sociology by M. Weber. At the same time, the adjective "social" has deep meaning. In itself, an action is an act performed by a person in relation to something. Social action is an act performed by a person, firstly, in relation to another person, communities of people, society as a whole, secondly, aimed at the response of others (i.e. there is no social action without interaction), thirdly , conscious, motivated by the personality itself. According to M. Weber, an action performed in relation to non-social objects (nature, knowledge, ideas, technology, etc.), as well as an unconscious action performed due to habits or emotions, cannot be called social. M. Weber proposed four ideal types of social action - affective (performed due to emotional state personality and characterized by minimal meaningfulness), traditional (performed due to the habit of behaving within the framework of cultural patterns fixed in the form of tradition and practically does not require rational understanding), value-rational (performed by virtue of giving some meaning to the action itself in the form of duty - religious, moral, aesthetic, political, etc.), goal-oriented (performed by virtue of giving meaning not only to the action itself, but also to its results). This typology of M. Weber is based on the degree of rationality (reasonableness, meaningfulness, prudence) of social action. The last type of social action is the most fully rational. The history of the West is described by M. Weber as a process of unfolding the degree of rationality of social action. In real social actions, M. Weber noted, one can meet components of all four ideal types, but one can also judge the nature of people's social behavior by the degree of predominance of one or another type.

The ideas of M. Weber subsequently found development in the concept of social action by the American sociologist T. Parsons. If, according to Weber, the cause of behavior lies in intrinsic motivation, that is, in the personality itself, then Parsons substantiated the presence of 4 factors. This is a biological organism, social systems, culture and the personality itself. The body is a source of biological energy, natural needs. Social system - interacting individuals, groups of people presenting a system of social expectations to the individual. Society dictates through expectations how a person should act. Culture is a system of ideal patterns, symbols, traditions and value standards. Personality is the actor himself, having internal needs, desires and goals.

Social action is the basis of both social behavior and social activity. What is the difference between these concepts?

So what is social behavior? First, it is not a separate, but a set of social actions organized into a single whole. Secondly, social behavior is "woven" not from homogeneous, but heterogeneous, sometimes even opposite social actions. Thirdly, if a social action is performed "here and now", i.e. has its boundaries in space and time, then social behavior unfolds in time and space, i.e. it remains so during a certain period of a person's life and in various situations. Fourthly, social behavior includes not only social action, but also inaction (for example, negligent behavior of a person). And finally, fifthly, the main function of social behavior is the adaptation of the individual to the social environment. Personality by its social behavior adapts to nature (organism), social systems and culture, adapts to them its abilities, needs, interests. Socio-cultural adaptation can be active and passive, constructive and destructive, aggressive and tolerant, and so on. Thus, social behavior is a system of social actions and inactions aimed at ensuring the adaptation of the individual to social systems, nature and culture.

Unlike social behavior, social activity does not involve inaction. But the main difference is that social activity is a system of social actions aimed at adapting the personality of social systems and culture to their own needs, abilities, interests. In other words, fundamental difference between social behavior and social activity lies in the fact that the first represents the process of adapting oneself, and the second is the process of adapting to oneself. For example, when we talk about the labor behavior of an individual, we mean how she organizes her actions in accordance with her own ideas about how to work, in accordance with the expectations of colleagues and management, with labor standards and the values ​​of the organization and society. Labor activity is a purposeful change in the object of labor, while the purpose of labor is subordinated to the abilities, needs, and interests of the employee. It is also possible to distinguish between political behavior and political activity, moral behavior and moral activity, etc. It should be recalled that labor, political, moral, aesthetic and other forms of behavior, as well as the corresponding forms of activity, are in the strict sense social and only if they are oriented towards another person or community of people.

So, let's consider the main factors of the mechanism of social behavior. Only at first glance it may seem that the only author of social behavior is the person himself ("I behave as I want" - this is rather a demonstrative position of adolescents striving for self-affirmation).

The social behavior of the individual has four authors: the organism, the individual itself, social systems (society, macro- and microgroups that the individual enters or seeks to enter), and culture. How do these four factors determine social behavior?

The natural-physical is the basis for the individual-personal. The biological component (the organism) provides the energetic basis for behavior. Social behavior in accordance with the inner nature and laws of biology, in accordance with the physical and natural essence of the individual - this is vital behavior

The individual builds his behavior in accordance with certain meaning. The personal meaning invested in behavior ("why", "why", "how") is determined by the system of social qualities of the individual, emotions, desires, abilities, needs, value orientations, motivation and social attitudes. So, the means of ensuring the social behavior of the individual is personal meaning, and the very model of social behavior, determined by personal meaning, can be called emotional behavior.

Social systems - family, friends, organizations, class, ethnic, professional communities, etc., determine social behavior, prescribing some model of actions in accordance with the social status of the individual. AT small group such models of behavior as leader, outsider, favorite, animator, authority, "scapegoat" and others are prescribed. In the family - behavior patterns of father, mother, son, daughter, sister, brother, etc. In the organization - behavior patterns of a specialist, manager, subordinate, colleague and others. There are also class, professional (doctor, teacher, engineer, miner, driver), ethnic (Russian, Ukrainian, French, Norwegian, Georgian, Englishman, Indian), demographic (men, women, young man, elderly, child), territorial (city dweller, peasant), etc.,

Such prescriptions - the requirements for the behavior of a person in accordance with his social status in sociology are called social expectations, and the very model of behavior that corresponds to social expectations - social role.

Culture as a system of social norms and values ​​determines the social behavior of the individual, establishing certain limits of what is forbidden, permitted and encouraged, giving social significance to the actions of the individual. The means of ensuring the conformity of the behavior of the individual with the patterns and meanings of actions accepted in a particular society is social control. With the help of social control, the individual's assimilation of culture takes place and the cultural tradition is transmitted from generation to generation. A model of social behavior that corresponds to the norms and values ​​of society can be called traditional (value-normative) behavior.

So, a person has to build his own behavior, focusing simultaneously on the vital, and emotional, and traditional, and role models of behavior.

The actual behavior of the individual to one degree or another may or may not correspond to the model forms. That part of the actual behavior that coincides with the social role of the individual is called role behavior. Is it possible, quoting W. Shakespeare "The whole world is a theater, and all the people in it - both men and women - actors", all the actual behavior of a person can be called role-playing? Note that the origin of the word "personality" (from the word "disguise", i.e. mask; Latin "person" has a similar origin), as it were, adds arguments in favor of this judgment. At the same time, common sense does not allow one to consider oneself and others as hypocrites, devoid of their own "I". In life, one has to meet with a variety of options for the role-playing behavior of an individual - from meaningless, devoid of a personal beginning to a complete refusal to follow social expectations in one's behavior.

Inside the role behavior of a person, there can be both consensus and dissonance and even conflict. The fact is that the social statuses of the individual are diverse (especially in modern societies), therefore, different role behaviors are required from individuals, which may be incompatible. AT classical literature XIX century (Balzac, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov and others) describes the so-called role conflicts - confrontation in the actual behavior of the individual incompatible social roles.

The actual behavior of the individual may also correspond to one degree or another and not correspond to personal meaning. It can be completely meaningless (affective, i.e. depends on an emotional impulse) or motivated, filled with meaning, corresponding to the ideals, beliefs, principles of the individual. The choice of behavior depends on the degree of social maturity of the individual, on the level of development of his abilities and needs (first of all, the need for the "I" and the ability for independence and self-actualization), interests, value orientations, motives, social attitudes.

The actual behavior of the individual, to one degree or another, may or may not correspond to the value normative model behavior. The behavior that fits within the limits of this model is called normative. If a person's behavior goes beyond the value normative model, then it is called deviant (deviant) behavior. The normative behavior of the individual, in turn, can also be twofold. Culture determines the behavior of the individual as external (external social control), with the help of various sanctions and incentives forcing the individual to follow patterns of behavior, and internal (self-control), acting in the form of value orientations, motives and attitudes of the individual. Accordingly, in the normative behavior of the individual, we single out the adapted and internalized forms. In the adapted form of behavior, there is a discrepancy with the meaning of the personality. In the internalized form, this discrepancy is overcome (in other words, the personality behaves as it is customary, not only because it is customary, but also because it considers it to have personal meaning).

The American sociologist R. Merton identified five types of behavior - personality adaptations. This typology is based on the attitude of the individual in his behavior (to the goals accepted and approved in society (what a person should strive for, what to recognize as a value) and means (how, how to achieve these goals, what rules, norms should be followed). For convenience, we will present the typology in the form of a table, denoting the acceptance by a sign (+) and the rejection of certain elements of culture by a person (-).

No. p / p	Forms of social adaptation	Attitude to
		Goals (values)	Means (norms)
1.	conformism	+	+
2.	Innovation	+	-
3.	ritualism	-	+
4.	Retreatism	-	-
5.	rebellion	+-	+-

Conformism is a type of behavior characterized by the complete acceptance of a culture by a person, i.e. norms and values. AT psychological literature often there is a negative interpretation of conformity as conciliation, lack of own opinion etc. It is unlikely that such an approach is productive. Conformity is the absence of mismatch in the behavior of the personal principle and cultural tradition. This type of behavior is not an adapted (adapted), but an internalized type of personality behavior, it is a complete result of the personality's socialization. Innovative behavior is a form of mismatch of the internalized type of behavior: a person, sharing the values ​​of society, chooses other patterns of behavior that do not fit into the framework of accepted social norms, therefore, is a form of deviant behavior. Ritualism is a normatively adapted type of social behavior, it corresponds to social norms, but does not accept social values. Retreatism and rebellion represent a complete gap in the behavior of the individual with the culture of society, the rebellion is also characterized by the desire of the individual to establish new norms and values, i.e. new culture.

Thus, of the forms of social adaptation of the individual identified by R. Merton, two (conformity and ritualism) are normative, and the other three (innovation, retreatism, rebellion) are deviant forms behavior. It should be emphasized that all forms of behavior cannot be proclaimed as "good" or "bad". It all depends on what these norms and values ​​themselves are.

In today's complex society, contradictions in the social behavior of the individual are inevitable.

In an archaic society, such contradictions do not exist. Firstly, a person does not distinguish himself as an individual from his social environment - clan, family. That's why social roles and personal meaning in behavior are merged, inseparable. Secondly, a person in his behavior completely follows the accepted norms and values, the cultural tradition replaces the personal meaning of his behavior. Anyone who ignores social norms and values ​​turns into an outcast, i.e. turns out to be outside the social system - clan and tribe. Thirdly, there are no discrepancies between social expectations for the behavior of an individual on the part of the clan and the norms and values ​​of a given society. Therefore, in an archaic society, the social behavior of the individual is completely conformist.

In the pre-industrial (traditional) type of society, there is also no particular problem of the social behavior of the individual. Although changes, in contrast to an archaic society, do occur, they are so slow that they become noticeable in the life of not one, but several generations: Certain discrepancies between personal meaning, social expectations and social control are so insignificant that a person harmonizes them without much difficulty. within the framework of holistic social behavior.

Industrial and passing period of formation post-industrial societies are dynamic in nature, significant changes occur in the life of one generation. This leads to the aggravation of a number of contradictions in the social behavior of the individual.

First, in modern societies, the socialization of the individual is a continuous lifelong process. Personality appears as a result of social movements in a variety of cultural environments class, professional, demographic, territorial, organizational, which requires the assimilation of new norms and values. With the massization of society thanks to social communications the socialization of the individual is aimed at the cultural tradition of not only "one's own", but also "foreign", reference groups (to which the individual does not belong, but accepts their norms and values). Hence, situations arise when a person does not see personal meaning in the behavior that culture prescribes through social control, considers such behavior as archaic, ritualistic. Very often, the individual does not have to reconcile the discrepancy between personal meaning and social control, but makes a difficult choice of behavior - innovative, ritualistic, retreatist or rebellious.

Secondly, in modern societies, social processes proceed much faster than the modernization of the society's culture. Social groups (formal and informal organizations, new settlements, professional communities, etc.) are formed much faster than new norms and values. The emerging distance in the pace of social and cultural modernization of society causes a contrast between social expectations and the cultural framework of social behavior. In other words, what the social environment - family, friends, colleagues, leaders, etc. - requires from a person's behavior. - not always and not in everything fits into the ideas of what is permissible and significant. As a result, the individual again very often has to make difficult choices - either to play social roles in order to meet social expectations, or to follow the cultural tradition, behaving within the framework of the concepts of due, decency, etiquette, etc., or to find some kind of compromise.

Thirdly, in modern societies, the social qualities of a person do not always correspond to his social status. In other words, the position of the individual in society and social groups is not yet a characteristic of needs, abilities, interests, value orientations, motives, social attitudes of the individual. The social status of a person changes much faster than the person itself. Therefore, the social roles assigned to the individual in accordance with his social status may turn out to be completely or partially devoid of personal meaning, i.e. meaningless. The structure of social systems is also changing faster than the individual included in them. Therefore, a person occupying the same social status may be presented with completely different, and sometimes opposite, demands on her social behavior during a certain period of time. Again, the person finds himself in a situation of choice - either to play meaningless, "foreign" social roles, or to refuse to play these roles, trying to follow his own principles, beliefs in everything, or trying to rationalize social roles, endowing them with an illusory meaning or rethinking them from the point of view of their own abilities. and needs.

In critical, extreme situations, the indicated choices by the individual of options for social behavior serve as a source of social and intrapersonal conflicts. A person can ignore his social environment, behaving defiantly, rejecting social roles, thereby causing opposition from others. Various forms of positive and negative deviant behavior can also acquire mass character in society. The cause of intrapersonal conflict is the opposite direction of personal meaning and social role, which has not found its resolution. A classic example of such a conflict is the image of Anna Karenina in L. Tolstoy's novel, who was torn between the requirement to play the role of a wife, therefore, to remain a mother for her son, and the meaninglessness of this role. External and internal conflicts in this case led to a tragic end. The so-called syndromes - Vietnamese, Afghan, Chechen - the personal consequences of these wars are widely known today. But every war causes such syndromes. If a person has to carry out orders (i.e., play the role of a soldier, commander, etc.), in which he does not see the point, which go far beyond the generally accepted norms and values ​​("war will write off everything"), then subsequently this leads to a personality crisis, depersonalization. The consequences of such syndromes are ambiguous. Some painfully experience this conflict, withdrawing into themselves, closing themselves off and isolating themselves from society. Others begin to play other meaningless social roles, sometimes quite aggressive. Still others try to drown out the intrapersonal conflict with various "social drugs" - alcohol and drugs.

The intrapersonal crisis is caused not only by extreme situations, but also by modern mass processes. It is no coincidence that first writers, and then sociologists, note the growth of feelings of loneliness, senselessness and hopelessness of the individual as his social contacts and social status increase.

The formation of the social behavior of an individual in modern society is also an internally contradictory process that goes through a series of crisis stages. In very young children (up to 5 years old), social behavior is determined by the social expectations of parents, which largely coincide with cultural tradition. Later, children develop "correct" behavior - "this is possible and this is not possible", while revealing a discrepancy between the actual behavior of parents and others, accepted and often declared by adults, norms and values. Adolescence is a period of both searching for the personal meaning of social behavior and following the social expectations of those groups into which the personality is integrated - friends, company, reference groups. Hence the disharmonious behavior, conditioned either by the desire for self-affirmation, or by the senseless acceptance of various social roles.

Socionics discovered the phenomenon of the integral type of community, which can be diagnosed by fixing the typical facts of social behavior. . In sociology there is a concept social character. The behaviorist interpretation of character comes down directly to a description of the typical features of the behavior itself, in other psychological schools (neo-Freudian, humanistic, and others), character is understood as the personality traits manifested in behavior. “A person can be economical,” writes E. Fromm, “because his financial situation requires it; or he can be thrifty because he has a stingy character that encourages saving for the sake of saving itself, regardless of real need. For the same Behavior can hide different characters.

The concept of "character" in sociological science is used in some specific form. Firstly, we are talking about the nature of the personality, due not to individual properties - temperament, body structure, etc., but to the socio-cultural conditions of the formation of a person. Secondly, we are talking about the nature of the personality not as a separate individual, but as a certain social type, modal (most common in a particular society) personality. "The fact that most of the members of a certain social class or cultures have a similarity of significant elements of character, and what can be said about "social character", representing the essence of the character warehouse common to most members of a given culture, indicates the degree of participation in the formation of the character of social and cultural models "(E. Fromm). thirdly, we are talking about a character that is characteristic of entire social communities, groups and strata, and not just individuals representing them.Thus, we can talk about national, class, professional, urban, rural, regional, youth, female and male, etc. The study of social character is the subject of social psychology and sociology.

Attempts at a typology of a social nature were made by E. Fromm and D. Riesman. E. Fromm identifies two types of social character - fruitful and unproductive orientations. He defines fruitfulness as the realization by a person of his inherent capabilities, the use of his abilities. Accordingly, the fruitful orientation of the social character is distinguished by the creative orientation of the individual. Unproductive orientation is characterized by a consumer orientation of a social nature. E. Fromm has the following types of unproductive orientation: receptive orientation (behavior is aimed at consuming external goods - to be loved, but not to love, to perceive some ideas, but not to create them, etc.), exploitative orientation (as opposed to receptive orientation, behavior is aimed at the consumption of goods received not in the form of a gift, but with the help of force or cunning), acquisitive orientation (behavior aimed at taking as much as possible and giving as little as possible), market orientation, which developed as dominant only in the modern era.

The last type of social character deserves more detailed consideration. "Since modern man perceives himself both as a seller and as a product for sale on the market, his self-esteem depends on conditions beyond his control. If he "succeeds" - he is valuable, if not - he is worthless ... with his own powers, as with a commodity alienated from him.As a result, his sense of identity becomes as unstable as self-esteem; the final remark in all possible roles here: "I am what you will." each other (receptive orientation - in pre-capitalist society, exploitative and acquisitive orientation - in modern society).

According to the sociologist D. Riesman, the evolution of the social character of the Western European type is as follows:

• tradition orientation;
• self-orientation;
• orientation towards the other.

Focus on tradition is a type of social behavior determined mainly by culture.

self-orientation- orientation to one's personality, internal motives, desires, goals (personal meaning). It was this self-orientation that gave rise to the enterprising and rational individual.

Orientation to another- a type of social behavior determined by society, social systems, which include a person. Here, the social environment and the social environment of the individual are primary - the totality of its communications, fashion, functions in social organizations. Social roles determined by social expectations are becoming decisive in the modern Western character.

As usual, D. Riesman missed the fourth orientation - as a social character - orientation to nature. Ecological, vital personality will eventually come to the fore in developed countries. Living in harmony with nature, focused primarily on the organic, biophysical, vital factor, the personality will replace the orientation towards social systems and social expectations.

The works of M. Weber, E. Fromm, D. Riesman reveal the evolution of the social character of the Western European type, which does not mean that this typology can be used in the analysis of the social behavior and social character of other civilizations, including the Russian one. The Japanese character, for example, combines the orientation to tradition and the orientation to the other in a completely different way; these two components do not exclude, but, on the contrary, presuppose each other.

The specificity of the Russian (Russian) character is the mixture of all three orientations. Orientation to tradition, to oneself and to society do not exclude, but coexist with each other. A mixed society naturally gives rise to a mixed personality (we are talking about the nature of a large group of people - a nation).

There are differences in the social character, not only between different stages of development and civilizational types of society, but. and between different strata and groups within society. Marginal strata of society (today they are usually called "new" - "new Russians", "new poor", "new middle stratum", etc., who have acquired a new social status, but have not developed their own subculture and are only experiencing the process of secondary socialization) most of all focused on themselves and on others, while the "old" layers are more than the "new" are committed to the cultural tradition.

As mentioned above, social crisis society manifests itself in the crisis of the individual and her social behavior. The crisis of social behavior (syndromes, depersonalization) is manifested in the fact that it becomes unpredictable, "dodging" between the search for personal meaning, cultural patterns and social roles. In psychology, there is the concept of "accentuation of character", which means the character is stuck between the norm and pathology. The so-called difficult character is most often formed in adolescence. This happens not only with the individual, but also with the social character. The accentuation of a social character can manifest itself in different ways - in the forms of increased irritability and apathy, extreme mood variability, increased suspiciousness, isolation, unjustified cruelty, thoughtless submission to any authorities, etc., which characterize not individuals, but a significant part of the population. It is no coincidence that during periods of deep upheaval, social conflicts and crises, vandalism, aggressiveness, inhuman acts become typical manifestations in social behavior. The "old" thieves' authorities themselves today are amazed at the lawlessness, unmotivated cruelty on the part of the "new" criminal elements.

The deformed social character does not go away with the crisis, it turns into a persistent component of the people's mentality, being passed on from generation to generation. He becomes one of critical factors, which determine both the features of the economic system, and the form of the political regime, and the spiritual warehouse of society.

So, the category of social behavior allows us to analyze society not only in statics, but also in dynamics. Social action is undoubtedly one of the building blocks of social life. Mobility social structure give social roles that are performed in the process of interaction of individuals. Social roles can be assimilated only in the process of behavior and activity, therefore, social actions are the basis for the formation and development of the individual, the progressive transformation of the social character.

Brief summary:

1. Social action is the first building block of social life, the basis social interaction.
2. Social behavior is a system of social actions and inactions aimed at adapting the individual to society, culture and nature.
3. Social activity is a system of social actions aimed at adapting society, culture and nature to one's own needs, abilities, interests.
4. R. Merton singled out 5 types of behavior - personality adaptations. Two of them - conformism and ritualism - are normative. The other three - innovation, retreatism, rebellion - are deviant forms of behavior.
5. T. Parsons developed the theory of four behavioral factors: organism, personality, social systems, culture.
6. In modern society, the process of social modernization is faster than the process of cultural modernization, which is main reason contradictions in personal behavior.
7. D. Rismen showed the evolution of the Western European character - orientation towards tradition, orientation towards oneself, orientation towards others. The social character of other societies has its own specifics. In addition, the task of human survival leads to the formation of a new type of social character - orientation to nature.

Practice set

Questions:

1. How is human interaction different from interaction between other living beings?
2. Which of the founders of sociology substantiated that social action has two mandatory features: conscious motivation and orientation towards others (expectation)?
3. Why did M. Weber not attribute traditional and affective actions to social actions?
4. What is meant by role behavior?
5. What is meant by vital behavior?
6. What is meant by "cultural" (traditional) behavior?
7. What is meant by emotional behavior?
8. Why is innovative behavior in the era of innovative technologies and innovative economy qualified as deviant behavior?
9. To have or to be - how can one answer E.Fromm's dilemma? Can these two orientations be regarded as types of social character?

Topics for term papers, essays, essays:

1. Social actions and interaction
2. Social behavior and socialization of the individual
3. Contradictions of social identification
4. Socially - oriented behavior and traditional culture.
5. Forms of deviations in sociocultural behavior
6. Sociotypes and social character
7. The theory of social action by M. Weber
8. The theory of social action J. Habermas
9. The specifics of the Russian social character
10. Fashion as a manifestation of orientation towards social systems

Lecture 9

FROM OCIAL BEHAVIOR

concept "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The term " behavior" has a slightly different meaning than traditionally and l Osophical concepts of "action"and "activities". If under daction is understooda rationally justified act that has a clear goal, strategy, specific conscious methods and means, then behavior- it's just the reaction of a living beingto external and internal changes. Such a reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. For example, purely emotional reactions- laughter, crying - are also behavior.

social behavior - this is set of human behavioral pro c essays related With satisfaction of physical social s x needs and emerging b to p poison reaction environmentsocial environment.The subject of social behavior may be an individual or a group.

If we find out what factors determined behavior of an individual in a particular social situation, can will understand why one person, hitting the extreme conditions, leads oneself courageously and maintains self-control, while the other loses control over himself and succumbs to general panic; why one joins the aggressive crowd, releasing their deep-seated destructive instincts, the other in fear hides at home, closing windows and doors, and the third, risking own life, trying to come to someone's aid.

Abstracting from purely psychological factors and invoking sociological concepts, can conclude that behavior The individual is determined primarily by socialization. That minimum of congenital instincts, which a person possesses as a biological being, is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend mainly on acquired in the process socialization qualities and to some extent- from congenital and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

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In addition, the social behavior of individualsregulatedsocial structure, in particular the role structure of society. Socially normative behavior- this is behavior that is fully consistent with status expectations. Through existence status expectations, society in advance with sufficient probability can predict the actions of the individual, and the individual himself- coordinate your behavior with accepted by society perfect sample, or model. Social behavior appropriate status expectations, the American sociologist R.Linton definesas a social role. This interpretation of social behavior is closest to functionalism, because it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. merton, within this direction, introduced the category of "role complex", which interpreted as a system of role expectations, defined this status, and the concept of "role conflict", those. a conflict that occurs when the role expectations of the statuses occupied by the subject are incompatible and e can be realized in a single socially acceptable behavior.

functionalistthe understanding of social behavior was subjected to sharp criticism from, first of all, representatives of social behaviorism, who tried to conduct a study of behavioral processes based on the achievements of modern psychology. Psychological moments really missed role interpretation of behavior, as evidenced by the fact that, for example, N. Cameron tried to substantiate the roledeterminismmental disorders: he believed that mental illness- it is the result of the individual's improper performance of his social roles and his inability to perform them in the way society needs.

Human behavior is currently being explored in a number of ways. psychology; contributed behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. The term "behavior"- one of the key in existential philosophy, reflecting the attitude of man to the world. Methodological capabilities this concept is due to the fact that it allows you to identify unconscious stable structures of personality or human existence in the world. Among psychological concepts human behavior who had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, first of all, one should name the psychoanalytic directions represented by Z. Freud, K. Jung, A. Adler.

According to Freud, the behavior of an individual formed as a result of complex interaction of three levels of his personality. Lower level form unconscious impulses and urges thatdetermined by congenitalbiological needs and complexes,establishedunder the influence individual history subject. This layer Freud calls It (Id) to show it separation from consciousness I am an individual who forms the second level of his psyche. The conscious self includes the rational goal setting and responsibility for their actions. you sewed level is Super-I - what we would call the result socialization; it's a collectioninternalizedindividual social norms and values, exerting internal pressure on him in order to force out of consciousness unwanted for society (forbidden) impulses and drives and He let them come true.

According to Freud, in personality any person not stop the struggle of Ono and Sparkle-I, loosening psyche and adductor to neurosis. individual behavior wholly due to this struggle and fully explained by it, since it is only a symbolic reflection of it. Such symbols can be images dreams, typos, reservations, intrusive conditions and fears.

Jung expanded and modified the teachings of Freud, including in the sphere of the unconscious, along with individual complexes and drives« to l the lective unconscious" -the level of key images common to all people and peoples- archetypes. In archetypes recorded archaic fears and value ideas, the interaction of which defines behavior and attitude of the individual.archetypal imagesappear in basic narratives historically specific societies ( folk tales and legends mythology, epic). Socio-regulatorythe role of such stories in traditional societies very large. They contain ideal patterns of behavior, forming role expectations. For example, a male warrior must act like Achilles or Hector, his wife like Penelope and etc. Regular recitations(ritual performances) archetypal narratives constantly remind members of society of these ideal models behavior.

A d l e r put at the core of his psychoanalytic concepts the unconscious will of the individual to power, which, no in his opinion is congenital personality structure and defines behavior. especially strong it is in people, due to certain

causes of inferiority complex. Compensating for their inferiority, they are able to reach great heights. Further splitting of the psychoanalytic directions led to the emergence of a number of schools, occupying indisciplinaryrelation to the boundary position between psychology, social philosophy, sociology. For us the most E. Fromm's work is interesting.

F r o m m is known as a representative neo-Freudianism in psychology and the Frankfurt schools in sociology. More precisely, its position can be defined as freudomarxism, because along with the influence of Freud, he experienced He less strong influence of Marx's social philosophy. difference neo-Freudianism from orthodox Freudianism is that, strictly speaking, neo-Freudianism - it is more of a sociology, while Freudianism is certainly pure psychology. If Freud explains the behavior of the individual in terms of complexes and impulses hidden in the individual unconscious, in short, internalbiopsychicfactors, then for Fromm and Freudo-Marxismoverall behavior of the individualdetermined by the environmentsocial environment. This is its similarity with Marxist theory, explaining the social behavior of individuals is ultimately their class origin. Tem n e less Fromm seeks to find social processes place for the psychological in the proper sense of the word. Following the Freudian tradition, he refers to the unconscious and introduces the term "social unconscious", meaning by it a mental experience common to all members of a given society, but He hitting Ha level of consciousness in most of them, because it ousted special social his nature by a mechanism belonging not to the individual, but to society. Thanks to this mechanism displacement society remains stable. The mechanism of social repression includes language, the logic of everyday thinking, system of social prohibitions and taboos. The structures of language and thought bear the imprint of the society that formed them and represent a tool social pressure on the psyche of the individual. Let's remember newspeak from dystopian novel D and . Orwell "1984". Coarse, anti-aesthetic,ridiculous abbreviations and abbreviations actively disfigure the consciousness of the people who use them. And isn't e became, to one degree or another, the property of allSoviet societythe monstrous logic of formulas like: "The dictatorship of the proletariat- the most democratic form of power."

However, the main component of the mechanism of social displacement - they are social taboos acting like freuds with coy censorship. With the help of a "social filter" into consciousness and nd ispecies He it is admitted in the social experience of individuals that threatens conservation existing society if it is realized. Society manipulates consciousness its members, introducing into it ideological clichés that, due to frequent use become inaccessible critical analysis, utai in aya certain information exercising direct pressure and calling fear of social isolation. Therefore, from consciousness is included everything that is contrary to socialapproved ideological cliche.

This kind of taboo ideologemes, logical and linguistic exp names form according to Fromm, in a man what he is calls " social character» . People, belonging to the same society, bear against their will the stamp of a "common incubator». So, we unmistakably recognize on the street foreigners, even if we don’t hear their speeches, - by behavior, outward appearance and relationship to each other. These are people from another society, and, having got into a mass environment alien to them, they abruptly stand out out of it thanks to similarity among themselves. Social character - this is educated by society and unconscious by the individual style of behavior - from social to household. For example, Soviet and former Soviet people are distinguished collectivism and responsiveness, social passivity andundemanding,obedience to authority, personified in the face"waiting" developed fear of being Not like everyone else, gullibility. According to a number of modern Russian sociologists, frommian methodology of the concept of social character mo zhet can also be used for process analysis, taking place in contemporary Russian society, in particular increasing mutual alienation citizens and the state."

Main criticism Fromm was directed against contemporary to him capitalist society but a lot of attention paid and description of the social character, generated by totalitarian societies. Like Fr. eid, he developed the programrestoring undistorted social individual behavior

dove through awareness of what has been repressed from conscience

1 See: Kravchenko C . A ., Mnatsakanyan M . O ., Pokrovsky N.E. Sociology: Paradigms and Themes. 2nd ed. M., 1998. S. 138.

niya. "Transforming the unconscious into consciousness, writes Fromm, we thereby turn a simpleconcept of universality person in life the reality of such universality. It's nothing but practicalrealization of humanism"1. De depression process - liberation of socially oppressed consciousness- consists in eliminating the fear of realizing the forbidden, and developing the ability to critical thinking, in humanization of social life in general.

A different interpretation is offered by behaviorism (B. Skinner, J.K. Homans), considers behavior as a system of responses to various incentives. Skinner's concept in essenceis a biologicalbecause it is completely removed difference between human behavior andanimal. Skinneridentifies three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex, and operant. If the first two types of reactions are caused by exposurerelevant stimuli, then operant reactions, active and arbitrary, represent a form of adaptation of the Organism to surrounding environment. The body, as it were, by trial and error looking for the most appropriate way to adapt. If successful, the find is fixed in the form sustainable reaction. In this way, main reinforcement acts as a factor in the formation of behavior, and learning turns into "pointing at

well, th reaction >> .

In Skinner's concept a person appears as a being, all internal life which is reduced to reactions to external circumstances. Changes reinforcements mechanically induce behavioral changes. Thinking, higher mental functions of a person, culture, morality, art treated as complex reinforcement system, called call certain behavioral responses. From this follows the conclusion aboutthe possibilities of manipulating knowledgepeople through a carefully developed "technology of behavior." This term Skinner introduces to denotepurposeful manipulationcontrol of one group of people over others. This control is associated with optimal for certain social purposes of the reinforcement regime.

The ideas of behaviorism in sociology were developed J. Baldwin and J. J. Homans. Baldwin's concept based on the concept of reinforcement, borrowed frompsychological behaviorism.

Fromm E. Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism. 1960. R. 107.

Reinforcement in a social sense- this is the reward value which is determined by subjective needs. For example, for a hungry person, food is reinforcement, but if a person is full, she is a reinforcement He is.

The effectiveness of the reward depends on the degree deprivation (deprivation of something in which the individual experiences permanent need) for the individual. How subject deprived in any respect, so his behavior depends from this reinforcement. From deprivations He depend so called generalized reinforcers(e.g. money) current on all individuals without exception due to the fact that they concentrate in themselves access to many types of reinforcements.

Reinforcers divided into positive and negative. Positive reinforcers - is all that is perceived subject as a reward. If the experience of some contact with environmental Wednesday brought a reward, great probability that the subject will seek to repeat this experience. Negative reinforcers are factors that determine behavior through giving up some experience. For example, if I deny myself some pleasure and save money on it, and in consequences benefit from such savings, this experience maybe serve as a negative reinforcer and I will always do so.

Action punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. experience in calling desire more than him Do not repeat - this is the punishment. Punishment can also be positive, carried out with a suppressive stimulus, such as a blow, or not negative, that influences behavior through the deprivation of something valuable for example, depriving a child of sweets at dinner- typical negative punishment.

Explanation of formation operant reactions are more complex. Unambiguity is characteristic of reactions of the simplest level, for example, a child cries, demanding the attention of parents, that's why that parents always approach him in suchcases. Reactions adult He so unambiguous. Yes, man selling newspapers in wagons trains, away He finds in every wagon buyer, but he knows from experience that he can eventually find a buyer, and this makes him move from wagon into the wagon. The same probabilistic character was assumed inlast decadereceiving wages for some Russian enterprises, however, people continue to go to work, hoping to get wage money.

In the middle of the twentieth century. Homans designed behavioralexchange concept. Arguing with representatives of many areas of sociology, Homans argued that sociological explanation behavior, as well as the interpretation of historical facts, must necessarily be based on psychologicalexplanation. Homansmotivates this by the fact that behavior is always individual, and sociology operates with categories, applied to groups and societies.

According to Homans, studying behavioral responses, one shouldabstracton the nature of the factors that caused these reactions: whether they are caused by the influence of the surrounding physical environment or the influence of other people. Social behavior - it's just an exchange having some kind of social value activities between people. Homans believes that social behavior is maybe no be interpreted by using behavioral paradigm skinner, if we supplement it with the idea of ​​the mutual nature incentives in relations me x du people. Relationships between individuals are alwaysrepresentmutually beneficial exchange of activities, services, in short, the mutual use of reinforcements.

theories exchange is succinctly formulated Homans in several postulates: the postulate of success (with the highest probabilityreproducedthose actions that most often meet with social approval); stimulus postulate (similar stimuli associated withremunerationhighly likely to cause similar behavior); postulate of value (the probability of reproducing an action depends on how valuable seems man the result. this actions); postulate, deprivation - satiety(the more regularly a person's act was rewarded, the less he appreciates the subsequent reward); double postulate of aggression- approval (lack of remuneration given or unexpected punishment does l probable aggressive behavior, a neo w given remuneration or lack expected punishmentleads to an increase in valueremuneratedact and increases the likelihood of its reproduction).

wow the most basic concepts exchange theory are price and benefit behavior. Under the price of behavior Homans understands what manages an individual's behavior- Negative consequences, caused by past actions. In worldly terms, this is retribution for the past. Benefits in social exchange arise then, when the quality and size remuneration exceed the cost of doing so.

So the theory exchange depicts social behavior man as a rational search for profit. This concept looks simplified, and it is not surprising that she drew criticism from various sociological trends. Especially sharply argued withHomansom Parsons, who defended the fundamental difference between the mechanisms of behavior people from animals. Parsons criticized Homans for his inability theories give an explanation social facts basedpsychological mechanisms.

Sam Homans was critical of functionalism, considering the lack of the concept Durkheim impossibility clear identification mechanism of causationbetween the individual level which Homans believed purely psychological, and the level of social facts. He insisted on the legitimacy explanations social behavior based on individual sychology.

An attempt at a kind of synthesis of social behaviorism and sociologism undertaken by the author of yet another theory of exchange ( I . B la u. Understanding the limitationsbehavioral interpretationsocial behavior, he set a goal to find with strategy of transition from the level of psychology to explanation on this basis of existencesocial structures as irreducible to psychology special reality. Concept Blau presents with wallpaper enriched exchange theory, in whichfoursuccessive stages transition from individual exchange to social structures: 1) stageinterpersonal exchange; 2) step power-status differentiation; 3) stage of legitimation and organizations; 4) the stage of opposition and change.

Blau shows that, starting from the level of individual exchange, such an exchange He can always to be equal. In tech cases, when individuals cannot offer each other enough rewards, social bonds formed between them gravitate to disintegration and attempts are being made to strengthen decaying "connections in other ways: through coercion, through search another source remuneration, through submission partner no exchange in generalized loan. This last the way is move to step status differentiation,when a group of persons capable of giving the required remuneration, in status relation becomes moreprivilegedcompared to others. Furtherlegitimization is carried outand consolidating the situation and isolating opposition groups. Analyzing complex social structures blau goes beyond the paradigm of behaviorism. He claims what complex structures societies are organized around social values ​​and norms that serve, as it were, mediating link between individuals in the process of social exchange. blah godar this is possible e only the exchange of rewards between individuals, but also the exchange between the individual and group As an example blau considers the phenomenon of organized charity. In his opinion, charity as a social institution is different from simple help.wealthy individualto the poor that organized charity is socially oriented behavior. It is based on the desire of a wealthy individual to conform to the norms secured class and share its social values. Through norms and values ​​are established by the relationship of exchange between the donor and the social group to which it belongs.

blau identifies four categories of social values ​​on the basis of which exchange is possible:particularistic values ​​that unite individuals on the ground interpersonal relationships universalistvalues ​​that act as a measure of their assessment of individual merits; legitimate authority - value systems that provide the power and privileges of some categories people compared to everyone else; opposition prices news - ideas about the need for social changes allowing the opposition to exist at the level of social facts, and not just at the level of between personal relations of individual oppositionists.

So the exchange theory blau is a com promissory solution combining elements of theory Homans

sociologism in the interpretation of the exchange of rewards.

Symbolic approach interactionism to the study of social behavior is represented by the role concept D and. mida which reminds offunctionalist approach. Meade, in contrast

From R. Linton and R. Merton, considers role behavior as the activity of individuals,interactingfreely accepted and played roles with each other, and role-playing the interaction of individuals requires from them the ability to put themselves in the place of another, to evaluate themselves from the position of another.

P.Zingelmantried to synthesize the theory of exchange and the symbolicinteractionism,which, unlikefunctionalandonalismhas a number of points of intersection with socialbehaviorrizmomand exchange theories. Both of these concepts focus onactiveinteraction of individuals and consider theirsubjectinmicrosociologicalperspective. Relationsinterindividualexchange is required, according toZingelman,skillspostinityourself in the position of another, in order to better understand his needs and desires, so there are reasons for merging bothdirectionnorthin one. However, socialbehavioristsreacted toappearancethis theory is critical.

TASKS

1. What is the difference between contentconcepts"social action" and "socialbehavior"?

2. In your opinion, are the representatives of social behaviorism right in saying that human behavior in society can be controlled, or not? DmustDoes society govern the behavior of its members? Does it have the right to do so? Justify your answer.

3. Formulate and justify your attitude to the theory of exchange.

4. What is a taboo? Is it taboo, say, forbidding outsiders to enter the territory of a military unit? Justify your answer.

5. How do you feel aboutsocialprohibitions? Dmustwhether there be any prohibitions in ideal society Or is it better to abolish them altogether?

6. Daiteyour assessment of the fact that some Western countries have legalized same-sex marriages? Is this a progressive move? Argument your opinion.

7. What, in your opinion, causes aggressive social behavior, for example, extremism of various directions?

The concept of "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term "behavior" is different from the meaning of such traditionally philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally justified act that has a clear goal, a strategy that is carried out with the involvement of specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is only the reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. This reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. Thus, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - will also be behavior.

social behavior -϶ᴛᴏ a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group.

If we abstract from purely psychological factors and reason at the social level, then the behavior of the individual is determined primarily by socialization. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on the qualities acquired in the process of socialization and, to some extent, on innate and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

Excluding the above, the social behavior of individuals is regulated by the social structure, in particular the role structure of society.

Social norm of behavior— ϶ᴛᴏ such behavior, which is completely ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ conforms to status expectations. Due to the existence of status expectations, society can predict the actions of the individual in advance with sufficient probability, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model accepted by society. Social behavior that conforms to status expectations is defined by the American sociologist R. Linton as social role. It is this interpretation of social behavior that is closest to functionalism, since it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. Merton introduced the category of "role complex" - a system of role expectations determined by a given status, as well as the concept of a role conflict that occurs when the role expectations of the statuses occupied by the subject are incompatible and cannot be realized in some single socially acceptable behavior.

The functionalist understanding of social behavior was subjected to fierce criticism from, first of all, representatives of social behaviorism, who believed that it was necessary to build the study of behavioral processes on the basis of the achievements of modern psychology. The extent to which psychological moments were really overlooked by the role-based interpretation of the command follows from the fact that N. Cameron tried to substantiate the idea of ​​the role-based determinism of mental disorders, believing that mental illness is an incorrect performance of their social roles and the result of the patient's inability to perform them in the way ϶ᴛᴏ society needs. Behaviorists argued that in the time of E. Durkheim, the successes of psychology were insignificant and therefore the functionality of the expiring paradigm met the requirements of the time, but in the 20th century, when psychology reached a high level of development, its data cannot be ignored when considering human behavior.

Forms of human social behavior

People behave differently in this or that social situation, in this or that social environment. For example, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize riots, and others provoke mass clashes. These various activities actors of social interaction can be defined as social behavior. Consequently, social behavior -϶ᴛᴏ the form and method of manifestation by social actors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be considered as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

In sociology, social behavior is interpreted as: o behavior, expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms; about outward manifestation activities, the form of turning activities into real actions in relation to socially significant objects; about the adaptation of a person to the social conditions of his existence.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between them are of a fundamental nature.

"Natural" behavior, individually significant and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual does not face the question of the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and must be achieved by any means. The "natural" behavior of the individual is not socially regulated, therefore it is traditionally immoral or "cavalier". Such social behavior has a "natural", natural character, since it is directed to the provision of organic needs. In society, "natural" egocentric behavior is "forbidden", so it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions from all individuals.

ritual behavior("ceremonial") - individually-unnatural behavior; It is precisely through such behavior that society exists and reproduces itself. Ritual in all its variety of forms—from data-ket to ceremony—permeates all social life so deeply that people do not notice that they are living in a field of ritual interactions. Ritual social behavior will be a means of ensuring the stability of the social system, and the individual who implements various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social stability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly making sure of the inviolability of his social status and maintaining the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in the fact that the social behavior of individuals would be ritual character, but society cannot abolish "natural" egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and unscrupulous in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than "ritual" behavior. Therefore, society seeks to transform the forms of "natural" social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, incl. through the mechanisms of socialization using social support, control and punishment.

On the preservation and maintenance of social relations and, ultimately, on the survival of man as homo sapiens(of a reasonable person) such forms of social behavior are directed as:

• cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping future generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;
• parental behavior - the behavior of parents in relation to offspring.

Aggressive behavior is presented in all its manifestations, both group and individual - from verbal insults to another person and ending with mass extermination during wars.

Concepts of human behavior

Human behavior is studied by many areas of psychology - in behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. Note that the term "behavior" is one of the key terms in existential philosophy and is used in the study of a person's relationship to the world. The methodological possibilities of the ϶ᴛᴏth concept are due to the fact that it allows you to identify the unconscious stable structures of the personality or the existence of a person in the world. Among the psychological concepts of human behavior that have had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, we should first of all name the psychoanalytic trends developed by Freud, C. G. Jung, and A. Adler.

Freud's representations based on the fact that the behavior of the individual is formed as a result of complex interaction levels of his personality. Freud identifies three such levels: lowest level form unconscious impulses and urges determined by innate biological needs and complexes formed under the influence of the subject's individual history. Freud calls this level It is important to understand - it (Id), ɥᴛᴏ to show its separation from the conscious Self of the individual, which forms the second level of his psyche. Conscious I contains rational goal-setting and responsibility for ϲʙᴏ and actions. The highest level is the Superego - what we would call the result of socialization. This is a set of social norms and values ​​internalized by an individual, which exerts internal pressure on him in order to force out of consciousness undesirable (forbidden) impulses and inclinations for society and prevent them from being realized. According to Freud, the personality of any person is an incessant struggle. It is important to understand that it is also the Super-I, which loosens the psyche and leads to neuroses. Individual behavior is wholly conditioned by the ϶ᴛᴏth struggle and fully explained by it, since it is only its symbolic reflection. Such symbols can be images of dreams, slips of the tongue, reservations, obsessive states and fears.

The concept of C. G. Jung expands and modifies Freud's teaching, including in the sphere of the unconscious not only individual complexes and drives, but also the collective unconscious - the level of key images common to all people and peoples - archetypes. Archaic fears and value ideas are fixed in the archetypes, the interaction of which determines the behavior and attitude of the individual. Archetypal images appear in the basic narratives - folk tales and legends, mythology, epic - historically specific societies. The socially-regulatory role of such narratives in traditional societies very large. It is worth noting that they contain ideal behaviors that form role expectations. For example, a male warrior should behave like Achilles or Hector, a wife like Penelope, and so on. Regular recitations (ritual reproductions) of archetyonic narratives constantly remind the members of society of these ideal models of behavior.

Adler's psychoanalytic concept has in its basis an unconscious will to power, which, in his opinion, will be an innate personality structure and determines behavior.
It is worth noting that it is especially strong in those who, for one reason or another, suffer from an inferiority complex. In an effort to compensate for their inferiority, they are able to achieve great success.

Further splitting psychoanalytic direction led to the emergence of many schools, in disciplinary terms, occupying a border position between psychology, social philosophy, and sociology. Let us dwell in detail on the work of E. Fromm.

Fromm's positions - a representative of neo-Freudianism in psychology and the Frankfurt School in sociology - it can be more accurately defined as Freilo-Marxism, since along with the influence of Freud, he was no less strongly influenced by Marx's social philosophy. The peculiarity of neo-Freudianism in comparison with orthodox Freudianism is due to the fact that, strictly speaking, neo-Freudianism is more of a sociology, while Freud will certainly be a pure psychologist. If Freud explains the individual's behavior by complexes and impulses hidden in the individual unconscious, in short, by internal biopsychic factors, then for Fromm and Freilo-Marxism as a whole, the individual's behavior is determined by the surrounding social environment. In ϶ᴛᴏm, it is similar to Marx, who explained the social behavior of individuals in the final analysis by their class origin. It is important to note that, however, with all this, Fromm seeks to find a place for the psychological in social processes. According to the Freudian tradition, referring to the unconscious, he introduces the term "social unconscious", implying one mental experience common to all members of a given society, but most of them do not fall into the level of consciousness, because it is displaced by a special mechanism that is social in its nature, belonging not to the individual, but to society. Thanks to this mechanism of displacement, society maintains a stable existence. The mechanism of social repression contains language, logic everyday thinking, a system of social prohibitions and taboos. The structures of language and thinking are formed under the influence of society and act as an instrument of social pressure on the psyche of the individual. For example, coarse, anti-aesthetic, ridiculous abbreviations and abbreviations of "Newspeak" from Orwell's dystopia actively disfigure the consciousness of people who use them. To one degree or another, the monstrous logic of formulas like: "The dictatorship of the proletariat is the most democratic form of power" became the property of everyone in Soviet society.

The main component of the mechanism of social repression is social taboos that act like Freudian censorship. That in the social experience of individuals that threatens the preservation of the existing society, if it is realized, is not allowed into consciousness with the help of a "social filter". The society manipulates the minds of its members, introducing ideological clichés, which, due to frequent use, become inaccessible to critical analysis, withholding certain information, exerting direct pressure and causing fear of social isolation. Therefore, everything that contradicts socially approved ideological clichés is excluded from consciousness.

Such taboos, ideologemes, logical and linguistic experiments form, according to Fromm, the "social character" of a person. People belonging to the same society, in addition to her will, are, as it were, marked with the seal of a “common incubator”. For example, we unmistakably recognize foreigners on the street, even if we do not hear their speech, by their behavior, appearance, attitude towards each other; ϶ᴛᴏ people from another society, and, getting into a mass environment alien to them, they stand out sharply from it due to their similarities. Social character -϶ᴛᴏ style of behavior brought up by society and unconscious by the individual - from social to everyday. For example, Soviet and former Soviet people are distinguished by collectivism and responsiveness, social passivity and undemandingness, obedience to the authorities, personified in the person of the "leader", a developed fear of being different from everyone else, gullibility.

Fromm directed his criticism against modern capitalist society, although he paid much attention to the description of the social character generated by totalitarian societies. Like Freud, he developed a program to restore the undistorted social behavior of individuals through the awareness of what was repressed. “By transforming the unconscious into consciousness, we thereby transform the simple concept of the universality of man into the vital reality of such universality. This is nothing but the practical realization of humanism.” The process of derepression - the liberation of socially oppressed consciousness is to eliminate the fear of realizing the forbidden, to develop the ability to think critically, to humanize social life as a whole.

A different interpretation is offered by behaviorism (B. Skinner, J. Homans), who considers behavior as a system of reactions to various stimuli.

Skinner's concept in fact, it will be a biological one, since it completely removes the differences between the behavior of a person and an animal. Skinner identifies three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex, and operant. The first two types of reactions are caused by exposure to ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ stimuli, and operant reactions are a form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. It is worth noting that they are active and arbitrary. The body, as it were by trial and error, finds the most acceptable way of adaptation, and if successful, the find is fixed in the form of a stable reaction. Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the main factor in the formation of behavior is reinforcement, and learning turns into "pointing to the desired reaction."

In Skinner's concept, man appears as a being, all inner life whoever ϲʙᴏ is drawn to reactions to external circumstances. Reinforcement changes mechanically cause behavioral changes. Thinking, the higher mental functions of a person, the whole culture, morality, art turn into a complex system of reinforcements designed to evoke certain behavioral reactions. This leads to the conclusion about the possibility of manipulating people's behavior through a carefully developed "technology of behavior". With this term, Skinner denotes the purposeful manipulation control of some groups of people over others, associated with the establishment of an optimal reinforcement regime for certain social goals.

The ideas of behaviorism in sociology were developed by J. and J. Baldwin, J. Homans.

The concept of J. iJ. Baldwin is based on the concept of reinforcement, borrowed from psychological behaviorism. Reinforcement in the social sense - ϶ᴛᴏ reward, the value of which is determined by subjective needs. For example, for a hungry person, food acts as a reinforcement, but if a person is full, it will not be a reinforcement.

The effectiveness of the reward depends on the degree of deprivation in a given individual. Sub-deprivation refers to the deprivation of something that the individual experiences a constant need for. As far as the subject is deprived in any respect, so much his behavior depends on this reinforcement. The so-called generalized reinforcers (for example, money) do not depend on deprivation, acting on all individuals without exception, due to the fact that they concentrate access to many types of reinforcements at once.

Reinforcers are divided into positive and negative. Positive reinforcers - ϶ᴛᴏ everything that is perceived by the subject as a reward. For example, if a certain exposure to the environment brought a reward, it is likely that the subject will seek to repeat ϶ᴛᴏt experience. Negative reinforcers - ϶ᴛᴏ factors that determine behavior through the rejection of some experience. For example, if the subject denies himself some pleasure and saves money on ϶ᴛᴏm, and subsequently benefits from ϶ᴛᴏth savings, then this experience can serve as a negative reinforcer and the subject will always act like this.

The effect of punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment is experience desiring don't repeat it again. Punishment can also be positive or negative, but here everything is reversed compared to reinforcement. Positive punishment - ϶ᴛᴏ punishment with a suppressive stimulus, such as a blow. Negative punishment affects behavior by depriving something of value. For example, depriving a child of sweets at dinner is a typical negative punishment.

The formation of operant reactions has a probabilistic character. It is important to note that unambiguity is characteristic of reactions of the simplest level, for example, a child cries, demanding the attention of his parents, because parents always approach him in such cases. Adult reactions are much more complex. For example, a person who sells newspapers in train cars does not find a buyer in every car, but knows from experience that a buyer will eventually be found, and ϶ᴛᴏ makes him persistently walk from car to car. In the last decade, the receipt of wages at some Russian enterprises has assumed the same probabilistic nature, but nevertheless people continue to go to work, hoping to receive it.

Homans' behavioral concept of exchange appeared in the middle of the 20th century. It is worth saying that, arguing with representatives of many areas of sociology, Homans argued that a sociological explanation of behavior must necessarily be based on a psychological approach. The interpretation of historical facts should also be based on a psychological approach. Homans motivates ϶ᴛᴏ by the fact that behavior is always individual, while sociology operates with categories applicable to groups and societies, so the study of behavior will be the prerogative of psychology, and sociology in ϶ᴛᴏm should follow it.

According to Homans, when studying behavioral reactions, one should abstract from the nature of the factors that caused these reactions: they are caused by the influence of the surrounding physical environment or other people. Social behavior is nothing but the exchange of activities of some social value between people. Homans believes that social behavior can be interpreted using Skinner's behavioral paradigm, if supplemented with the idea of ​​the mutual nature of stimulation in relations between people. Relations between individuals always represent a mutually beneficial exchange of activities, services, in short, ϶ᴛᴏ mutual use of reinforcements.

Note that Homans briefly formulated the exchange theory in several postulates:

• the postulate of success - those actions are most likely to be reproduced, which most often meet with social approval;
• incentive postulate - similar reward-related stimuli are highly likely to cause similar behavior;
• postulate of value - the probability of reproducing an action depends on how valuable the result of the ϶ᴛᴏth action seems to a person;
• the postulate of deprivation - the more regularly a person's act was rewarded, the less he appreciates the subsequent reward;
• the dual postulate of aggression-approval - the absence of an expected reward or an unexpected punishment makes aggressive behavior likely, and an unexpected reward or the absence of an expected punishment leads to an increase in the value of the rewarded act and makes it more likely to be reproduced.

Do not forget that the most important concepts of the exchange theory will be:

• the price of behavior - what this or that act costs an individual - the negative consequences caused by past actions. Speaking worldly, ϶ᴛᴏ retribution for the past;
• benefit - occurs when the quality and size of the reward exceeds the price that this act costs.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the theory of exchange depicts human social behavior as a rational search for profit. This concept seems simplistic, and it is not surprising that it has provoked criticism from a variety of sociological schools. For example, Parsons, who defended the fundamental difference between the mechanisms of human and animal behavior, criticized Homans for the inability of his theory to explain social facts on the basis of psychological mechanisms.

In ϲʙᴏey exchange theories I. blau attempted a figurative synthesis of social behaviorism and sociologism. Understanding the limitations of a purely behaviorist interpretation of social behavior, he set as his goal the transition from the level of psychology to an explanation on the basis of the existence of social structures as a special reality that is impossible for psychology. Blau's concept is an enriched theory of exchange, in which four successive stages of transition from individual exchange to social structures are distinguished: 1) the stage of interpersonal exchange; 2) the stage of power-status differentiation; 3) the stage of legitimation and organization; 4) the stage of opposition and change.

Blau shows that starting from the level of interpersonal exchange, the exchange may not always be equal. In those cases where individuals cannot offer each other sufficient rewards, the social ties formed between them tend to disintegrate. In such situations, there are attempts to strengthen disintegrating ties in other ways - through coercion, through the search for another source of reward, through subordination of oneself to an exchange partner in the form of a generalized loan. Last way means a transition to a stage of status differentiation, when a group of persons capable of giving the required remuneration becomes more privileged in terms of status than other groups. In the future, legitimation and consolidation of the situation and the separation of opposition groups take place. In analyzing complex social structures, Blau goes far beyond the paradigm of behaviorism. It is worth noting that he argues that the complex structures of society are organized around social values ​​and norms, which serve as a kind of mediating link between individuals in the process of social exchange. Thanks to this link, the exchange of rewards is possible not only between individuals, but also between an individual and a group. For example, considering the phenomenon of organized charity, Blau determines what distinguishes charity as a social institution from the simple help of a rich individual to a poorer one. The difference is that organized charity is ϶ᴛᴏ socially oriented behavior, which is based on the desire of a wealthy individual ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙto conform to the norms of the wealthy class and share social values; through norms and values, an exchange relation is established between the sacrificing individual and the social group to which he belongs.

Blau identifies four categories of social values, on the basis of which exchange is possible:

• particularistic values ​​that unite individuals on the basis of interpersonal relationships;
• universalist values, acting as a measure for evaluating individual merits;
• legitimate authority - a system of values ​​that provides the power and privileges of a certain category of people in comparison with all others:
• oppositional values ​​- ideas about the need social change, allowing the opposition to exist at the level of social facts, and not only at the level of interpersonal relations of individual oppositionists.

It can be said that Blau's exchange theory is a compromise, combining elements of Homans theory and sociologism in the treatment of reward exchange.

Role concept by J. Mead is a symbolic interactionist approach to the study of social behavior. Its name is reminiscent of the functionalist approach: it is also called role-playing. Mead considers role behavior as the activity of individuals interacting with each other in freely accepted and played roles. According to Mead, the role interaction of individuals requires them to be able to put themselves in the place of another, to evaluate themselves from the position of another.

Synthesis of exchange theory with symbolic interactionism also tried to implement P. Singelman. Symbolic actionism has a number of points of intersection with social behaviorism and exchange theories. Both concepts focus on active interaction individuals and consider the ϲʙᴏth subject from a microsociological perspective. According to Singelman, relationships of interpersonal exchange require the ability to put oneself in the position of another, in order to better understand his needs and desires. Therefore, he believes that there are grounds for merging both directions into one. At the same time, social behaviorists were critical of the emergence of a new theory.

P. of a person (Behavior), which is formed, develops and manifests itself in conditions public life and therefore is socially determined. P. as such is a set of externally observable actions and actions of individuals and their groups, their specific orientation and sequence, one way or another affecting the interests of other people, social groups, social communities or the whole society. P. manifests the social qualities of a person, the features of his upbringing, cultural level, temperament, character, his needs, beliefs, views, tastes, his attitude to the surrounding natural and social reality, to other people and to himself is formed and realized.

Sociology explores and interprets P. primarily in terms of activity, communication, reward, value, and need. The person needs to communicate joint activities with other people, he wants to be loved, respected, fairly evaluated and rewarded for his actions. In their P., people interact with each other, evaluate each other and seek to influence their communication partners.

Microsociology searches for causes and establishes the characteristics of human P. in the interaction between the individual and other people, primarily in small groups - the family, the work team, the group of peers, etc. Macrosociology studies P. mainly in the processes of interaction of large-scale social communities - ethnic groups, nations, states, social institutions, etc. However, in a specific social context of interaction, elements of both these levels of sociological analysis of P. are often combined. So, for example, everyday P. and interaction between family members is carried out at the micro level. At the same time, the family as a specific social community is a social institution studied at the macro level, since it is connected with the system of social interactions between classes and strata of society, with the labor market, with the system of social policy, with education, health care, and culture.

Within the framework of microsociological and psychological analysis of P., the behaviorist approach became most famous (the largest representatives are E. Thorndike, D. Watson, K. Lashley, B. Skinner, and others). Its initial premise is the recognition of the mutual influence of P. (behavior - P.) of a person and the events taking place in his environment, the connection of actions with what happens before and after them, as well as the influence of unforeseen circumstances on P.. Here the concept of probability is widely used to describe the connection between the P. under study and its prerequisites and consequences. It is believed that P. is based on three different forms of human reaction to environment. They are: 1) emotional, or affective, based on feelings and emotions; 2) competent, or cognitive, based on knowledge and reflection; 3) direct open response according to the mechanism: stimulus - reaction.

Knowledge of the features of the action of each link of this three-component structure, B. Skinner believes, makes it possible to make the P. of a person predictable, since it is these links that represent the socio-psychological mechanisms of the influence of the social environment on behavioral acts. It is this approach, he writes, that makes it possible to understand that "a person is responsible for his P. not only in the sense that he can be condemned or punished if he behaves badly, but also in the sense that he can trust and admire her accomplishments." With this approach, the decisive "selective role of the environment in the formation and maintenance of the P. of the individual is revealed, and this makes it possible to model the P. of a person under certain conditions, i.e. to develop and put into practice the technology of behavior."

In the theoretical part of behavioral research P. focuses on the recognition that external variables, ie. behavioral reactions, determined and controlled by the influence of the social environment, take precedence over intrapersonal processes - thoughts, feelings and affects. Behaviorists give priority to identifying the resources of the individual and his environment that are capable of achieving the desired results. The analysis focuses on specific types P. in a real life situation - in a family, in a classroom, in a subway car, train compartment, etc. - and its functions, organically related to environmental factors, which are studied by the changes observed before and after the implementation of the action. In its applied spectrum, behavioral research has proven itself in the development of methods for managing the mentality of students in the classroom, improving the abilities of individuals who are lagging behind in development, as well as in treating attacks of depression, anxiety, anger, etc. Behaviorists believe that symbolic processes are imitation, indirect assimilation and anticipation of consequences are essential components of the social learning process.

Great attention to the study of P.S. is given in the sociological theory of exchange, one of the main authors of which is the American sociologist and social psychologist J. Homans. Homans considers the "elementary social paradigm" to be the initial unit of sociological analysis. direct exchange of behavioral acts between two, three, etc. individuals. Describing social P. as a universal exchange, he formulates four principles of interindividual interaction. The first of them says: the more often and more a certain type of P. is rewarded, the more willingly and more often it is repeated by individuals - be it in business, sports or fishing. According to the second principle, if the reward for certain types of P. depends on some conditions, a person seeks to recreate these conditions. In accordance with the third principle, when the reward for a certain P. is large, a person is ready to expend more effort in order to receive it. And, finally, the fourth principle states: when a person's needs are close to saturation, he is less willing to make efforts to satisfy them.

Thus, in the Homansian concept of P.S. and the interaction of individuals appears as a system of exchanges of behavioral acts, through which "they sanction each other, i.e. one rewards or punishes the actions of the other." Indeed, such a system is often implemented in the interactions of people with each other, in particular, in the field of business. But in general, the exchange rate of people is more multifaceted than the theory of exchange suggests. In the area of research activities, artistic creativity, in a relationship of friendship, love, etc. The value of people is by no means reduced to balancing costs and rewards, because all this and much more in human life is not of a value nature, determined by the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services.

The theory of symbolic interaction, developed mainly in the works of the American sociologists C. Cooley and J. Mead, made a significant contribution to the sociological study of human psychology.

C. Cooley introduced into sociology the distinction between primary groups (the term itself was introduced into sociology by him) and secondary public institutions. Primary groups (family, company of peers, neighborhood, local community), he believed, are the main social cells in which the formation of the personality, its socialization takes place, and the P. of individuals is characterized by close intimate, personal, informal ties and interactions. “Primary groups,” he noted, “are primary in the sense that they give the individual the earliest and most complete experience. social unity, and also in the sense that they do not change to the same extent as more complex relationships, but form a relatively unchanging source from which these latter are constantly born. "Cooley proposed the specific term "mirror self", according to which, in the process of P. , especially in interaction with others, people look at themselves as if from the outside, through the eyes of another person, i.e. "look at themselves in the mirror". In behavioral acts, people serve as a kind of mirror to each other, so our idea of ​​ourselves largely depends from our relationships with other individuals.

J. Mead advanced the behavioral analysis of social interaction proposed by Ch. Cooley much further. He denied that the P. of people is a passive reaction to reward and punishment, and considered human actions as a P. S. based on communication. According to him, a person reacts not only to the actions of other people, but also to their intentions. He deciphers the meaning of another person's act before responding to it. But to do this, says Mead, it is necessary to put yourself in the place of the interlocutor or partner, "take the role of the other." When we attach meaning to something, it becomes a symbol, i.e. concept, evaluation, action or object in our interaction with other people symbolize or express the meaning of another action, another object or concept. A raised hand can symbolize a greeting, a request to stop a car, or an intention to strike another person. Only by understanding the meaning of this gesture, its meaning, can we properly respond to it: shake hands with another person, stop a car, evade a blow or strike back.

So, in order for our P. to become adequate to the situation, we must acquire certain skills and skills, above all learn to understand and use the symbols. Based on this, Mead singled out two main components of behavioral interaction in people in the process of their socialization: mind (opinion) and I-self. To become ourselves, i.e. to socialize as individuals and learn how to interact properly with other people, we must learn to understand symbols and be able to use symbols in our P. Through long experience of observing the reaction of others to what we do, we gain not only the idea that we are ourselves we imagine, but we get the ability to put ourselves in the place of another.

Mead noted that until children are able to "accept the role of another", they cannot accept effective participation in most games. To learn to play ball, for example in football, the child must put himself "in all the roles involved in the game, and perform his actions in agreement with others." When you pass by football field where small children are playing, note that they tend to crowd around the ball. Every child wants to get the ball and no one wants to pass it to another or receive a pass. Children need time to learn to take on the role of another - to understand that when Tom receives the ball, I will take the pass, and George will run to the other side of the field, and I passed the ball to him, etc., that only in this case will there be a real the game. Therefore, every child participating in the game must know what every other player is going to do in order to fulfill their own role. He must assume all these roles. The game itself is organized in such a way that "the attitudes of one individual evoke the corresponding attitudes of another."

According to Mead's concept, we develop ourselves and our P. through interaction with others, but we will not become skillful in interaction until we develop ourselves. From the process of interacting with each other, we are moving to a model of multiple interactions with certain groups of people. Thanks to this, each of us adapts our actions, our P. to the expectations and actions of other people in accordance with their meanings for us. Based on the fact that the P. of a person in interaction with other people is a continuous dialogue in the process of which people observe, comprehend through understanding the symbols of each other's intentions, one of the students and followers of J. Mead, G. Bloomer, in 1969 called the sociological concept under consideration P. symbolic interactionism.

Serious attention to the sociological analysis of P.S. paid by P. Sorokin, T. Parsons, R. Merton, R. Dahrendorf and other well-known sociologists. P. Sorokin, in particular, compared human society with the turbulent sea in which individual people, like waves, their P. act on the environment of their own kind, exchange ideas with them, artistic images, volitional impulses, etc. It is impossible to imagine the everyday P. of people, he believed, without a mutual exchange of feelings. P. of each of us is continuous process interactions between us and other people based on friendship, love, compassion, enmity, hatred, etc. Without this, there is no P. either in commerce, or in economic, or in scientific, or in charitable, or in any other field of activity.

T. Parsons studied the P. of people as the interaction of social subjects interconnected by a "system of mutual expectations" in the sense that their actions are oriented towards certain expectations of a partner. As a result of social interaction, Parsons emphasized, a specific structure of "need dispositions of the figure (actor) and others included in the system of social interaction with him" is formed. A person’s P. is influenced not only by the system of expectations of his partners in interaction, but also by the norms and values ​​of culture that prevail in society. It is the "most common cultural patterns", acting in the form of ideas, ideals, values, etc., that, according to Parsons, give consistency to P.'s norms attributed to role statuses, more precisely, "types of roles in the social system." If we take this fundamental thesis into account, it becomes clear why Parsons preferred the term "action" to the term "P." physical, cultural, etc.), from simple tools to works of art, as well as the mechanisms and processes that control this pattern.

If we move from these typical examples to a more specific level of sociological analysis, then Parsons' conception has two main components. These are, firstly, the behavioral acts themselves performed by a person in a certain situation when interacting with other people, and, secondly, the situational environment in which P. is performed and on which it depends. If we talk about the first of them, its most significant aspects are the biological organism, acting as biological characteristics, which make up the species difference of homo sapiens, as well as the cultural systems in which a person is included and thanks to which he acquires social experience and implements it in his P. It is the cultural system that creates institutionalized patterns of P., thereby giving a criterion for the correctness or incorrectness of certain actions individual. From this point of view, Parsons analyzes the trends in the development of the youth subculture, in accordance with the prescriptions of which the values ​​and norms that prevail in society are no longer clear indicators of the proper P. of young people or lose their significance for them. Central location in the regulation of the P. of youth in such a social situation, it is no longer the family or the school that plays, but the "group of peers." Youth subcultures, according to Parsons, perform both positive and destructive functions. On the one hand, they subvert traditional values, separating young people from families and adults, and on the other hand, they are a means of transforming old ones. value systems, the assertion of new values ​​that render the individual social support in his P. and interaction with peers for a long time - from the moment of "falling out" from the parents' family and before creating his own. The interweaving of these two functions gives rise to internal (between different youth groups) and external (with an adult social environment) conflicts in the youth environment.

So, already in the concept of T. Parsons, much attention is paid to clarifying the significance of "role statuses" in the P. of individuals. However, the significance of the social role as a normatively approved method of P., obligatory for the individual and, as a result, becoming a decisive characteristic of his personality, was studied in more detail in the so-called theory of roles developed by R. Linton, A. Radcliffe-Brown and other sociologists. According to Linton, the concept of role refers to such situations of social interaction when certain stereotypes of social P are regularly and for a long time reproduced. Each individual can act in interaction with other individuals in a variety of roles. For example, one and the same person can be the governor of Texas, a member of the Republican Party, a father of a family, a golfer, etc. at the same time, performing different roles in different situations. Therefore, the social role, taken separately, is only a separate component of the integral P. of a person. The totality of such roles acts as a dynamic aspect of social status, i.e. the position occupied by the individual in the social structure of society. Society, through the normative system operating in it, imposes certain social roles on the individual, but their acceptance, fulfillment or rejection largely depend on his personal choice, on social position, and this contradictory interaction (the norms of society and personal orientations) always leaves an imprint on the real P. of a person.

Both Parson's theory of social action and role theory come close to the problem of normativity and non-normativity (anti-normativity) P.S. In both the first and the second cases, P. is considered mainly as normatively regulated on the basis of generally accepted norms of P. However, it is not uncommon for certain individuals in their P. to consciously or unconsciously deviate from the norms prescribed by society, ignore them, or deliberately violate them. Those types of P. that correspond to the norms generally accepted in society are usually characterized as "normal", those that diverge to some extent from them are called deviant (from the norms) or deviant P.. The latter is understood not only as an offense, but also any P. that violates the prevailing in this society rules and regulations. Deviation is extremely versatile. Its various manifestations include alcoholism, and drug addiction, and prostitution, and racketeering, and corruption, and forgery of banknotes, and treason, and murder, and suicide, and much, much more. Is it possible to assume that this entire vast and diverse area of ​​social P. has something in common? Yes, you can, they have in common that all these and many other forms of P. deviate from the norms accepted in society, violate these norms, or simply reject them. This is where their non-normativity or anti-normativity manifests itself.

So, deviant P. is determined by the correspondence or non-compliance of certain actions with social norms and expectations. However, the criteria for defining P. as deviant are ambiguous and often cause controversy and controversy. There is quite difficult problem regarding what is considered deviant P., and the boundary between the norm and deviation from it can be quite blurry, moving one way or the other, depending on the position of the one who evaluates this or that behavioral act. From the point of view of religion or morality, a deviant act is the personification of evil, from the point of view of medicine - a disease, and from the point of view of law - a violation of the law, lawlessness.

Both the norms themselves and the norms that deviate from them are not homogeneous, but differ significantly in their social significance. If moral norms, customs, traditions, rules of a hostel existing in society are violated, then these violations are called asocial P. (antisocial acts). These forms of P. are characterized by a small degree of social danger, which it is advisable to call social harm. If not only moral, but also legal norms are violated, then we are dealing with illegal P., which includes hooliganism, theft and other crimes.

Depending, firstly, on the degree of harm done to the interests of the individual, social group, society as a whole, and, secondly, on the type of norms violated, the following main types of deviant P.

1. Destructive P., causing harm only to the personality itself and not corresponding to generally accepted social and moral norms - hoarding, conformism, masochism, etc.

2. Asocial P., causing harm to the individual and social communities (family, company of friends, neighbors, etc.) and manifested in alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, etc.

3. Illegal P., which is a violation of both moral and legal norms and is expressed in robberies, murders and other crimes.

Developing the main provisions of the sociological theory of anomie, R. Merton emphasized that the main cause of deviant P. is the conflict between the cultural system, cultural goals dictated by society, on the one hand, and socially approved means of achieving them. In his opinion, modern American society on an enormous scale gives rise to such a contradiction among people of the most diverse social status between the aspirations instilled in them by the dominant culture and legally achievable aspirations that this leads to a sharp decrease in the effectiveness of the social norms and institutions that regulate the P. of people, and ultimately account - to the denial of the authority of the norms and to all sorts of deviations from them.

Since people are social beings, various types of collective P. have the greatest importance in their life. and etc.

K. Marx, in particular, emphasized that "one of natural conditions production (i.e., activities aimed at the production of objects necessary for life) for a living individual is his belonging to some naturally formed group: tribes, etc. His own productive existence is possible only under this condition. "Only in the collective P., he believed, is the language formed as a means of communication between people, the very individuality of each member of the collective is formed. Moreover, K. Marx argued, "only in the collective is the individual receives the means that enable him to fully develop his inclinations, and, consequently, personal freedom is possible only in a collective.

T. Parsons, attaching great importance to the individual P. of the personality, nevertheless emphasized that this P. consists not only of reactions to certain stimuli of the social situation, but also of the totality of a certain P. of other individuals included in the system of some collective organization. Therefore, "individuals perform societally important functions in the collective as its members." And from this it follows that "the functioning of the collective organization is connected primarily with real achievement goals in the interests of the social system". By embodying his interests and needs in individual P., the individual in the social system is included in the complex and multifaceted network of collective P. and "produces some services in a certain context of a collective organization. As a result of a long evolutionary process in modern societies, these services are institutionalized mainly in the form of a professional role within the specifics of a functioning team or bureaucratic organization.

Summarizing the many and varied sociological research collective P., G. Bloomer even considered it necessary to single out the study of this phenomenon in a separate section of sociology. Such a high status to this phenomenon, in his opinion, should be given because "the researcher of collective behavior seeks to understand the conditions for the emergence of a new social order, since its appearance is tantamount to the emergence of new forms of collective behavior."

From the point of view of this particular approach, “practically any group activity,” G. Bloomer argued, “can be thought of as collective behavior. Group activity means that individuals act together in a certain way, that there is a certain division of labor between them, and that there is a certain mutual adaptation of various lines of individual behavior. In this sense, group activity is a collective affair." Noting the extremely wide prevalence of various forms of collective P., he argues that when a sociologist studies customs, traditions, game traditions, mores, institutions and social organization, he deals with social rules and social determinants through which the collective P. is organized. Especially importance, according to G. Bloomer (and here he fully agrees with K. Marx), have social movements that should be considered as "collective enterprises aimed at establishing a new order of life." Describing the different types social movements, including religious, reformist, nationalist, revolutionary, he especially emphasizes that "when studying collective behavior, we touch on the process of building this or that social order." It is these features that determine the role various types collective P. in the formation of society, in the emergence of a new social system, therefore, more highly developed social systems.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Personality behavior- these are externally observable actions, actions of individuals, their certain sequence, one way or another affecting the interests of other people, their groups, the whole society. Human behavior gets social meaning, becomes personal when it is included in communication with other people. Any manifestation of human behavior is fundamentally social.

social behavior- an external manifestation of activity, in which a specific position of a person, his installation is revealed. This is a form of turning activity into real actions in relation to socially significant objects. The social attitudes (dispositions) that are formed as a result of the interaction of incentives and motives in specific environmental conditions act as mechanisms for self-regulation of the social behavior of an individual.

social attitude is a value attitude towards social object, psychologically expressed in readiness for a positive or negative reaction to it. According to the American sociologist J. Herbert, the social attitude includes everything that we like, our likes or dislikes towards ourselves and others. It arises from the ability to see the world and oneself as others see it, and as it is accepted in a given social community.

We constantly change our social attitudes depending on the attitudes of other people. But the question is, who are these others? Firstly, these are those who we like, to whom we feel sympathy. Secondly, these are those who are close to us, but a little higher than us in prestige. The power of influence on our attitudes is inversely proportional to social distance, which refers to the perception of the difference in social status by participants in social interaction.

Types of social behavior:

Mass social behavior is a way of life and actions of a large number of people, which has a significant impact on social life and the stability of society. The subjects of mass social behavior usually include the masses, the crowd, the public and individuals, as well as their microassociations (family, microgroups, circles of interpersonal communication).

Deviant behavior- this is a historically emerging social phenomenon, expressed in relatively widespread, massive forms of human activity that do not correspond to officially established and actually established norms.

The presence or absence of social order in it depends on the social behavior of the members of society.

social order is a system that includes individuals, the relationships between them, habits and customs that operate imperceptibly and contribute to the implementation of various types of activities necessary for the successful functioning of this system.

Fixing certain deviations from the social order in society, it should be noted that, on the whole, the social system is functioning: millions of people go to work, public transport works, etc. What makes it work social system? This is social control, i.e. a method of self-regulation of a system that ensures the orderly interaction of its constituent elements through normative (including legal) regulation.

social control is formal and informal. Organizations exercise formal control. For this, special bodies are created and rules are developed. For example, criminal law. At the level public organization These agencies include law enforcement.

informal control- this is a type of pressure characteristic of small groups, manifested in the forms of ostracism (psychological exile), criticism or ridicule, preventing deviant behavior. There are four main types of informal control: social rewards, punishment, persuasion and re-evaluation of norms. Social rewards are expressed in smiles, approving looks, as well as other manifestations of approval. Punishment is manifested in the form of a displeased look, a sharp critical statement, a threat of physical violence or physical impact. Persuasion is also one way to prevent deviant behavior. Finally, the reassessment of norms is more complex type informal social control, in which behavior that was considered deviant can be assessed as normal.