The history of homeland. Encyclopedic Dictionary.
M.: Publishing House: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1999. - 639s.
The encyclopedic dictionary `History of the Fatherland` is addressed to a wide range of readers - students, schoolchildren, specialists in various fields of knowledge. It includes a brief historical essay, reference articles on the main events, facts, phenomena and figures of Russian history, as well as applications containing various reference materials.
Format: doc/zip
The size: 1.3 Mb
/ Download file
Format: pdf/zip
The size: 5 MB
/ Download file
FROM THE PUBLISHING HOUSE
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland", published by the "Great Russian Encyclopedia" publishing house, is the first experience of a one-volume reference and encyclopedic publication covering all periods national history With ancient times to the present day.
The publication opens with a brief historical essay. The main body of the book is an alphabetical part, which includes several thousand reference articles about the main events, facts, phenomena of national history, state, political, military, public figures, as well as major historians. The appendices contain: a chronological table, materials for a recommendatory bibliography and a series of reference information on the administrative structure of Russia and the USSR, lists of state institutions and their heads, as well as hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. A special section of the appendices is made up of historical maps.
The dictionary is compiled on the basis of encyclopedic editions issued by the Scientific Publishing House "Great Russian Encyclopedia" (until 1991 - "Soviet Encyclopedia") and the publisher's database. When compiling the list of state institutions, as well as the list of administrative-territorial units, official publications of the Russian Federation and latest research domestic historians.
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland" is addressed to a wide range of readers.
CONTENT
From the publisher…………………………………………….....….3
Historical outline……………………………………………..5
Dictionary entries
A…………………………………………………………………….78
B………………………………………………………………….101
In…………………………………………………………………...128
G……………………………………………………………………154
D……………………………………………………………………171
E………………………………………………………………………189
F…………………………………………………………………...196
Z…………………………………………………………………….199
And……………………………………………………………………206
Y…………………………………………………………………...220
K……………………………………………………………………220
L……………………………………………………………………259
M…………………………………………………………………...272
H……………………………………………………………………300
About……………………………………………………………………314
P……………………………………………………………………328
R…………………………………………………………………….357
S…………………………………………………………………….381
T…………………………………………………………………….424
U…………………………………………………………………….440
F…………………………………………………………………….446
X ……………………………...................................... ......…………453
C…………………………………………………………………….459
H…………………………………………………………………….462
Sh……………………………………………………………………469
SC………………………………………………………………………477
E……………………………………………………………………..479
Yu…………………………………………………………………....481
I……………………………………………………………………..483
APPENDIX 1. Chronology……………………………………………589
APPENDIX 2. Grand Dukes. Tsars. Emperors…………………542
APPENDIX 3. Heads of the Russian Orthodox Church………………...547
APPENDIX 4. Higher and central state institutions in the XVI - XX centuries..555
APPENDIX 5. Table of ranks………………………………………..585
APPENDIX 6. Administrative-territorial division of the XVI - XX centuries587
APPENDIX 7. Russian alphabet………………………………………594
APPENDIX 8. Russian system of measures…………………………………..595
The history of homeland. Encyclopedic Dictionary.
M.: Publishing House: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1999. - 639s.
The encyclopedic dictionary `History of the Fatherland` is addressed to a wide range of readers - students, schoolchildren, specialists in various fields of knowledge. It includes a brief historical essay, reference articles on the main events, facts, phenomena and figures of Russian history, as well as applications containing various reference materials.
Format: doc/zip
The size: 1.3 Mb
/ Download file
Format: pdf/zip
The size: 5 MB
/ Download file
FROM THE PUBLISHING HOUSE
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland", published by the "Great Russian Encyclopedia" publishing house, is the first experience of a one-volume reference and encyclopedic publication covering all periods of Russian history from ancient times to the present day.
The publication opens with a brief historical essay. The main body of the book is an alphabetical part, which includes several thousand reference articles about the main events, facts, phenomena of national history, state, political, military, public figures, as well as major historians. The appendices contain: a chronological table, materials for a recommendatory bibliography and a series of reference information on the administrative structure of Russia and the USSR, lists of state institutions and their heads, as well as hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. A special section of the appendices is made up of historical maps.
The dictionary is compiled on the basis of encyclopedic editions issued by the Scientific Publishing House "Great Russian Encyclopedia" (until 1991 - "Soviet Encyclopedia") and the publisher's database. When compiling the list of state institutions, as well as the list of administrative-territorial units, official publications of the Russian Federation and the latest research by Russian historians were used.
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland" is addressed to a wide range of readers.
CONTENT
From the publisher…………………………………………….....….3
Historical outline……………………………………………..5
Dictionary entries
A…………………………………………………………………….78
B………………………………………………………………….101
In…………………………………………………………………...128
G……………………………………………………………………154
D……………………………………………………………………171
E………………………………………………………………………189
F…………………………………………………………………...196
Z…………………………………………………………………….199
And……………………………………………………………………206
Y…………………………………………………………………...220
K……………………………………………………………………220
L……………………………………………………………………259
M…………………………………………………………………...272
H……………………………………………………………………300
About……………………………………………………………………314
P……………………………………………………………………328
R…………………………………………………………………….357
S…………………………………………………………………….381
T…………………………………………………………………….424
U…………………………………………………………………….440
F…………………………………………………………………….446
X ……………………………...................................... ......…………453
C…………………………………………………………………….459
H…………………………………………………………………….462
Sh……………………………………………………………………469
SC………………………………………………………………………477
E……………………………………………………………………..479
Yu…………………………………………………………………....481
I……………………………………………………………………..483
APPENDIX 1. Chronology……………………………………………589
APPENDIX 2. Grand Dukes. Tsars. Emperors…………………542
APPENDIX 3. Heads of the Russian Orthodox Church………………...547
APPENDIX 4. Higher and central state institutions in the XVI - XX centuries..555
APPENDIX 5. Table of ranks………………………………………..585
APPENDIX 6. Administrative-territorial division of the XVI - XX centuries587
APPENDIX 7. Russian alphabet………………………………………594
APPENDIX 8. Russian system of measures…………………………………..595
How to read books in pdf formats, djvu - see section " Programs; archivers; formats pdf, djvu and etc. "
The meaning of the word HISTORICAL in the Encyclopedic Dictionary
HISTORICAL
Aya, oh. 1. see history. 2. Relating to the period from which material monuments of everyday life, letters, and culture have been preserved. historical era. 3. Existing in reality, not fictional. I. fact. Historical persons. 4. Significant, exceptionally important, gone down in history. historical decisions.
Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is HISTORICAL in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- HISTORICAL
HISTORICAL MUSEUM in Moscow, center. state museum. Main in 1872, opened in 1883. The largest repository of monuments of the Fatherland. history and... - HISTORICAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM (materialistic understanding of history), the philosophy of history and society developed by K. Marx and F. Engels based on the analysis of modern. them … - HISTORICAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
"HISTORICAL JOURNAL", monthly. scientific - popular magazine, 1937-45, Moscow. Since 1941, organ of the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Articles on the history of the USSR and ... - HISTORICAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
HISTORICAL GENRE, one of the main. genres of images lawsuit dedicated to the ist. events and figures. Main types of products I.zh.: paintings, murals, reliefs, ... - HISTORICAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
"HISTORICAL BULLETIN", monthly. magazine, 1880-1917, St. Petersburg. Articles, documents, materials on the fatherland. … - HISTORICAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
"HISTORICAL ARCHIVE", non-periodic. collection of materials on the history of Russia until 1917, 1936-54, Moscow, 10 issues. Scientific magazine on the history of the USSR In-ta ... - HISTORICAL in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, ... - HISTORICAL in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
important, all-historical, natural-historical, significant, historical, significant, general historical, epochal, ... - HISTORICAL in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
adj. 1) Related by value. with noun: history (1,2,4-6), associated with it. 2) a) Characteristic of history (1,2,4-6), characteristic of it. … - HISTORICAL in the Dictionary of the Russian language Lopatin.
- HISTORICAL full spelling dictionary Russian language.
- HISTORICAL in the Spelling Dictionary.
- HISTORICAL in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
existing in reality, not fictional I. fact. Historical persons. historical relating to the period from which material monuments of everyday life, letters, ... - HISTORICAL in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
historical, historical. 1. App. to history in all enach., except 7 and 8. Historical process. Historical science. historical data. Historical … - HISTORICAL in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
historical adj. 1) Related by value. with noun: history (1,2,4-6), associated with it. 2) a) Characteristic of history (1,2,4-6), characteristic of ... - HISTORICAL in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
adj. 1. ratio with noun. history 1., 2., 4., 5., 6. associated with it 2. Pertinent to history [history 1., 2., … - HISTORICAL in the Big Modern explanatory dictionary Russian language:
adj. 1. ratio with noun. history I 1., 2., 4., 5., 6., associated with it 2. Peculiar to history [ history ... - HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
materialism (materialistic understanding of history), the Marxist theory of the development of society and the methodology of its knowledge. The subject of I. m. is society as a holistic and ... - BENJAMIN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(Benjamin) Walter (1892-1940; committed suicide on the French-Spanish border, fleeing the Nazis) - German philosopher and cultural historian. His works … - UZBEK SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- USSR. FEUDAL ORDER in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
system In the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. among the peoples of the Northern Black Sea region, the Caucasus and Central Asia slave system was in… - USSR. SOCIAL SCIENCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Science Philosophy Being inalienable integral part world philosophy, the philosophical thought of the peoples of the USSR went through a large and complex historical path. In the spiritual...
THE HISTORY OF HOMELAND
FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO PRESENT
ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY
Compiled by:
B. Yu. Ivanov, V. M. Karev, E. I. Kuksina, A. S. Oreshnikov, O. V. Sukhareva
From the publisher…………………………………………………………….3
Historical outline………………………………………………………..5
Dictionary entries
A…………………………………………………………………….78
B…………………………………………………………………... 101 V…………………………………………………… ………………....128 G……………………………………………………………………154
D……………………………………………………………………171
E………………………………………………………………………189
F…………………………………………………………………...196 Z…………………………………………………… ………………….199
And……………………………………………………………………206
Y…………………………………………………………………....220 K………………………………………………… ……………………220
L……………………………………………………………………259
M…………………………………………………………………...272 N…………………………………………………… …………………300
About……………………………………………………………………314
P……………………………………………………………………328
R…………………………………………………………………….357
S…………………………………………………………………….381
T…………………………………………………………………….424
U…………………………………………………………………….440
F…………………………………………………………………….446
Х…………………………………………………………………….453
C…………………………………………………………………….459
H…………………………………………………………………….462
Sh……………………………………………………………………469
SC………………………………………………………………………477
E……………………………………………………………………..479 Yu…………………………………………………… ……………….....481 I……………………………………………………………………..483
APPENDIX 1. Chronology……………………………………………589
APPENDIX 2. Grand Dukes. Tsars. Emperors…………………542
APPENDIX 3. Heads of the Russian Orthodox Church………………...547 APPENDIX 4. Higher and central state
institutions in the XVI - XX centuries………………………………………...555
APPENDIX 5. Table of ranks………………………………………..585 APPENDIX 6. Administrative-territorial division
XVI - XX centuries………………………………………………………….587
APPENDIX 7. Russian alphabet………………………………………594
APPENDIX 8. Russian system of measures…………………………………..595 APPENDIX 9. Materials for recommendatory bibliography…....596
FROM THE PUBLISHING HOUSE
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland", published by the "Great Russian Encyclopedia" publishing house, is the first experience of a one-volume reference and encyclopedic publication covering all periods of Russian history from ancient times to the present day.
The publication opens with a brief historical essay. The main body of the book is an alphabetical part, which includes several thousand reference articles about the main events, facts, phenomena of national history, state, political, military, public figures, as well as major historians. The appendices contain: a chronological table, materials for a recommendatory bibliography and a series of reference information on the administrative structure of Russia and the USSR, lists of state institutions and their heads, as well as hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. A special section of the appendices is made up of historical maps.
The dictionary is compiled on the basis of encyclopedic editions issued by the Scientific Publishing House "Great Russian Encyclopedia" (until 1991 - "Soviet Encyclopedia") and the publisher's database. When compiling the list of state institutions, as well as the list of administrative-territorial units, official publications of the Russian Federation and the latest research by Russian historians were used.
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland" is addressed to a wide range of readers. Please send comments and suggestions about the dictionary to the publishing house "Bolshaya
Russian Encyclopedia".
Our address: 109544, Moscow, Pokrovsky Boulevard, 8, publishing house "Great Russian Encyclopedia", editorial office of the National History.
BASIC ABBREVIATIONS
Academy of Sciences - Academy of Sciences of AO - Autonomous Region
ASSR - Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic AX - Academy of Arts
Air Force - Air Force Airborne - Airborne Troops Navy - Naval Forces Navy - Navy
VRK - Military Revolutionary Committee of the Supreme Council of National Economy - Supreme Council National Economy, All-Russian Council of the National Economy
VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Cheka - All-Russian extraordinary commission GDR - German Democratic Republic GKO - National Defense Committee of the People's Republic of China - Chinese People's Republic MIA - Ministry of Internal Affairs
MSU - Moscow State University MFA - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the MPR - Mongolian People's Republic
NATO - North Atlantic Pact Organization United Nations - United Nations Air Defense - Air Defense
RSFSR - Russian Soviet Federative socialist republic SNK - Council people's commissars STO - Council of Labor and Defense
CMEA - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of Germany - federal Republic Germany CEC - Central Executive Committee Central Committee - Central Committee
In the articles of the alphabetical part, a system of links is used, which is usual for encyclopedic publications. The titles of articles to which references are given are in italics.
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
Primitive society
resettlement primitive man on the territory of the Russian Federation took place in the era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), characterized by the predominant use of stone for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Wood, bone and other materials were also used. The main occupations of small human groups were hunting and gathering. Traces of habitation ancient man, which came from Transcaucasia, were found in the North Caucasus and in the Kuban region. Sites of the Mousterian Paleolithic culture (100-35 thousand years ago) were discovered by archaeologists in the middle Volga region and other regions. Burial discoveries, according to scientists, testify to the development of religious beliefs. In the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-35 - 10 thousand years ago) people modern type(Cro-Magnons) lived in certain areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (the Urals, Pechora, West Siberian Lowland, Transbaikalia, the valley of the middle Lena). They own numerous archaeological sites (Avdeevskaya camp, Sungir, Kostenki, Malta, Buret, etc.). Collectives of blood relatives on the maternal or paternal lines (clan) lived in the conditions of the last (Valdai) glaciation. Adapting to the harsh natural conditions, they improved the technique of processing stone, bone, etc., mastered the construction of dwellings; introduced specialization in hunting and other crafts. During this period, hunting for large mammals prevailed: mammoths, cave bears, etc. The comprehension of the surrounding world was reflected in sculptures and cave paintings (Kapova Cave).
AT period of the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), people adapted to changing natural conditions associated with the retreat of the glacier and the formation of the modern relief, climate, flora and fauna. Small groups of hunters and fishermen moved into the areas freed from glaciation. With the invention of the bow and arrows in hunting, the prey of medium and small mammals acquired a large place, waterfowl; large areas of inland water bodies contributed to the development of fisheries. Researchers attribute the emergence of group burial grounds to this period (Oleneostrovsky burial ground, etc.).
At the last stage of the Stone Age (Neolithic), the formation of branches of the productive economy began: agriculture and cattle breeding. In the manufacture of stone tools, grinding and polishing, as well as sawing and drilling, were used. Pottery, spinning and weaving arose. For transportation, boats, skis, sledges were used. By the end of the Neolithic, individual copper items appeared. In the course of the complication of tribal society, associations of individual clans appeared - tribes. At the same time, groups of tribes led the same type of economy, which is confirmed by excavations and studies of pit-comb and other archaeological cultures of the Neolithic (Lyalovskaya, Balakhna, etc.).
AT During the Copper Age (Eneolithic), agriculture, cattle breeding and copper metallurgy developed initially in the southern regions of Eurasia. AT 4th-2nd millennium BC e. settlements of settled farmers and pastoralists existed in the North Caucasus; Ukraine, Moldova (Trypillian culture); steppes of the South of Russia (pit culture), etc.
Archaeological monuments of the Bronze Age have been discovered almost throughout Eurasia. By the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. include monuments of the Bronze Age in the Caucasus, in the Northern Black Sea region, etc. At the end of the 3rd -1st quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the technology of bronze smelting was mastered by the tribes of the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, Altai-Sayan region. Preserved mainly primitive communal form social organization. Scientists have established the existence of bronze age independent territorially isolated groups of the population with peculiar features of spiritual and material culture ( cultural groups, archaeological
cultures, cultural and historical communities). In the southern zone (Caucasus, Central Asia, partly South Siberia) agricultural and cattle-breeding complexes with developed handicraft production arose. In the steppe, forest-steppe, and partly in the forest zones, the cattle-breeding type of economy prevailed, with the auxiliary role of agriculture. In the forest (taiga) zone, cattle breeding was combined with hunting and fishing. There were long-term settlements where handicraft production developed. Early Bronze Age in Transcaucasia
and in the North-Eastern Caucasus there was a Kura-Araks agricultural and cattle-breeding culture. Relations were maintained with the civilizations of the Middle East. In the Late Bronze Age central regions Caucasus, the Koban culture spread. On the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe lived cattle-breeding tribes of the pit cultural and historical community, which arose back in the Copper Age. At the end of the 3rd - the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Upper
and The Middle Volga region and the interfluve of the Oka and Volga were inhabited by the carriers of the Fatyanovo and Balanovo cultures. In the forest-steppe zone of the Don region, the Middle Volga region and in the Southern Urals in the middle 2nd millennium BC e. the tribes of the Abashev cultural and historical community lived, which are characterized by a high level of development of metallurgy, based on the Ural and Volga copper deposits. In the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. on the territory from the Urals to the Left Bank of the Dnieper, cattle-breeding and agricultural tribes of the Srubnaya cultural and historical community were located. The Seima-Turbinsky cultural complex, which originated in the Sayano-Altai region, spread thousands of kilometers to the West. In Siberia, the Afanasiev culture in the upper reaches of the Yenisei and the Altai steppes belonged to the Eneolithic - the early stage of the Bronze Age, the Glazkov culture in the Baikal region and the Ymyyakhtakh culture in the basin of the middle Lena belonged to the early Bronze Age. The spread of metallurgy in Eastern Siberia associated with the influence of the Okunev culture, presumably formed in the Minusinsk Basin and forced out to the East by the tribes of the Andronovo cultural and historical community. The Andronov tribes occupied in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the territory from the Urals to the Yenisei and from the taiga zone to the northern regions of Central Asia (Alekseevsky settlement, etc.). The Karasuk culture (13-8 centuries BC) was discovered in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Ob, in the Sayano-Altai region. In the south of the Far East in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. there were Sinegai, Lido, Evoron and other cultures. In the Bronze Age, the process of social division of labor intensified, the exchange between tribes increased. The craft has become an independent sphere of production. The heads of large patriarchal families possessed considerable wealth; property differentiation intensified, clashes between tribes became more frequent. In the Bronze Age, alliances of tribes arose, described later ancient historians and geographers.
Ancient peoples and states in the early Iron Age
In the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread over a large territory of Russia (except for the northern and northeastern regions), in connection with which the decomposition of primitive communal relations accelerated. At the same time, in the North - in the taiga and tundra, in harsh natural conditions, the archaic primitive way of life was preserved. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th-6th centuries. BC e. under the influence of iron and blacksmithing in Transcaucasia. The transition to the production of iron is traced on the material of the Koban, Srubnaya, Abashev and other cultures. The formation of the Iron Age in the Black Sea steppes coincided with the presence of the Cimmerians there, and then the Scythians. Formed 2 economic structure: cattle-breeding-nomadic in the steppes and settled agricultural in the forest-steppes. The emergence of handicraft centers, which developed into urban ones, with a significant military potential, contributed to the emergence of a state among the Scythians. Scythian and Scythian-like cultures of the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. within the territory of South Eastern Europe constituted the western part of a large cultural and historical community formed in
mainly among the nomadic pastoral tribes of Eurasia (the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical community).
In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. on the north and east coast Black Sea, ancient cities arose, united in the 5th century. BC e. in the Bosporan state, which also included Sinds, Meots, and other tribes. Greek slave cities were centers of high ancient culture, they established close economic, political and cultural ties with the Scythians and other peoples. In the 4th c. BC e. began the movement from the Urals to the Volga region of the Sarmatian tribes. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians and in the 3rd c. BC e. settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus. In the steppe zone, by the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. became the dominant Sarmatian culture. Scythian state, which existed from the 2nd century. BC e. mainly on the territory of the Crimea and along the banks of the lower Dnieper, was influenced by ancient cities and Sarmatian culture.
Iron-making production developed in the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Dnieper basin. The population of the Zarubintsy culture (2nd century BC-2nd century AD) in the upper and middle parts of the Northern Dnieper and Desenye regions is correlated by some scientists with the tribes of the Balts, by others with the Proto-Slavs. In the forest area of Eastern Europe from the 8th c. BC e. by 6th-7th centuries n. e. there were cultures associated with different ethnic groups. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve, monuments of the Dyakovo culture were found, to the South and East from the middle reaches of the Oka and to the Volga (basins of the Tsna, Moksha, Sura rivers) the Gorodets culture spread. The carriers of these cultures were Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of Meri, Vesi, Meshchers, Muroms and Mordovians. Representatives of the Ananyino culture (8th-3rd centuries BC) occupied the left bank of the Middle Volga and the Kama region. They are considered the ancestors of the Udmurts and Komi. From 8-5 centuries. BC e. iron was being developed Far East. Here the centers of ferrous metallurgy were formed.
AT process of the great migration of peoples in Northern Black Sea region in 3 c. n. e. the Goths came, in 375 the Huns. ancient cities ceased to exist. In 2nd half of the 3rd c. in the steppe and forest-steppe from the left tributaries of the Dnieper to the Danube, the poly-ethnic Chernyakhov culture spread. Its carriers were Dacians, Getae, Sarmatian-Alans, late Scythians, Goths, Slavs. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. there was a decomposition of primitive communal relations among many agricultural and pastoral peoples living in Eastern Europe and Siberia. In 550-562, the union of nomadic tribes of the Avars moved from the Urals and the Volga region to the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 6th c. in Central Asia, a tribal union of the Turks created a state - the Turkic Khaganate, which played important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking population of Eurasia. In the 60s. 6th c. The Turks defeated the state of the Hephthalites in Central Asia. At the turn of the 6th-7th centuries. East Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates arose. In 638-926, in the southern Primorye, there was a state of the Mohe tribe and another - Bohai, which successfully fought against the emperors of Tang China. In the 2nd half of the 6th c. Turkic-speaking Bulgarian Balanjar tribes moved from the Trans-Urals to the North Caucasus. In the 1st third of the 7th c. in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, the state formation Great Bulgaria arose. In the middle of the 7th c. nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes Lower Volga, North Caucasus, Sea of Azov and the Don steppes were included in the Khazar Khaganate. The Finno-Ugric tribes of the Middle Volga region and immigrants from Great Bulgaria created in the 10th century. state - Volga-Kama Bulgaria. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. there was a process of formation of the state among the Alans in the North Caucasus.
East Slavs
Eastern Slavs were one of the three groups ancient Slavs, who stood out along with Western and southern Slavs from the common Slavic ethnolinguistic community. Common features of their ethnic appearance were formed in the 6th-9th centuries. on the territory of Eastern Europe as a result of the regrouping of Slavic tribal associations: Antes, Sklavins, Dulebs and
etc. The Eastern Slavs interacted with the Balts, Finno-Ugric peoples, descendants of the Sarmatians, Turks and contacted the Arabs, Byzantines, Scandinavians, etc. By the 9th-10th centuries. they occupied the space from Lake Peipsi and Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea in the South; from the Eastern Carpathians in the West to the lower Oka in the East. The Eastern Slavs were engaged along with slashing, field arable farming and settled cattle breeding, as well as hunting, fishing, beekeeping and other crafts. Crafts developed (iron production, blacksmithing, jewelry, pottery, etc.). Trade connections were supported on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks" and along the Volga. They lived mainly in territorial communities, the settlements were grouped in nests. In the 9th-10th centuries. cities appeared on the East Slavic lands: Kyiv, Ladoga, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Chernigov, etc. Tribal unions headed by local princes arose: glades, drevlyans, northerners, Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Ulich, Tivertsy, etc. Being pagans, the Eastern Slavs worshiped Perun - the god of thunder, Khors - the god of the sun, Volos - the patron of wealth and livestock, etc.
ancient Russian state. Ancient Russian principalities. Novgorod Republic
In the last quarter of the 9th c. two centers Eastern Slavs Novgorod and Kyiv were united by the princes of the Rurik dynasty, which marked the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state. Arab, Iranian and Central Asian geographers knew 3 political formations of Russia (9-10 centuries): Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years", in the 9th-10th centuries. there were reigns in the lands of the Drevlyans, Polochans, etc. The territorial core of the emerging statehood in the Middle Dnieper was the political, and then the state formation of the Russian Land (Rus). Archaeological excavations have established that in the middle of the ninth century. on the so-called. Rurik settlement (in the area of modern Novgorod) a princely residence arose in which the Scandinavians lived. According to scientists, the emergence of this center is associated with an annalistic report about the calling of the prince "from overseas" by the top of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. The local nobility concluded an agreement with the invited prince, according to which the collection of income from subject tribes was carried out by representatives of the local elites, and not by the prince's squad. This agreement formed the basis of the traditional relationship between the Novgorodians and the princes. Glades, northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi were in the 9th century. depending on the Khazar Khaganate. According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in Kyiv, liberated the glades from the Khazar dependence. In the 2nd half of the 9th c. rivalry between the "North" and "South" for dominance among the Eastern Slavs intensified. In 882, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, Prince Oleg with Rurik's young son Igor captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state, and then liberated the lands of the northerners and Radimichi from the Khazar tribute. The Old Russian state at that time was a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who took the title of Khakan, equalizing him with the rulers of Khazaria. The central government in Kyiv gradually liquidated the local East Slavic principalities. Constantinople campaigns 9-10 centuries. strengthened Russian-Byzantine relations and in general the international position of the state. Princess Olga, who had contacts with the Roman Church, however, around 957 adopted Christianity from Constantinople. Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich defeated in the 60s. 10th c. Khazar Khaganate, but could not gain a foothold on the Danube. In the Old Russian state, 3 socio-economic structures coexisted: primitive communal, slave-owning and emerging feudal. Princes and representatives of the senior squad (boyars) became landowners. Slaves served in private households, performed various functions in the princely domain, were used as artisans and joined in agriculture. In the presence of communal ownership of land, the foundations of state, church and private hereditary (princely, boyar, peasant, etc.)
land ownership, which had some regional and temporal features. A special type of feudal landownership arose - a fiefdom. Cities became major centers crafts and trade.
Vladimir I Svyatoslavich, who established himself in Kyiv in 980, tried to establish an all-Russian pagan pantheon, which included Perun, who was considered the patron of the prince and his squad, Khors, Simargl and other deities. Continuing the policy of state consolidation, Vladimir came to the conclusion that it was necessary to establish monotheism in Russia. The baptism of Russia in 988-89 through the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium predetermined for many centuries spiritual development Russia. The Russian Orthodox Church strengthened the authority of princely power. Vladimir managed to eliminate the former federal structure and annexed the southwestern and western lands. From the composition of the senior combatants, a circle of permanent advisers to the prince was formed, the prototype of the so-called. Boyar Duma. Even during his lifetime, Vladimir distributed the management of individual lands to his sons. During the civil strife that arose after the death of Vladimir (1015), on the orders of Svyatopolk I the Accursed, his half-brothers Boris and Gleb were killed. Yaroslav the Wise, who expelled Svyatopolk, reigned in Kyiv in 1019. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich (1036), who ruled the lands along the left bank of the Dnieper, Yaroslav became the sole head of state, which occupied a vast territory from Taman Peninsula to the Northern Dvina and from the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula to the upper reaches of the Volga and Don. The foreign policy relations of the princely house were sealed by marriage alliances with the rulers of Poland, France, Hungary, Scandinavian countries. Russia successfully fought against the claims of Byzantium to dominance in the Northern Black Sea region and the Dnieper region, as well as against the expansion of nomads: Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians. Yaroslav appointed the Russian priest Hilarion as metropolitan. Grand Duke Kyiv contributed to the development of book learning, invited builders, architects and painters. Spiritual and cultural centers became monasteries.
The tendency towards disunity of the Russian lands was revealed after the death of Yaroslav (1054). This was facilitated by the growth of economic independence of cities - the centers of the lands (Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, etc.). In 1073 Yaroslav's sons Svyatoslav and Vsevolod expelled their older brother Izyaslav from Kyiv. In the 2nd half of the 11th c. princely civil strife swept the Volyn, Galician, Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tmutarakan lands. intensified external danger from the Polovtsian, Polish, Hungarian and other rulers. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes in the city of Lyubech adopted a decision on the inheritance of the lands of their fathers and on the independence of their possessions. The Kyiv princes Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled 1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32) tried to strengthen the state, but in the 2nd quarter of the 12th century. it has entered the final phase of its development. At the end of 10-12 centuries. high level reached ancient Russian culture. Original and translated monuments of writing were created, which became a model for the subsequent development of Russian literature and books ("The Tale of Bygone Years" and others. chronicles, the lives of Saints Boris and Gleb, Theodosius of the Caves and others, the works of Metropolitan Hilarion, Abbot Daniel, Vladimir II Monomakh; Russian Truth). In the era of the Old Russian state, on the basis of the East Slavic and some other tribes, the Old Russian nationality developed.
Novgorod occupied a special place in the history of ancient and medieval Russia. In the 9th-11th centuries. the power of the Novgorod boyars was based on large state corporate land ownership. Veche institutions were formed. Relations with princes were regulated by a tradition dating back to an agreement with princes invited in the middle of the 9th century. At the same time, a hereditary reign did not develop in Novgorod. During the 11th century the will of the veche was repeatedly decisive in leaving this or that prince on the Novgorod table. Under Vladimir II Monomakh, the last attempt was made to keep the Novgorod boyars in obedience. In 1118 the boyars were summoned to Kyiv, sworn allegiance, some of them were accused of abuse and imprisoned. In 1136, the boyars and the merchant elite, taking advantage of popular discontent, expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod.
The supreme power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the veche, which elected the posadnik, the thousandth (previously appointed by the princes), archbishop (since 1156). Princes were invited to perform mainly military functions. Later, the boyars created their own body of power - the "council of gentlemen", a true government Novgorod Republic. In the 11th-15th centuries. Novgorod expanded its territory to the East and North-East. Obonezhie, the basin of the Northern Dvina, the banks of White Sea and other lands. Until the middle of the 13th century, legally until 1348, Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod landowners supplied furs, walrus tusk, hemp, wax and other goods to Western Europe. Cloths, metals, weapons, wines, jewelry were imported. Novgorod was not only a trade, but also a highly developed craft center. Novgorodian culture was distinguished by its bright originality. Known 900 birch bark letters, which testify to the high degree of literacy among Novgorodians.
AT 10th c. on a branch of the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" in the basin of the rivers Western Dvina, Berezina, Neman, the Polotsk principality arose. At the end of the 10th c. Vladimir Svyatoslavich killed the prince of Polotsk Rogvolod. Around 1021, under Vladimir's grandson Bryachislav Izyaslavich, the separation of Polotsk from Kyiv began. Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich (ruled in 1044-1101) during internecine war with Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich was captured by deceit and imprisoned in Kyiv. Liberated by the rebels of Kiev, in 1068-69 he ruled in Kyiv. In the 12th century in Polotsk, along with Polotsk, Minsk, Vitebsk, and other principalities arose.
Kiev principality in the 12th century. included about 80 urban centers and was the most important outpost that defended Southern Russia from nomads. Despite the weakening of the influence of the Kyiv princes on other principalities, Kyiv was still considered by the princes as main center Russia. The most important feature the struggle for the Kyiv table was a fierce rivalry between the two princely dynasties of the Monomakhs - the descendants of Vladimir II Monomakh
and Olgovichi - descendants of Oleg, son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. AT 1st half of the 13th c. in connection with the strengthening of the Galicia-Volyn principality, as well as the devastation of the Kyiv land by the troops of Batu Khan, Kyiv's influence on South Russia was lost.
AT Northeast Russia in the 11th-12th centuries. dominated by the Rostov-Suzdal principality. Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (reigned in 1125-57) waged a stubborn struggle with the South Russian princes for the Kyiv table. In 1157, in connection with the transfer of the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir was formed on the Klyazma. Grand Dukes Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod Big Nest rendered significant influence on the policy of Murom, Ryazan, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kyiv principalities and the Novgorod Republic. In the 60-80s. 12th c. A number of campaigns were made against the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The Grand Duke of Vladimir became the eldest in North-Eastern Russia. At the end of the 12th century the retinue organization in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other principalities of Northeastern Russia was replaced by the so-called. court (later Sovereign's court) with a staff of military servants, which marked the beginning of the formation of the nobility.
The Chernihiv principality and the entire Left Bank of the Dnieper separated from Kyiv under Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1024, but after his death (1036) it was returned by Yaroslav the Wise to the Old Russian state. In 1054, according to the will of Yaroslav, it was allocated to his son Svyatoslav. In the 12th-13th centuries. the descendants of Svyatoslav and his sons Davyd and Oleg (Olgovichi) - Vsevolod Olgovich, Izyaslav Davydovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny, Mikhail Vsevolodovich reigned in Kyiv. Since 1097, princely possessions arose as part of the Chernigov principality with centers in the cities of Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Rylsk, Kursk, and others. The principality ceased to exist during Mongol conquests in 1239.
The largest state in Southwestern Russia was Galicia-Volyn principality, formed in 1199 under Prince Roman Mstislavich as a result of the unification of the Galician and Vladimir-Volyn principalities. Roman and his son Daniel fought against the Galician boyars, who had great economic and political power. In the 12th-13th centuries. the commercial and political importance of the cities of Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Terebovlya grew,
Historical encyclopedias and dictionaries, scientific reference publications containing a systematic collection of information on history and related fields of knowledge. There are encyclopedias on world history as a whole, on individual historical periods, on the history of individual continents, countries and peoples, on various sections of history (history of culture, religion, etc.) or even dedicated to individual historical events. I. e. usually also contains biographical information about historical figures, historians (but there are also purely terminological reference books), maps, illustrations. Quite often I. e. include material and related historical science branches of knowledge (especially in geography, literature, philosophy, etc.). In addition to special I. e., significant material on history is usually contained in general (universal) encyclopedias (see Encyclopedia), biographical dictionaries, military encyclopedias and dictionaries, diplomatic dictionaries, etc. The first editions, approaching historical dictionaries, began to appear in the 16th-18th centuries; usually these were still undivided historical-philological and geographical reference books. These are, for example, "Historical and literary dictionary» French polymath 16th c. C. Etienne (Ch. Estienne, Dictionarium historicum ac poeticum, Lutetiae, 1553; later translated into French) or L. Moreri, Le Grand dictionnaire historique ou le Mélange curieux de ľhistoire sainte et profane, Lyon, 1674). In Russia in the 18th century the historian V.N. Tatishchev prepared the “Russian Lexicon of Historical, Geographical, Political and Civil” (parts 1-3, St. Petersburg, 1793, brought to the letter “K”). In 1790-98, the "Historical Dictionary" was published (in 14 parts; parts 1-3 were published in 1807-11 in the second edition), containing biographies of historical figures "of all times and peoples" (as well as articles on some mythological characters) - in mostly translations from French historical dictionaries with the addition of articles about Russian historical figures. In the 19th - early 20th centuries. in Russia, a large number of various biographical dictionaries were published (see Biographical Dictionaries). Of the dictionaries of a general historical nature, only the brief "School Historical Dictionary" by S. A. Kareeva (M., 1906; edited by N. I. Kareev) can be named. IN THE USSR Since 1961, the first Marxist encyclopedic publication of general historical content has been published - "Soviet historical encyclopedia» (SIE) ( Chief Editor E. M. Zhukov, vols. 1-13, M., 1961-71, the publication continues). The SIE provides information on the history of all the peoples of the world from ancient times to the present day. The history of the peoples of the USSR and other socialist countries, the history of the revolutionary and national liberation movement ( most attention given to history Soviet society and the post-October period of world history), the history of not only European countries, but also Asia, Africa, Latin America. A large place is occupied by problems of historiography (special articles and historiographic excursions). The SIE contains maps, illustrations, detailed chronological and other reference tables. Among the others historical reference books encyclopedic nature, published in the USSR - "Materials for the terminological dictionary of ancient Russia" G. E. Kochin (M.-L., 1937; contains a list of terms found in chronicles, acts and other written sources Ancient Russia with an indication of where exactly this term is found), a brief “Reference Dictionary on the History of the Middle Ages” by G. A. Maksimov (Tashkent, 1952; for distance learning), a small encyclopedia “The Great October Socialist Revolution” (1968). A large amount of material on history is contained in the Diplomatic Dictionary (vols. 1-2, 1948-50, 2nd ed., vols. 1-3, M., 1960-64). Of the foreign encyclopedias and dictionaries of general historical content, the most famous are: “A dictionary of dates, events, localities and historical figures... "d" Armonville (A. L. d'Harmonville, Dictionnaire des dates, des faits, des lieux et des hommes historiques ..., t. 1-2, P., 1842-43), covering the period from ancient times to 19th century (covered political history, history of culture, religion and church), "The Lexicon of World History" by K. Hermann (K. Hermann, Lexikon der allgemeinen Weitgeschichte..., Lpz., 1882), also devoted to world history from ancient times , but especially detailed coverage of the 16-19th centuries; "Public Dictionary of Dates" ("... Everyman "s dictionary of dates ...", 5 ed., rev. by A. Butler, L.-N. Y., 1967; 1st ed. 1911), covering (in the 5th edition) the period from ancient times to the 1960s; the dictionary contains mainly articles about individual events, concepts, geographical names; multivolume I. e., published in the USA [“The New Larned History for ready reference, reading and research...", v. 1-12, Springfield (Mass.), 1922-24; 1st ed., vol. 1-5, 1893-95]; "Dictionary of History" by E. Bayer ("Wörterbuch zur Geschichte", hrsg. von E. Bayer, 2 Aufl., Stuttg., 1965; 1st ed. 1960), which explains about 5.5 thousand concepts and terms related mainly to the history of European countries; materials about specific events, locations and individuals are not included. A large number of I. e. and dictionaries devoted to the history of individual historical periods. By history primitive society stands out a large German "Encyclopedic Dictionary of primitive history” (“Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte”, Bd 1-15, V., 1924-32), compiled with the participation of scientists various countries under the general editorship of the German archaeologist M. Ebert; contains materials on archeology, anthropology, paleoethnography, linguistics from ancient times to the early Middle Ages, richly illustrated. There are also a large number of special dictionaries on archeology. The most fundamental encyclopedic reference books on the history of antiquity: "The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" by Ch. Daranber and E. Salio ("Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines", sous la dir. de Ch. Daremberg et E. Saglio, t. 1-5 , P., 1877-1929), comprehensively revealing the history of Ancient Greece and Rome (the history of customs and institutions, economy, life, religion, science, art, naval affairs is covered), but not including biographical material; especially - the multi-volume "Encyclopedia of Classical Antiquity" by Pauli-Wissow - a fundamental reference book that touches on all aspects of antiquity, many articles were written by prominent scientists and contain an extensive bibliography. Among the shorter dictionaries on ancient history- “The Real Dictionary of Classical Antiquity” by F. R. Lyubker (Russian translation from German, St. Petersburg - M., 1888). Much less I. e. and dictionaries devoted to the history of the Middle Ages, modern and modern times. Among them: " Concise Dictionary medieval history» H. E. Wedeck (N. E. Wedeck, Concise dictionary of medieval history, N. Y., 1964), consisting of very short articles on the history of the Middle Ages from the 5th to the 15th centuries. inclusive; "Encyclopedia of Modern History" by W. Herbst ("Enzykiopädie der neueren Geschichte", begründet von W. Herbst, Bd 1-5, Gotha, 1880-90), covering the history of the 16th-19th centuries; "A dictionary of modern history" by A. W. Palmer (A. W. Palmer, "A dictionary of modern history. 1789-1945", L., 1962), devoted to the political (mainly) and socio-economic history of the period from 1789 to 1945; questions of the history of culture are also touched upon. Of the regional reference books on history, it is worth noting the cultural-historical encyclopedias and dictionaries dedicated to the early Middle Ages, for example, the dictionary of Slavic antiquities prepared by the Polish Academy of Sciences (“Słownik starożytności słowaińskich ...”, pod red. W. Kowalenski, t. 1-4, Wr ., 1961-1970; publication continues); a German dictionary of German antiquities (“Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde”, hrsg. von J. Hoops, Bd 1-4, Strassb., 1911-19; a new, revised and greatly expanded edition has been published since 1968). Of considerable interest is the multi-volume "Cultural and Historical Dictionary of the Northern Middle Ages", dedicated to the history and culture of the Scandinavian countries from the "Viking Age" to the Reformation period ("Kulturhistorisk Lexikon för nordisk middelalder", Bd 1-15-, Kbh., 1956-70- ; publication continues). Of the regional encyclopedias on the history of the countries of the East, the “Encyclopedia of Islam” stands out (“Encyclopédie de ďIslam”, v. 1-4, Leyde - P., 1913-1936; nouv. éd., v. 1-3-, Leyde - P. -, 1960-71-; publication continues; published in several languages), in the preparation of which scientists from different countries took part; it provides information not only on political history, but especially widely covers the ideology, culture of Muslim countries, as well as ethnography, geography, etc. The short Encyclopedia of Latin American history"(M. Martin, G. Lovett, "Encyclopedia of Latin-American history ...", Indianapolis - N. Y., 1968). Very common I. e. and dictionaries for national history, available in many countries and dedicated, respectively, to the history of a given country. Argentine Historical Dictionary, ed. R. Piccirilli ("Diccionario histórico argentine", publ. bajo la dir. de R. Piccirilli..., t. 1-6, V. Aires, 1953-54) covers the period up to the middle of the 20th century. "Dictionary of English history" S. Low and F. Pulling (S. Low, F. S. Pulling, "The dictionary of English history", new ed., L. - N. Y., 1928; 1st ed. 1884), "Dictionary of British history" J. Brandon (J. A. Brandon, "A dictionary of British history", L., 1937) and " New dictionary British History, ed. S. Steinberg ("Steinberg's Dictionary of British history", ed. by S. Steinberg and J. H. Evans, 2 ed., L., 1970; 1st ed., 1963) contain information on history from ancient times, they cover the history of England in the most detail; Brandon's dictionary lacks biographies and material on the history of culture. The Sachwörterbuch der Geschichte Deutschlands und der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, Bd 1-2, V., 1969-70, published in the GDR, covers the period from the end of the 18th century to the end of the 18th century. until the 60s. 20th century; published in Germany Biographical Dictionary on German History" by H. Rössler and G. Franz (N. Rössler, G. Franz, "Biographisches Wörterbuch zur deutschen Geschichte", Münch., 1952-53) and "Subject Dictionary of German History" by the same authors (N. Rössler , G. Franz, "Sachwörterbuch zur deutschen Geschichte", Münch., 1958) include materials not only on the history of Germany, but also on a number of other countries, have a reactionary-nationalist orientation. "Dictionary of the history of Spain ..." ("Diccionario de historia de Espana ...", 2 ed., t. 1-3, Madrid, 1968-69; 1st ed. 1952) is devoted to the history of Spain from ancient times to 1968 and the history of the Spanish colonies in America. Italian "Dictionary of the Risorgimento ...", ed. M. Rosi ("Dizionario del Risorgimento nazionale... Fatti e persone". Dir. M. Rosi, v. 1-4, Mil., 1930-37) contains articles on the history of Italy from the 18th century. to 1870 (in the 1st volume, individual events are considered, in the 2-4th volumes - biographies of the leaders of the Risorgimento). "Dictionary of the history of Poland" ed. T. Lepkowski (“Słownik historii Polski”, red. T. Łepkowski, 5 wyd., Warsz., 1969; 1st ed. 1959) includes about 2.5 thousand articles that cover the history of Poland from ancient times to 1960s The Illustrated Dictionary of Portuguese History (Dicionário de história de Portugal (Ilustrado) Dir. por J. Serrao, v. I-4, Lisboa, 1961-70) covers the history of Portugal from ancient times to the middle of the 20th century. Dictionary of American History, ed. J. Adams (“Dictionary of American history”, ed. by J. T. Adams, v. 1-6, N. Y., 1940-61) is devoted to the political, socio-economic history and cultural history of the United States since the Middle Ages (travels of Scandinavians to America are considered) before 1930s, biographies not included; the 6th (additional) volume covers the history of the United States from 1940 to 1960. The 16-volume "The United States encyclopedia of history", v. 1-16, Phil.-N. Y., 1967-68) covers the period from the discovery of America by Columbus to the middle of the 20th century, designed for the general reader, richly illustrated. "Historical Dictionary of France" L. Lalanne (L. Lalanne, "Dictionnaire historique de la France", 2 ed., P., 1877; 1st ed. 1872) contains detailed information on various issues the history of France from ancient times to the 1870s, including historical geography and genealogy; a number of dictionaries are dedicated to the Great french revolution(E. Boursin, Aug. Challamel, "Dictionnaire de la Révolution française. Institutions, hommes et faits", P., 1893; "Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la Révolution et de ľEmpire, 1789-1815", rédigé... par J. F. E. Robinet, vols. 1-2, P., ). Swiss Historical and Biographical Dictionary (Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la Suisse, publ. ...sous la dir. de M. Godet, H. Türler et V. Attinger, v. 1-7, Neuchâtel, 1921- 33; there is a parallel edition in German) contains over 22 thousand articles on the history of Switzerland from ancient times to the 1930s, many illustrations. Lit.: Kaufman I. M. Dictionaries and encyclopedias. Bibliographic index, c. 1 - Pre-revolutionary editions, M., 1937; Zischka G., Index Lexicorum. Bibliographie der lexikalischen Nachschlagewerke, W., 1959; Hepworth Ph., How to find out in history, Oxf. - , 1966. A. I. Drobinsky, I. I. Frolova.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what "Historical encyclopedias" are in other dictionaries:
one . in Russia and the USSR. E.'s predecessors and with. in Russia there were handwritten collections of general content, as well as lists (registers) of foreign words, attached to the manuscripts of church books. Already the earliest monuments of other Rus. writing Izborniki ... ...
This article discusses the migration of the Armenian population of historical Armenia, which took place in the XI-XX centuries. under the influence of various military-political and economic factors. Contents 1 The displacement of the Armenian population from the territory ... ... Wikipedia
- ... Wikipedia
The first barracks in Moscow appeared at the end of the 18th century. Prior to this, the soldiers were housed in separate settlements or in the houses of the townspeople. Many barracks buildings that have survived to this day are architectural monuments. The list includes the barracks of Moscow ... Wikipedia
Hope Diamond at the Museum natural history. The greatest diamonds of the world. Illustration from the Nordisk familjebok encyclopedia Contents ... Wikipedia
And dictionaries, reference books containing a systematic set of literary knowledge and information from the world of fiction: biobibliographic essays on writers, history of literatures and trends, content indexes ... ...
See Art. Encyclopedias and dictionaries ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
- (from the Greek enkýklios paidéia training in the entire range of knowledge) a scientific or scientifically popular reference publication containing the most essential information on all (universal E.) or individual (industry E.) areas of knowledge or ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- (from the Greek historía a story about past events, a story about what is known, explored) 1) Any process of development in nature and society. In this sense, we can talk about I. of the universe, I. of the Earth, I. of individual sciences of physics, ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
