Control- a special kind of human activity carried out within the framework of collective labor.

Any joint work requires management. This means that management is an indispensable element of any collective activity of people, not only in the sphere of production, but also in the non-productive sphere, covering education, training of specialists in science, health, culture, etc.

Management synthesizes in itself the organization of people's activities and the management of this activity, which means that the whole complex of sciences that study man and his activities acquires a very significant role.

Since management includes, as an essential component, the management of people's activities, its improvement involves reliance on knowledge about a person, about the patterns of his activity and behavior, about opportunities and abilities, psychological differences between people, about their interaction in labor collectives.

In connection with the increasing role of human factors in various spheres of society, the problem of man becomes one of the central ones in the entire system of modern science. In its development special role belongs to the psychology of management; studying a person as a subject of labor, cognition and communication, it inevitably becomes a link between the social, natural and technical sciences.

One of the important reserves for increasing the efficiency of any labor is human factors, i.e. factors determined by the physiological, psychological and socio-psychological properties of a person - the main productive force of society.

In expedient activity, as a rule, reserves associated with human factors are formed and implemented.

In the course of this activity, the needs and abilities of a person, his creative potential and professional skills develop, value orientations and social settings.

An essential point in improving managerial activity is its psychological analysis: identifying the requirements for perception and attention, memory and thinking, emotions and will (i.e. the so-called “mental sphere”) of a person due to this activity and determining the most effective ways to form significant qualities.

In the process of joint labor activity people form a system of interpersonal relationships (psychological in nature): likes, dislikes, personal friendship, etc.

A system of mutual requirements, a general mood, general style work, intellectual, moral and volitional unity, in other words, in conditions joint activities develops what is usually called "psychological climate".

Due to the fact that large interconnected teams of people participate in management processes, for the science of management the problem of the team appears in two aspects. On the one hand, the labor collective is the object of management. Therefore, the patterns of formation and development of the team, its structure and dynamics need to be known in order to find the most adequate means of influencing it in each specific case. On the other hand, management activity itself in the conditions of modern production is also collective, i.e. the team also acts as a subject of management.

An important task of management psychology is a deep study of the structure and mechanisms of management activity.

Structural management activities include: analysis and evaluation of management objects, problem situations, management decision-making, organization and implementation of the decision. AT overall structure management activities, the role of "goal-setting", motivational-attitudinal, emotional-volitional and other personal factors is great.

The central link of managerial activity is the solution of managerial tasks. Management decisions in general are characterized by the following features:

• a complex ratio of a strategic, fairly stable solution with variable private solutions associated with changes in the operational environment
• hierarchical decision-making procedure with a certain degree of autonomy at each level
• conflict, but, of course, non-antagonistic nature of the process of preparing a decision, reflecting the "struggle" of motives, alternatives, a combination of collective development and sole decision-making with a high level of responsibility, etc.

An important problem in the psychology of leadership is the analysis of the leader's personality.

Obviously, a serious problem is the identification of professionally important qualities of a leader and the corresponding criteria.

There are three levels of personality structure:

• psychophysiological, including mainly primary cognitive, informational processes with their parameters
• actually psychological, including features of temperament and character of a person, his intellectual sphere, emotional-volitional sphere, specific personal properties– professional, organizational, psychological and pedagogical
• higher social level, including the worldview, political and moral qualities of the leader

It is important for a leader to have an analytical-synthetic type of perception, the ability to observe facts and explain them without prejudice; sustained attention combined with the ability to switch attention from one problem to another, developed, especially operational, memory for events, facts, faces, names. One of essential qualities is deep practical thinking. The practical mind of a leader should be characterized by: speed, decisiveness, the ability to foresee and find new solutions. In the intense activity of the leader, especially in unusual situations, the role of emotional-volitional reserves is great.

The work of a leader is compared with the work of a conductor, who must know who, where and what kind of violin, where, how and what instrument he studied, where, who and why is out of tune, whom, how and where it is necessary to translate to correct dissonance, etc.

The main reasons that form the psychological climate are: the personality of the leader, the competence of the performers and their compatibility in the performance of team work. When these conditions are violated, conflicts arise. The causes of conflicts were experimentally established: in 45% of cases - due to the fault of the manager, in 33% - due to the psychological incompatibility of employees, in 15% - due to improper selection of personnel.

To provide normal operation it is important to create a good mood Goodwill, sensitivity, tact, mutual courtesy - stimulants of good mood. On the contrary, hostility, rudeness, infringement of the pride of subordinates - all this causes damage nervous system and reduces the efficiency of the team.

By management process, we mean purposeful information exchange between the subject (leader) and the object (team) in order to transfer it from one state to another or maintain the control object in a given state when exposed to various disturbances (both internal and external) by the subject's influence on the variable parameters of the control object.

Management process is a complex activity. And in this regard, it seems relevant to consider the mental mechanisms underlying it.

The scheme of the control system can be described as follows. There is some control object. A person sets a task (or other people set a task for him) to transfer the object from state a1 to state a2 (or, on the contrary, to keep the object in the state, overcoming external perturbations). Based on the information at his disposal (including professional experience), a certain image of the specified (future) state of the object (state a2) is formed in a person. Perceiving information, a person evaluates the current state of the object (state a1), analyzes various ways of performing a task, makes a decision and performs a control action (or a system of actions), transferring the control object from state a1 to state a2. Information about the changed state comes to the person, and he evaluates whether the problem is solved by comparing the current state a1 with the given a2, and, depending on the result, performs new control actions: the control cycle is repeated.

Management actions are of interest to us as an information process. At the input of this process is information about the current state of the object, at the output is the expedient transforming effect of the subject of action on the object. The control process does not begin with the fact that the object is in some current state, but with the fact that the subject begins, in order to achieve the goal, to receive information about the state of the object to be changed. Similarly, the action ends not with the fact that the object is transformed, but with the fact that the subject receives information about the result of the transforming effect he has exerted on the object.

What is the relationship between the "input" and "output" of the action, how is the transition from input information to output action carried out? Obviously, the input information by itself could not cause an output action. It was the subject that transformed one into the other, and the action itself consisted in this transformation.

The most important feature of the control process carried out by a person is the fact that the process of converting input information about an object into a meaningful impact on the object occurs in the form mental reflection. The result of mental reflection of highly controlled systems is an image. It is the psychic reflection, the ideal images, that are the sought-for "intermediate variable" that makes the connection between outward behavior a person and the flow of information coming to him from environmental objects.

From a psychological point of view, the question of an “intermediate variable” is easily solved when the control process is understood as a process of expedient transformation of an object based on the information available to the subject and information coming to him from the object through the feedback channel. With this understanding, the psyche, a subjective image, organically fits into the information cycle taking place in the process of management, as a central processing link.

Processing of information characterizing the management process with psychological side, is carried out, according to our idea, in the processes of confrontation of various types of images. Some of the images act as a material processed in the management process, others - as a means of processing this material. In this sense, it is convenient to call the former correlative (current), the latter - correlative (reference). Corresponding images directly reflect the current state of the object. Correlating images act as a more or less stable information reserve organized specifically for the purposes of this type of management. Corresponding information flow, on the one hand, correlating information backlog, on the other. These are the two information flows, the active interaction of which ensures this management process.

To solve the problems of management psychology, one should begin with understanding the ideas about the object and subject of management psychology. The object of management psychology is an organization, which is considered as a specialized social institution designed to fulfill certain socially significant goals and endow in this regard with labor, technical and energy resources, as well as rights and obligations that determine the functions of the organization and its place in society and organizational structures.

The organization acts as the main formation, within which the role of management in regulating the joint activities of people is most clearly revealed. The structure of the organization, its place in the management system, its functional originality leaves a certain imprint on the activities of both the individual and the team, which are an integral part of the organization's resources.

The subject of management psychology is the diverse activities of the individual and the team, aimed at realizing the goals of the organization. In accordance with externally set labor goals, the main type of activity in the organization is functional activity, i.e. actual professional work.

The subject of management psychology is not only professional activity, but a system of activities that is collectively aimed at fulfilling the goals of the organization, and a person as an actor appears in relations of interaction with various structural and functional parts of the organization, designed to fulfill its labor and social goals.

This approach to the activities of the individual and the team in the structure of the organization is extremely important, as it makes it possible to assess the impact of factors of various origins on the effectiveness of the organization.

Activity can be considered as the leading form of social activity of the individual, a kind of subjective activity. The personality does not simply “play” the social role prepared for it, does not dispassionately implement an objectively given activity, but, as it were, modulates the latter, gives it its own “personal profile”, modifies it so much that two people implementing the activity of the same name cannot work in exactly the same way, no matter how hard they strive for it. It is here that the psychological problems of activity are revealed, which differ from the cybernetic, sociological, and any other approach.

Psychological science studies the organization as a system of activities from a specific point of view, figuratively speaking, as an integral living organism with its inherent emotions and feelings, intellect and will.

Such an approach to the question of the object and subject of management psychology allows us to formulate a number of promising areas designed to create scientific and psychological support for tasks, among which special attention is paid to improving organizational structures and management methods.

Management psychology, on the one hand, should direct its efforts to the study of organizational factors that activate the professional activities of people, and, on the other hand, explore those aspects of the "human factor" that have a significant impact on the functioning of the organization as a certain social institution.

In the variety of activities that form the organization as complete system It is possible to identify the elements of the system and the connections between them. Individual activities act as elements, and the role of connections as structural components systems play the ways of their conjugation, i.e. specific socio-psychological conditions in which workers interact, performing related tasks.

Individual activities as elements of the organization according to the legal status of the individual are divided into leading and performing. The study of leadership activity in the psychology of management is a central direction.

Social practice is in dire need of evidence-based recommendations for improving the work of a manager, depending on the level in the management system, the individual qualities of the individual, the socio-psychological characteristics of the work team, the nature and content of the social functions of the organization, etc.

Studies of performing activity are no less relevant. Here, it seems promising to study the regularities social regulation behavior of people, effective forms and methods of influencing the consciousness and behavior of a person, ensuring the initiative and conscientious fulfillment of the tasks facing the organization.

In management psychology, in contrast to general psychology and labor psychology, activity is studied primarily as a socio-psychological category. An organization as a system of activities functions effectively only if a clear coordination of the efforts of interacting employees is sufficiently reliably ensured. The way in which individual activities are “linked” with each other ultimately determines what the total effect of joint labor will turn out to be. It is important to direct research towards uncovering patterns of activity coordination.

Typical functions of managerial activity are the functions of information processing and decision making. This activity includes a number of peculiar moments peculiar only to management. The most characteristic point is that the activity of processing information and making decisions is carried out in the organization as an activity included in the functional communication between members of the organization. It refers to a kind of communication subordinated to the goals of professional activity performed by subjects in conditions of interdependence.

In management activities, functional communication serves to transfer information from one member of the organization to another. This information is the starting point of information processing and decision-making activities.

However, this does not exhaust the role of functional communication. Like any communication, it involves the interaction of participants and their mutual influence. In turn, mutual influence makes information flows mutually directed. This side of managerial activity is of the greatest interest for psychology. The problem is that in order to optimally organize functional communication, it is necessary to establish psychological patterns that determine the impact of functional communication on information processing and decision making in the organization. The processing of information in the organization is carried out according to the hierarchical levels of the organization. At each level, there is a selection and transformation of information in accordance with the functions given level and following him.

Thus, information is simultaneously relayed and processed. If the information follows from the lower hierarchical levels, then its transformation goes in the direction of data integration, when following from higher to lower levels, the transformation is carried out in the direction of data differentiation. In this situation, the question of the level of integration and differentiation of management information, including information generated again as a solution, becomes relevant.

All this indicates the seriousness and significance of the problem of representation in the organization of information.

The subjective moment is of great importance in the functioning of the organization. The influence of the subjective factor is manifested in all aspects and conditions of the organization's activities that are associated with a person as a subject and object of management.

Until recently, management style has been studied mainly in terms of relations that develop in the leader-subordinate system. At the same time, it should be noted that the influence of style in the supervisor-subordinate system was considered in statics, i.e. as a non-developing system. The problems of style in the leader-team system have not been studied enough. Meanwhile, the problem of growing under the influence of the management style of relations, predominantly functional, into collectivist relations, in other words, the problem of enriching functional relations with relations characteristic of a developed team, is of great interest. The management style plays an important role here, since it forms a certain way of life of the organization and thereby contributes to the development of interests and needs that are characteristic of a developed team.

So far, the importance of those problems in the study of management style, which are mainly associated with the implementation of the personal qualities of a manager, those that inevitably bring originality to the performance of necessary functions, has been emphasized. However, there must be another side to the study of style. Usually, the system of relations of the head to the function of the organization, to the members of the organization is fixed in the form of an image of a certain behavior. This image is formed on the basis of the model of the leader, which is set by the socio-economic system, and on the basis of experience gained from observing the real types of behavior of the leaders of the organization. The image of the manager's behavior that has developed in the organization requires a certain adaptation of his individual, personal qualities to this image, including when it comes to their manifestation in the management system. This approach to management style allows us to formulate another problem of management psychology, which can be called the problem of the personality of an authoritative leader. In the study of the image of the leader's activity, one should rely on two criteria related to the performance of the two main functions of the organization: production efficiency and social efficiency. This approach allows, in our opinion, to overcome the subjectivity in the assessment of the leader through various kinds of expert assessments. Often in this respect there are errors arising not from the assessment of activity, but from the assessment of behavior. Undoubtedly, the behavior of the leader is a very important means of achieving the goals of managerial activity, but mixing them in assessing the effectiveness of the leader leads to the fact that the compiled quality models conflict with reality.

At the same time, it cannot be denied that the leader's behavior affects the formation of interpersonal relations in the team, its socio-psychological climate in general, and the rate of approval of the leader in the organization as an authority. Studies indicate that the discrepancy between the leader's behavior and role expectations often comes from ignorance of how a particular behavioral act is reflected in the minds and activities of people, from ignorance of the basics of psychologically expedient behavior, which should have a stimulating effect on both relationships and activities. members of the organization. In this regard, the problem of the content of the psychological education of managers becomes practically important.

The most important for a manager is psychological knowledge, designed to provide comprehensive self-knowledge and development of the manager's personality in order to improve his professional competence, knowledge of the psychological patterns that affect the activities of the team and the individual, and, finally, knowledge of the methods for managing these patterns, which should be used in everyday work with staff.

An important aspect of the management style is the stimulation of labor by the manager.

A fair management style is one that combines material and moral incentives in a dynamic balance. Skillful handling of material and moral incentives creates the necessary prerequisites for a comprehensive impact on labor activity. At present, there is a need to solve the problem of more accurate hitting of stimuli on the target through their psychologization. In this case, the psychologization of incentives is understood as their correspondence to the interests, needs, orientations of a particular team, an individual. At the same time, psychologization is necessary in relation to both material and moral incentives.

When implementing control, it is necessary to strive for its optimization, and for this, the requirements of optimal control must be met.

The first requirement is that the control mechanism must correspond to the capabilities of the subject and the complexity of the object; the second is the presence of well-developed feedback; the third is the availability of reserves that provide the possibility of correcting all management functions in order to achieve them optimal implementation in the course of the activity itself; the fourth is the correct choice of evaluation criteria. Optimality criteria are always criteria for the final result, they are always associated with goals; fifth - taking into account the characteristics of specific people.

When exercising management, it is necessary to search for contradictions, which is part of analytical activities the head of the organization, and the work to resolve them is part of the optimization. Resolving contradictions, the leader identifies points of development of the managed system.

Even the very formulation of the principles of management organization is built on contradictions: centralization and decentralization, unity of command and collegiality, rights and obligations in management. From the interaction of two conflicting parties, the optimal practice of managing an organization is born.

It is possible to optimize management in an organization under any, even the most unfavorable conditions. Of course, the optimum level under these conditions will not be high, but it will be the maximum possible.

At the methodological level, the optimization approach is characterized by three principles: consistency, specificity and measure. Consistency provides for the development in the work of the head of all managerial functions, their interaction and interconnection. The principle of concreteness should encourage the leader to look for management options that are optimal for himself, his organization, its traditions, and the characteristics of the team, and not strive to manage the organization on the principle of “like everyone else, so am I.” The philosophical category "measure" allows only such quantitative changes in control characteristics that do not lead to a new (worse) quality, in which the optimality is lost.

The "specific conditions" include: social situation in the country, the nature of the region where the organization is located, the traditions of the people, the characteristics of the microenvironment, etc.

It is wrong to equate the terms “ideal” and “optimal” regardless of the context. The first term implies the achievement of the highest results in general, corresponding to the ultimate goal theoretically. possible development, the second - does not mean the best in general, but the maximum possible in today's conditions of a particular organization, a particular leader, in a certain period of time.

The selected criteria should serve the most important indicator achieving goals. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that big number criteria causes insurmountable difficulties in using them; therefore, one should strive to reduce the number of criteria by convolving them down to one.

Managerial resonance occurs only when the sawing of the problem for all participants in the controlled process is close or hits. Thus, it is precisely in managerial resonance that the mechanism of democratization is hidden as a way to optimize management.

By themselves, management methods cannot be optimal and non-optimal outside of specific conditions.

Preparing an organization plan is, in essence, accepting the most important management decision. The plan should reflect the entire managed and managing system of the organization; image, model of the organization itself, and, of course, every leader should strive to ensure that the plan is as optimal as possible, i.e. would allow to recreate the image of the organization with the smallest number omissions and as soon as possible.

Management, ignoring or weakly taking into account the personal principle, the human factor is the opposite of the optimization of restructuring, which should be based on humanistic idea turning all spheres of society's life, including management, face to face with a person with his real problems.

Managerial thinking of the head of the organization acts as intellectual basis his managerial activity and is a set of mental processes (attention, perception, memory, imagination, abstract thinking) both conscious and intuitive, which provide the perception of significant information and its processing into managerial decisions and actions.

In connection with the intensification of managerial activity, the introduction of automated control systems (ACS), the problem of selection and placement of managers is sharply increasing. We are talking about the psychological selection of persons who are able to ensure the greatest efficiency in the performance of tasks characteristic of this type of activity; To some extent, not only specialists, but also managers of all ranks should be proficient in selection methods when evaluating their subordinates, promoting them to a higher position, and when hiring new employees.

There is an urgent need special training managers, teaching them the principles of management, taking into account all modern psychological aspects of managerial activity.

As you can see, the resolution of the series challenges in the field of management psychology will allow from a scientific standpoint to approach the improvement of the organization and management process.

Management psychology is a field psychological science, which studies the psychological patterns in managerial work. This is the structure, features and specificity, ways of using psychological aspects to solve a variety of managerial tasks. The leader every day faces a variety of cases, tasks, problems. It is not difficult to get entangled in this whirlpool, and, as you know, difficulties often await at the most inopportune moment, and one must constantly be ready to resolve them.

It is noteworthy that there is absolutely no system in the occurrence and unforeseen circumstances, however, if you set a goal, you can develop an algorithm of actions for the case when something goes wrong. Indirectly, this includes drawing up a work plan, keeping all current affairs in order, so that in an undesirable situation there are no hitches that could be foreseen and prevented.

The complexity of the manager's work, by and large, lies in the fact that he constantly needs to streamline and systematize the moments and actions that are necessary for the successful operation of the company. The manager understands that every day he has to make many decisions, and they must turn out to be correct. Psychologically it is very difficult.

Managerial psychology teaches to master one's activity, to realize oneself as a part of it. The activity of each person consists of small components, and they need to be known perfectly, including their psychological structure. A leader who is well acquainted with the main components of the psychological has a number of advantages. For example, he sees the main thing that needs to be done to achieve a particular goal. He also knows how close the target is and how much time is left before it is reached. An experienced manager can correct the course of solving the problem and get the desired result in the most beneficial way for himself and the company.

Psychology involves the following components:

• Intelligible setting of clear goals, ideally - in front of all employees. Each employee must clearly understand what specific contribution he must make in order to achieve the common goal.
• Motivation is something without which ordinary employees will not make efforts to solve any problem. The fact is that usually any company is the business of the leader, his ambitions, and for most employees - a way to earn money.
• Delegation of authority - the transfer of control over the progress of the task in each unit.
• Reflection.

Managerial psychology teaches to create conditions for the subordination of the main components of the manager's activity. Such conditions can be expressed in terms of manager skill requirements.

Control is perhaps the main point that requires management psychology. Moreover, it is necessary to control both the work of all employees, and own activities.

Goal setting is an understanding of the psychological weight of goals, the ability to clearly formulate and correctly convey upcoming goals to employees, the ability to effectively plan one's activities and implement this useful skill in the enterprise.

Motivation - ideally, you need to know the nature and characteristics of your subordinates, be aware of their lives in order to determine what is interesting to everyone and what can captivate a group of workers.

Setting the task - you need to know what is needed for fruitful work, what may be needed in the future and how much the previously completed tasks helped. It is also necessary to determine the stages of work and their time frame, to know how the goal being achieved is consistent with other possible ones, how it will fit into the work of the company.

Delegation involves the transfer of part of the authority to local leaders, but not all authority can be entrusted to others.

Thus, the activity of a leader requires a broad base of knowledge and skills and their continuous improvement.

1. The concept of management psychology and the content of its main directions

management psychology is a branch of psychological science that combines the achievements of various sciences in the field of studying the psychological aspects of the management process and is aimed at optimizing this process. When defining the psychology of management as a science, social management is most often implied. Management as social management represents special case management, the essence of which is to guide people to implement the plans of the organization. An organization is a form of association of people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal and streamline joint actions. The subject of management is the person (organization) from whom control actions come, the object of management is the person (organization) to whom these actions are directed. A system is understood as an objective unity of interconnected elements (objects, phenomena, knowledge) combined into a single whole to achieve a specific goal. Thus, social management is continuous process the impact of the leader (subject of management) on an organized group of people or someone from this group (object of management) to coordinate their joint activities to achieve its best results.

Psychological patterns of management activity

As you know, management is carried out through the interaction of people, so the leader in his activities must take into account the laws that determine the dynamics of mental processes, interpersonal relationships, group behavior. The main regularities include:.5. The law of self-preservation. Its meaning lies in the fact that the leading motive for the behavior of the subject of management activity is the preservation of his personal social status, personal viability, self-esteem. The nature and orientation of behavior patterns in the management process are directly related to taking into account or ignoring this circumstance.6. The Law of Compensation. With a high level of incentives for this work or high environmental requirements for a person, the lack of any abilities for successful specific activity offset by other abilities or skills. For example, with underdeveloped memory, you can use notebooks, dictaphones, weeklies.

The concept of personality and its structure

Personality is the main link in the humanities, including psychological sciences. In the psychology of management, the need to take into account the personal (human) factor acquires special significance. It is natural in this connection to study psychic phenomena, conduct psychological research from the standpoint of the principle of a personal approach.2. The problem of personality has played and continues to play an increasing role in the political life of society as a whole, of every state and even organization. This explains the difference in the approaches of various scientific schools to the question of the role of the individual in history, a widely developed discussion about the freedom of the individual, about the protection of his rights. 3. In the psychology of management, the concept of "personality" is of particular importance ..2. The concept of "personality" The concept of "personality" came to psychology from the theater, where personality is a mask that the actor put on before entering the arena or stage. This concept has changed over time. So, in the Russian language in the XVIII century. it meant a caustic response to someone's address, had a common, negative, even abusive meaning. Despite close attention to the problem of personality, an adequate theory of personality has not yet been created to this day. So, back in 1937, G. Allport counted 50 definitions of personality, drawn from philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, sociology and psychology. Our understanding of personality boils down to the definition: “Personality is an individual, conscious and self-consciousness and having a number of properties acquired by him in the process of communicating with other people, and representing a unique structure that changes as a result of active adaptation to the environment.

Psychological schools personality studies

The theory of I. P. Pavlov should be known to high school graduates. IP Pavlov (1849 - 1936) - Russian physiologist, creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. He is credited with opening the role conditioned reflexes. Thanks to conditioned reflexes, the body adapts to the changing conditions of existence, acquiring new forms of behavior that are different from innate unconditioned reflexes. Pavlov's students comprehensively studied the dynamics of the formation and change of conditioned reflexes, the processes of excitation, inhibition, etc. Determining the qualitative difference between the higher nervous activity of humans and animals, Pavlov put forward the doctrine of two signal systems - sensory and speech. With the help of the word as a “signal of signals”, the brain generally reflects reality, as a result of which the nature of behavior regulation changes radically. Pavlov's teachings on the types of higher nervous activity, on the "dynamic stereotype" as a stable complex of reactions to a stimulus, etc., are also important for understanding personality. The American psychologist John B. Watson (1878 - 1958) applied the concept of a conditioned reflex to the theory of learning, arguing that All human behavior can be described in two terms - stimulus and response. The stimulus is change external environment, and response is the body's response to a stimulus. B.F. Skinner (b. 1904) significantly expanded the classical theory of conditioned reflexes, highlighting from their diversity "operant" reactions that are produced by the body spontaneously (for example, a child crawling when he masters the world). These responses can be strengthened or weakened by punishment or reward. These provisions have been more than psychoanalytic theory, are applicable in management and are accepted by managers as a tool for influencing subordinates. Factors such as salary, the desire of a person to maintain his place, status, etc., are controllable by the manager.

Personality types and their characteristics

Classifications by personality type in psychology are very heterogeneous and numerous. Meanwhile, the boundary between personality types in any classification can be very blurred. Certain traits of character, mindset and type of behavior correspond to a certain psychological type personality. In each person, one can find almost all existing characteristics attributed to a particular type of personality, however, we can talk about the existence of more or less well-established criteria in psychology for distinguishing personality types. An introvert as a personality type Individuals whose behavior is dominated by characteristics characteristic of this personality type are immersed in their inner world, and if people of this personality type have to be distracted from their "I" and interact with the outside world, they experience difficulties with such a shift focusing attention. An extrovert as a personality type An extrovert individual easily comes into contact. Extroverted personality type is characterized by expansiveness, the desire for active social interaction with other individuals. Entry into social contact for this type of personality is not difficult and is an important condition for psychological comfort.

Management of informal groups

An informal group arises spontaneously on the basis of likes and dislikes that appear between people, similar interests, friendship, mutual assistance, etc. Informal groups can take shape both within formal groups (based on a common professional orientation) and act as isolated communities outside a common professional orientation (based on common interests - sports, gaming, friendly). There are no insurmountable boundaries between official and informal groups, because they can pass into each other (informal relations of lovers are formalized in marriage, and the family is the official unit of society).

Directions of psychological influence on personality. Techniques and methods of influence are divided into 2 groups: direct, or direct, and indirect, or indirect. Direct, or direct, methods of influence include persuasion, suggestion, infection, imitation. Persuasion is an intellectual psychological impact based on the transmission of logically structured information and aiming at its voluntary acceptance as an incentive for the activity of facts in the form of a live story in order to persuade the interlocutor to certain conclusions. Suggestion is a method of psychological influence of a predominantly emotional-volitional nature, based on an uncritical perception and acceptance by an individual of a purposeful flow of information that does not need proof, logic and contains ready-made conclusions ("healing"). Infection is understood as a method of psychological influence based on the unconscious, involuntary exposure of the individual to certain emotional states transmitted from the outside (panic, subbotnik). Imitation is a method of psychological influence based both on acceptance external features behavior of another person or mass mental states, and on the reproduction by the individual of the features and patterns of behavior and activity demonstrated (vocational school master, hero of the novel, teacher). Indirect, or indirect, methods of influence: orienting situation, changing or maintaining role elements, using symbols - rituals, stimulation. Stimulation involves the use of activities that encourage a person to improve quality is perceived negatively. So, the leader in the regulation of social behavior and activities of a subordinate should treat him not only as an object of leadership, but as a person, a partner in interaction; constantly focus on the best features, the dignity of the people he leads, use a variety of management methods, as well as the capabilities of the team. With such an attitude of the leader to the subordinate, his individual psychological properties are revealed, manifested and developed - character, orientation, abilities.

Personal potential and self-esteem

Personal potential appears as an integral characteristic of the level of personal maturity, and the main phenomenon of personal maturity and the form of manifestation of personal potential is just the phenomenon of self-determination of the personality, that is, the implementation of activities in relative freedom from the given conditions of this activity - both external and internal conditions, under which refers to biological, in particular bodily prerequisites, as well as needs, character and other sustainable psychological structures. Personal potential reflects the extent to which a person overcomes given circumstances, and ultimately the person's overcoming of himself. I will refer to the general anthropological model of E. Fromm (1995), which seems to me to be a very accurate and complete image of a person. Fromm states the fundamental duality of man. On the one hand, man came out of the natural world and he is drawn along the path drawn by nature. least resistance. This is the path of returning to the bosom of mother nature, the path of merging with the clan, clan, and so on, the path of renunciation of independence, of one's own decision-making, ultimately, of consciousness, and escape from freedom. But since a person cannot return to this womb, he is expelled from paradise, he must seek his own, already human path, in which no one can help him; he must go over the edge and create the foundations for his life, because he is deprived of the foundations that all other living beings have. Strictly speaking, in the extent to which a person self-determines in relation to this dichotomy, the personal potential in the personality also finds its manifestation. In essence, personality potential reflects the extent to which a given individual is descended from a monkey, because one of the biggest illusions is to believe that we have already descended from a monkey. Each person throughout his life continues to solve this problem, and the result of a variety of responses to this evolutionary challenge is a very large spectrum of individual variations in the degree of humanity. Unfortunately, this image is not as metaphorical as it seems at first glance.

Psychological properties of personality

Psychology studies not only individual mental processes and those peculiar combinations of them that are observed in the complex activity of a person, but also the mental properties that characterize each human personality: its interests and inclinations, its abilities, its temperament and character. It is impossible to find two people who are absolutely identical in their mental properties. Each person differs from other people in a number of features, the totality of which forms his individuality. Speaking of the mental properties of a personality, we mean its essential, more or less stable, permanent features. Every person happens to forget something; but not for every person "forgetfulness" is a characteristic feature. Every person has experienced at some time an irritable mood, but "irritability" is characteristic only of some people. The mental properties of a person are not something that a person receives in ready-made and remains unchanged until the end of his days. The mental properties of a person - his abilities, his character, his interests and inclinations - are developed, formed in the course of life. These features are more or less stable, but not immutable. There are no absolutely immutable properties in the human personality. While a person lives, he develops and, therefore, changes in one way or another.

Motivation as a personality management factor

In order to connect a person to the solution of a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. And only with appropriate motivation can inspire people to solve complex and super-complex tasks. The motivational approach has long been developed in foreign and domestic psychology. Motivation like psychological phenomenon interpreted differently. In one case - as a combination of factors that determine behavior. In another - as a set of motives. In the third - as an impulse that causes the activity of the organism and determines its direction. And so on. For the unambiguous perception of the concept of "motivation" in this text, we will consider motivation as a dynamic process of forming a motive (as the basis of an act). Quite often, psychologists in their theoretical works try to consider separately external motivation - extrinsic and internal - intrinsive. But in practice, a person cannot but depend in his decisions and actions on the influence of the environment. That is, internal motivation is influenced by external factors. Speaking about external motivation, it is necessary to take into account that circumstances, conditions, situations become important for motivation only when they become significant for a person, to satisfy needs, desires. Therefore, external factors must be transformed into internal ones in the process of motivation.

Personality as a subject of management, guidance and leadership

In enterprises, firms, institutions, organizations or teams, as a rule, there is a clear division of managerial relations: some - manage, manage; others are subject to leadership. The subject of management is most often the head of the team, but it can also be a committee. Sometimes an ordinary member of the team, who is an informal leader in it, becomes the subject of management. Recently, the idea of ​​participatory management has been increasingly accepted, i.e. such management of the affairs of an organization, firm, when all members of the organization participate in the development and adoption of the most important decisions. In management science, psychologists distinguish between management and leadership. Leadership is always associated with power, it is a phenomenon derived from official relations. The head, as a rule, is appointed from the outside, by higher authorities, receiving from them powers of authority, including the right to apply positive and negative sanctions. The leader emerges spontaneously. Any informal leader has a personal attraction, which manifests itself in different forms. There are three types of leaders - the leader, the leader (in the narrow sense of the word) and the situational leader. The leader is the most authoritative member of the group, possessing the gift of suggestion and persuasion. He influences other members of the group with a word, a gesture, a look. The leader is much less authoritative than the leader, along with suggestion and persuasion, he often has to induce action by personal example (do as I do!). The situational leader has personal qualities that are relevant only in a very specific situation. There are leaders in any team, and they deserve special attention, because. it is they who influence the moral and psychological climate in the team, can become a source of conflict, but it is they who make up the reserve for the promotion of personnel. Despite the obvious differences between management and leadership, they have a lot in common. There are the following three common features: - the leader and the leader play the role of coordinators, organizers of the members of the social group; - the leader and the leader exercise social influence in the team, only by different means; - the manager and the leader use subordinate relations, although in the first case they are clearly regulated, in the second they are not provided in advance. There are at least three concepts of the origin of the personal qualities of a leader. According to the first - a person from birth with the makings of a leader, he is prescribed to lead people. According to the second - the "theory of traits", the personality itself acquires the necessary set of leader qualities - high intelligence, extensive knowledge, common sense, initiative, etc. Proponents of this theory believe that it is enough to identify

Manager as managerial leader

The head is a person who directs and coordinates the activities of performers, who must obey him without fail and, within the framework of certain powers, fulfill all his requirements. The manager himself can take on the functions of an executor only in order to understand the specifics of the problem. The head can successfully manage the performers only if they submit to his authority. Power is the ability of some people to subordinate others to their will, influencing them. The latter is understood as an emotional or rational impact that changes the behavior in the direction necessary for the organization, encourages more efficient work, and prevents conflicts.

Psychological techniques for achieving the disposition of subordinates

Managerial communication - communication between the head and officials in order to implement the management function (changing the activities of subordinates in a certain direction, maintaining it in a given direction or forming it in a new direction). There are three main functions of managerial communication: the issuance of administrative information, the receipt of information back (feedback) and the issuance of evaluation information (assessment of the performance of the task by subordinates). Management psychology, which studies the behavior of people in the process of social production, has importance in terms of staffing. Psychological management methods play a very important role in working with personnel, as they are aimed at the specific personality of the worker or employee and, as a rule, are strictly personalized and individual. Their main feature is the appeal to inner world a person, his personality, intellect, feelings, images and behavior in order to direct the internal potential of a person to solve specific problems of the enterprise.

psychology management personality self-esteem

One of the features of managerial work is the presence of difficulties in assessing its effectiveness, i.e. achieve the desired results with minimal cost. Leadership does not always bring fleeting results. Changes caused by management are most often long-term, prolonged in nature (formation of the socio-psychological climate of the workforce), while assessing partial changes is difficult due to the lack of criteria and is hardly appropriate. The true criterion for evaluating the activities of the leader is the final result of the work of the entire team, in which the results of the work of both the leader and the performers are organically combined. The results of labor from an economic point of view are manifested as the profit of the enterprise, the quality and quantity of products, productivity, efficiency (cost), product innovation, efficiency (according to D. Scott Sink). To improve the efficiency of management, it is necessary to carry out a number of measures in the production and organizational areas. So, in the manufacturing sector, these measures are: the release of products that are in demand, the use of modern technologies. In each organization, it must be determined how many subordinates a leader can manage. The rules of effective leadership, proven by practical experience abroad and in our country, include the following: transfer (delegation) to the appropriate structures of authority and responsibility for the results of the exercised power; planning the main areas of work with people; relentless pursuit of the goal; clarity and clarity of orders given; the ratio of the capabilities of performers to the complexity of the tasks; formation of a business and friendly atmosphere in the organization; encouragement for the best performance in work and the exclusion of punitive measures; publicity and openness in work; strict mental and physical condition employees; material and moral support of employees in necessary cases; regular conversations between managers and subordinates. Compliance with these rules is the key to improving the effectiveness of management.

14. The structure of the personal qualities of the leader

Socio-political qualities characterize the degree of political maturity of the leader, understanding and acceptance of the foundations of state foreign and domestic policy, ideological principles, active implementation of the ideas of the formation of the Belarusian statehood, the transition to market relations. rules, compliance with generally accepted sociocultural norms that regulate the behavior of a leader in the process of performing activities and communicating with subordinates. Social and psychological qualities provide: - effective reception and processing of information flows, optimal information interaction both in terms of subordination and coordination components of this interaction, i.e. success of the communicative function in management; - perception, understanding of a communication partner, building relationships with colleagues and subordinates, thereby realizing the perceptual function of communication; - distribution of responsibilities, delegation of authority, organization of joint activities of employees, creation of a team (team), i.e. implementation of the interactive function of communication. Professional and managerial (business) qualities are personality traits that manifest and improve (form) in the course of managerial activity and largely ensure and determine its success. The intellectual qualities of the leader determine his ability to find the best solution practical tasks in the process of emerging problem management situations, adaptability to new conditions of life, flexibility in behavior, use of the necessary information in the right amount and at the right time. Self-confidence - firmness, lack of hesitation, doubts when making decisions and their implementation. Creativity is a property that is an indicator of development creativity personality and manifested in its ability to find non-standard, original, original solutions, to create unusual products of activity. Organizational insight is the "flair" of the leader, manifested as attention to the intricacies of relationships, the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to understand him. Self-esteem is a sense of self-worth, coupled with a jealous attitude towards the opinion of others about oneself.

The concept of methods and leadership styles

In the process of performing managerial functions, the manager uses a variety of management methods. Management method - a set of management techniques used by the head to perform his functions. Such methods can be an order, persuasion, encouragement, punishment, material and moral incentives. Management style - in a certain way, an ordered application of methods, mediated by the personal qualities of the leader, i.e. management style is a subjective-personal implementation of a particular method or their combination. Often method and style act as a number of concepts. This is due to the fact that both the method and the style of management pursue the same goal, namely, the unification of people into a group with the capacity to perform joint activities. In this regard, both the method and style act as a manager's toolkit for the organization to achieve the ultimate goal of the activity. Method and style are in close interaction, mutual influence. This is manifested in the fact that the method of leadership determines and subjugates the leadership style; a well-defined style of leadership suits each of the established methods; the leadership method is implemented in practice in a variety of styles; the method is more mobile, changeable and sensitive to new needs in the field of management than style; the style of leadership affects the method if the latter has become stagnant. At the same time, there are some qualitative differences in the methods and styles of management that characterize their originality. If the method of leadership is a way of uniting, rallying people into a capable group in accordance with objective conditions activity, then the style of leadership is a stable set of personal, subjective and psychological characteristics of the leader, through which one or another method of leadership is carried out. In other words, the method is the content side of management activity, and the style is the form of its implementation. Method and style can be compared to notes and manner of performance piece of music: the notes are the same for everyone, but each performer interprets the work in his own way. Since the effectiveness of the activities of subordinates is largely determined by the personality of the leader, the concept of “leadership (management) style” is more often used in management psychology, i.e. the method is, as it were, included in the leadership style, is equivalent, identical to it.

Leadership style considering human relations and achievements

According to the predominance of individual or group methods of influencing the content of activity, authoritarian, democratic and liberal styles of leadership (according to K. Levin) are distinguished. The authoritarian (autocratic) style is characterized by high centralization of leadership, dominance of one-man management. The leader demands that all cases be reported to him, single-handedly makes decisions or cancels them. Do not listen to the opinion of the team. The prevailing methods of management are orders, punishments, remarks, reprimands, deprivation of various benefits. Control is tough, strict, detailed, depriving subordinates of initiative. The interests of the cause are put above the interests of people, in communication harshness and rudeness prevail. This style is most effective in well-ordered (structured) situations. Democratic (collegiate) style is characterized by the distribution of authority, initiative and responsibility between the leader and subordinates. The head of the democratic style always finds out the opinion of the team on important production issues. Communication with subordinates takes place in the form of wishes, recommendations, advice, rewards for high-quality operational work, in a friendly and polite manner. The leader stimulates a favorable psychological climate in the team, defends the interests of subordinates. This style is most effective in semi-structured situations and is focused on interpersonal relationships, solving creative problems. The liberal (anarchist) style is characterized by the lack of active participation of the leader in the management of the team. Such a leader “goes with the flow”, waits or requires instructions from above, or falls under the influence of the team. He prefers not to take risks, “keep his head down”, shirks the resolution of urgent conflicts, seeks to reduce his personal responsibility. Lets work take its course, rarely controls. This style of leadership is preferable in creative teams, where employees are distinguished by independence and creative individuality.

Psychological methods of management

Psychological methods, which are a set of specific ways of influencing personal relationships and connections that arise in labor collectives, as well as the social processes taking place in them. They are based on the use of moral incentives for work; they influence a person with the help of psychological techniques in order to turn an administrative task into a conscious duty, an internal human need. The main goal of applying these methods is the formation of a positive socio-psychological climate in the team, thanks to which, to a large extent, problems will be solved. nutritional, organizational and economic tasks.

Psychological indicators of collective efficiency

The team is a small contact group characterized by common goals, the presence of joint socially useful activities, a high level of organization, cohesion, psychological compatibility. The team has the following characteristics: 1. The socially significant goal facing the group is recognized and accepted by all members of the group, who put the maximum of their abilities into its achievement and thereby ensure optimal performance.2. The presence of the most valuable interpersonal relationships between employees: trust, mutual assistance, mutual understanding, cohesion, providing a positive psychological climate, high performance and stability of the group.3. The management of the group by the leader-leader. A. N. Lutoshkin called the group with such characteristics “a burning torch”.

The concept of organization as an object of management

Social group as a psychological characteristic of an organization

An organization is a type of social system characterized by a multi-level structure, the ability to develop, and openness. The organization is divided into social, functional, socio-demographic, professional and qualification structures. The social structure in an organization can be represented by such categories as workers (skilled and unskilled), managerial personnel (managers, specialists and technical performers). The functional structure is usually represented by employees of predominantly managerial labor (main, auxiliary, service) and predominantly mental workers ( administrative and managerial personnel, accounting and office workers, production and technical personnel). In the socio-demographic structure, groups are distinguished by sex, age, nationality, etc. In the professional qualification structure, the following groups of workers are distinguished: highly qualified, skilled, low-skilled, unskilled, trainees, with secondary specialized education, with higher education. Normal, effective organization of labor, management of joint activities, its coordination are due to the communicative structure, i.e. a network of channels or paths through which information is exchanged (informal, formal channels, vertical communication with a downward flow, an upward communication flow, horizontal communication, etc.). The carrier of the sign of an organization is a group of people (2 or more people), whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal.

Mechanism of group dynamics

There are several approaches to describing the psychological characteristics of the interaction of group subjects. One of these models was proposed by American psychologists M. Woodcock and D. Francis. Their idea of ​​the main stages of group development is as follows. The first stage of group development is “grinding in”. At this stage, group members look at each other. The degree of personal interest in working in this group is determined. Personal feelings and experiences are masked or hidden. There is practically no sincere and interested discussion of the goals and methods of work. Members of the group are not interested in their colleagues, almost do not listen to each other. Creative and inspiring collective work is virtually non-existent. The second stage - in the terminology of the authors - "close combat". This is a period of struggle and upheaval. The period when the contribution of the leader is evaluated, when clans and groups are formed, and disagreements are expressed more openly. At this stage, personal relationships become increasingly important. The strengths and weaknesses of the individual members of the group are more and more clearly identified. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership. The group begins to discuss ways to reach agreement, seeks to establish effective relationships. The third stage is "experimentation". At this stage, the members of the group realize their potential, which as a whole increases. The problem of effective use of the abilities and resources of the group becomes more and more urgent. There is an interest in how you can work better. Working methods are being reviewed. There is a desire to experiment. Measures are being taken to really increase the efficiency of the group's work. The fourth stage is "efficiency". The group gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. Employees experience a sense of pride in their belonging to the “winning team”. Problems that arise are explored realistically and solved creatively. Management functions can be smoothly delegated to one or another member of the group, depending on specific task. The fifth stage is "maturity". At this stage, the group functions as a collective united around real common goals that are well understood by all, into which individual goals are converged (reduced). Operate strong ties between group members.

22.Typichnye restrictions hindering the effective operation of the team

Main restrictions that prevent ef-noy count: 1. unsuitability of hands-la, giftedness of hands-la (organizational skills) is found 10 times less often than musical methods. But the quality of hands-la is trainable. 2. unqualified employees. We need such collaborators and their composition, a cat. can work fruitfully together in one team. members of the count cannot contribute. 4. Abnormal microclimate, people are united: common goals and emotions. 5. unsatisfactory work results. and confrontation. When there is no freedom of opinion in the community, an unhealthy climate arises in it. Members of the count must be able to express their opinions without fear of revenge, ridicule, etc. 8. low creative ways of the count. ef-ny qty in mt generate creative ideas and generate them. 9. non-constructive relations with others.

How to increase the effectiveness of the group

Since these groups are a deliberately created component of formal organization, most of what we present on the management of an organization applies to them as well. Like the entire organization as a whole, in order to achieve effective functioning, groups require planning, organization, motivation and control of activities. Therefore, in this section, we will focus on only one aspect of the functioning of a small group, which many leaders find the most difficult, namely, to increase the effectiveness of meetings where problems are solved and decisions are made. Depending on the characteristics of the group and how it is led, a meeting can be a fruitless exercise or an extremely effective tool where talent, experience, and the ability to generate new ideas come together. Before we present some specific recommendations on how to make a meeting effective, let's first look at the general factors that affect the effectiveness of a group.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

The psychology of managerial activity is a relatively young subject area, the emergence and development of which in Russia is dictated by the demands of social practice. Despite the fact that management and management psychology developed intensively abroad and this is reflected in a huge number of monographs, textbooks and manuals published in different countries, the direct transfer of existing experience to Russian soil turned out to be ineffective and unsuccessful for many reasons. The main one is the specificity of the Russian mentality, which does not allow adopting foreign experience with predictable consequences. This effect of the influence of emotional attitudes on the content public consciousness and features of not fully reflected social experience and manifested itself in the psychology of managerial activity.

It is well known that public relations of production in Russia differ significantly from those in many other countries, primarily in closer personal and emotionally colored ties that do not allow the implementation of many management models associated with the use of power functions without the potential threat of conflicts. The specificity of education management is based on emotionally colored and subjectively significant activities, closely associated with interpersonal communication, since the majority of professionals in the education system are women who, according to the generally accepted view, act more on the basis of feelings than reason, and determines the features of practice in this professional a sphere in which the effectiveness of professional activity is largely related to the personality of the manager and leader.

Theoretical approaches to the development of the psychological foundations of management also fully reflect the features of the development of domestic psychology, the central categories of which, according to B.F. Lomov, are reflection, activity, personality and communication. It is clear that the last three direct relationship to the issues under consideration. Due to the fact that the activity acts as central problem domestic psychology and is reflected in the title study guide, it is advisable to give a brief historical background on the development of this category. It is known that the category of activity has philosophical roots, beginning with the works of Kant and Fichte. Hegel considered activity as a form of manifestation of the absolute spirit, associated with self-change. Based on the philosophical research of Hegel, Marx introduced the concepts human activity, as the main manifestation of which he considered labor. The goal of the latter lies not in the very process of labor activity, but in its product, moreover, in the social product.

K. Marx defined a specific sphere of social relations, within the framework of which later, in the subject area of ​​psychology, the formation of consciousness and personality of a person was considered. The connection between activity and consciousness, activity and personality - these are the main issues Soviet psychology, a huge contribution to the development of which was made by S.L. Rubinshtein and A.N. Leontiev: according to their ideas, activity is a conscious and purposeful form of behavior. In the works of A. N. Leontiev (1986) the most profound structural analysis of the process of activity is given. Following the works of Marx, the main characteristic of activity is its goal, depending on the content of which a specific structure of activity is formed, means are selected and operations and actions are formalized.

A. N. Leontiev emphasized the objectivity of any conscious activity, and the object has a dual nature: firstly, it is a real object that exists independently of the human consciousness, to which its activity is directed, and secondly, the product can act as the subject of activity mental reflection of real events and objects, which in this case becomes the motive of activity. The external objective aspect of concrete activity serves as a process of exteriorization of the existing internal mental plane. Thus, any form of conscious purposeful activity unfolds simultaneously in two planes: the external social and cultural space and the internal mental plane.

The dynamics of the internal process corresponds to a certain external dynamics. internal plan unfolds from need to motive, from motive to goal, and then to tasks. The external objective plan of activity looks like a system of concretization in the activity itself from the general to the particular: an action generates an operation, an operation generates movement. In general, any activity is systemic in nature, manifesting itself in external relations and actions and at the same time affecting internal mental processes. Obviously, such a specificity of the highest form of human activity requires mature thinking and developed reflection, in connection with which the development of activity in the sociogenesis of the individual goes through certain stages: from play, as the most naturally conditioned, to educational, socially determined, from educational to the most mature - professional (labor).

Management activities are professional types activity, therefore, it is, first of all, socially and culturally conditioned. Quite a lot has been written about this side of management, and in our book the section "Sociology and Psychology of Management" is devoted to the problems of socially determined aspects of management. The intrapersonal specificity of management, of course, reflects the most hidden and intimate characteristics of the managerial work process: style, emotional and intellectual costs, value attitudes, i.e. everything that gives uniqueness to the work of each person and constitutes its own subject of psychological analysis of managerial activity. special problem represents the relationship between management and power, the least developed issue in Russian psychology, since the power specificity of management for a long time was veiled in Russia by the thesis about the social significance of labor in general and managerial labor in particular. However, public practice had a sufficient number of examples of the clash of heterogeneous interests and values ​​in the process of any managerial act. In this book, the issues of the relationship between power and management are specifically considered in order to clearly understand the consequences of using inadequate forms of power in specific management systems and situations.

Psychology of management as a science produces psychological knowledge used in solving the problem of managing the activities of the workforce. The personality of an employee is studied by a number of psychological disciplines, such as general psychology, labor psychology, engineering psychology. At the same time, the working group or labor collective is studied by social and pedagogical psychology. Distinctive feature management psychology is that its object is the organized activities of people. Organized activity- this is not just a joint activity of people united by common interests or goals, sympathies or values, it is the activity of people united in one organization, obeying the rules and norms of this organization and fulfilling the given joint work in accordance with economic, technological, legal, organizational and corporate requirements.

Socio-psychological relations act as relationships between people, mediated by the goals, objectives and values ​​of joint activities, i.e. its real content. In social psychology, an individual worker acts as a part, as an element of the whole, i.e. social group, outside of which his behavior may not be understood.

The study of the personality of an employee in an organization, the analysis of the organization's influence on the socio-psychological structure and development of the team - all this and much more make up the relevance of the manager's work, which prompted me to study the psychology of management more thoroughly. The object of study of management psychology is people who are included in financial and legal relations in independent organizations, whose activities are focused on corporately useful goals. Summarizing all of the above, we can conclude that among specialists in the field of management psychology, unity has been achieved regarding the presentation of the most relevant psychological problems for the organization. These include the following:

Raise professional competence leaders (managers) at all levels, i.e. improvement of management styles, interpersonal communication, decision making, strategic planning and marketing, coping with stress and more;

Increasing the effectiveness of methods of training and retraining of managerial personnel;

Search and activation of human resources of the organization;

Evaluation and selection (selection) of managers for the needs of the organization;

Assessment and improvement of the socio-psychological climate, staff rallying around the goals of the organization.

The following management principles of Henri Fayol are known:

1. Division of labor or specialization. Is the natural order of things. The purpose of the division of labor is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality under the same conditions.

2. Authority and responsibility. Powers - the right to give orders. Responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, there is bound to be responsibility.

3. Discipline. Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the firm and its employees.

4. Unity of command. An employee must follow the order of only one person.

5. Unity of direction. Each group of workers operating within the same chain must be united by a single plan and have a single leader.

6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of a company or a larger organization.

7. Remuneration of personnel. To ensure the loyalty and support of staff, they must be adequately compensated for their work.

8. Centralization. Like the division of labor, centralization is the natural order of things, but the degree of centralization will vary according to specific working conditions. There is a need to determine the measure that provides the best possible results.

9. Scalar chain. A scalar chain is a series of people in leadership positions, ranging from the person holding the highest position to the top manager.

10. Order. There should be a place for everything and everything in its place.

11. Justice. Combination of kindness and justice.

12. Stability of the workplace for staff.

13. Initiative. Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation. This gives the Company strength and energy.

14. Corporate spirit. Any team must work together. Everyone should contribute as much as he can.

Why did Fayol create his principles, what purpose are they intended to serve? As you can easily see from the comments that I deliberately cited, they are aimed at improving the relationship between management and employees. Why, in turn, effective interaction between the upper and lower parts of the company is necessary, because there is an opinion that it is easier to expel an objectionable employee, since there are no irreplaceable people, and others will come in his place. The fact is that practice shows that the presence of mutual understanding and stability of the team always has a positive effect on labor productivity, and the presence of a corporate spirit and the payment of decent remuneration to staff prevent industrial espionage, which brings much greater losses. All this contributes to the harmonious development of the company and the maximum efficiency of its work, and, therefore, it will occupy a market niche faster than others and find its "place in the sun", it will come to the pinnacle of success and be able to stay on it, which is the purpose of the existence of any company. There are also many other principles of management, I think that it is not necessary to list them all, I would like to touch on only one more aspect of management activity. The management principles of Henri Fayol reflect not only the economic principles of management, but also the psychological principles of influencing the personnel and interacting with them. In this aspect, I found the most interesting 6 basic precepts of Harvey McKay, which define the requirements for the manager himself, in the presence of which he can efficiently manage the company.

1. A businessman must always be in shape.

2. Business life does not tolerate a stop.

3. Knowledge does not become power if it is not applied.

4. Believe in yourself and success will come to you.

5. Don't believe anyone who says that little things mean nothing to a manager. Little things are everything.

6. You will be indifferent to people until you show concern for them.

In modern conditions, management problems at various levels from the micro level (microgroup) to the macro (universal, global) level are becoming increasingly important. On the one hand, management is one of the oldest species social activity of a person and appears from the moment he realizes himself as a social being. The leaders of the tribes can rightfully be considered the first managers in a primitive society. On the other hand, the scientific approach to managerial activity, considering it as a specific professional activity, was formed at the beginning of the 20th century and is associated with the names of Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henri Fayol.

F. U. in his works “Factory Management”, “Principles of Scientific Management” formulated the basic principles of managerial work. A. Fayol in the 20s of the XX century publishes the book "Fundamentals of Management", which sets out the basic principles of management. A. Fayol is considered the founder of a new scientific branch of management, and his book has become a classic in management theory Thanks to A. Fayol, management began to be considered specific kind management activities.

The term "management psychology" was also introduced into scientific circulation in the 20s of the XX century. This is due to a sharp increase in the role of the subjective factor in management activities and the impact on efficiency.

It is necessary to determine the content of the basic concepts of management activity, and, accordingly, the main categories of management psychology as a science.

Management- from English. verb "to manager - to manage. Therefore, management is often identified with management in general. But, in our opinion, the category "management" is a broader concept. If F.U. Taylor and A. Fayol, then management pays more attention to the consideration of management problems in the sphere of economy, in the sphere of production. But there is a sphere of culture, politics, military affairs, etc., which also require the implementation of managerial activities. The problems of management psychology will be considered in more detail in the third question.

The problems of state and military administration were considered long before the founders of management in the works of the ancient Greek philosophers Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. It suffices to give an example of the work of N. Machiavelli "The Sovereign", which examines, including the socio-psychological aspects of power, as one of the forms of managerial activity.

From the position of management, management is the process of designing and innovating social organizations, motivating people to act in order to achieve the goals of the organization. In management theory, management is studied to a greater extent from the point of view of a specific situation that arises in management practice, that is, as the art of management.

Economists tend to interpret management as a way to obtain economic results at the lowest production costs.

Lawyers consider management as state legal regulation with the help of laws and administrative influence.

Political science understands management as the impact on society by the state through political methods, etc.

There are other positions and approaches that reflect a variety of attitudes towards management. Often, instead of the category of management, the following concepts are used: regulation, leadership, administration, management, organization, etc.

Leadership is viewed more as administrative activities aimed at coordinating people in their joint achievement of certain goals.

At first glance, these concepts can be identified, which in most cases is done. But we would separate these concepts. Management and leadership is inherent in any social system. But their ratio depends on the ratio of democratic and administrative principles. If administrative principles predominate in a social system, then leadership is more inherent in it, if democratic - management.

The management process is actually inherent in all organized systems: biological, technical, social, etc.

The psychology of management as a science focuses on the consideration of social management.

A specific feature of social management is that it, in turn, is a rather complex systemic social phenomenon and its main components are either individual individuals as members of various social organizations, or groups of people.

If even one of these signs is missing, the system begins to falter and eventually collapses. In turn, their presence makes it possible to study the system, and knowledge and consideration of the laws and regularities of sanctioning - to increase its efficiency.

Management psychology should be considered as a special applied interdisciplinary science, considering the general psychological aspects of social management in all spheres of human life.

Any branch of scientific knowledge becomes an independent science only when it is clearly defined with the object of study, the main directions, and forms its own categorical apparatus. Let's take a look at these basic elements.

When defining the object of management psychology as a science, two main points of view have developed.

In our opinion, the second point of view is more optimal, considering the interaction in the system: "man - man" and the corresponding subsystems, where the main element is a man, or the structures created by him.

Psychology of management is a branch of psychological science that combines the achievements of various sciences in the field of studying the psychological aspects of the management process and is aimed at optimizing and increasing the efficiency of this process. But it is quite difficult to perceive (see: Urbanovich A.A. Management Psychology.-Minsk: Harvest, 2001).

The emergence and development of management psychology as a science was due to a number of objective and subjective factors. Among which should be highlighted:
- the needs of management practice;
- development of psychological science;
- development and complication of the structure of social organization.

The growing role of the human factor in the theory and practice of management.

Without claiming to be the ultimate truth, we believe that management psychology as a science should be understood as an interdisciplinary branch of psychological knowledge that studies the mental characteristics and patterns of influence of management subjects on objects in order to optimize this progress.

Since social management is the subject of study of many sciences, management psychology is closely interconnected with such branches of scientific knowledge as sociology, general psychology, social psychology, political science, philosophy, jurisprudence, cultural studies, pedagogy, cybernetics, synergetics, ergonomics and economics from the point of view of their managerial opportunities.

In its formation and development, management psychology as a science has gone through a number of stages.

Giving brief description At the first stage, figuratively, it can be said that the first brilliant manager was the Great Creator, who created our world in three days, which we have been trying to remake for about six thousand years, unfortunately, not always in the best way.

As soon as a person realized himself as a social being, there was a need for practice, science and the art of management.

The laws and methods of managing production and society have been known to mankind since ancient times. Documents from the Sumerian civilization, which existed more than 5,000 years ago, show that ancient managers made extensive use of management elements such as inventory, fact-logging, organizational reporting, and control. grandiose structures ancient egypt became possible thanks to the organizational talents of the ancient builders.

During the archaeological excavations of the city of Susa, many clay tablets were found, on which the code of laws of the king of Babylon Hammurabi, who lived about 4 thousand years ago, was written. The Code clearly established responsibility for the assigned work, determined the level of minimum wages and the need for documentation.

The development of new technologies and management methods in ancient times proceeded in various ways and methods:
- by sharing or borrowing ideas;
- with the help of force;
- with the help of trade.

Marco Polo, for example, brought from China the idea of ​​using paper money instead of gold and silver coins; trade routes the principles of the banking system came to Europe.

A significant contribution to the development of the science of social management "beared thinkers Ancient Greece and Rome. The Athenian philosopher Socrates was considered an unsurpassed master of the art of dialogue (one of the methods of the art of management is named after him). Another Athenian thinker-historian, a contemporary of Socrates, Xenophon, defined the management of people as a special kind of art. Plato, a student of Socrates, introduced the concept of specialization. In 325 BC, Alexander the Great created an organ for collegial planning and command and control of troops, the headquarters.

Ancient Greece presented us with two systems of management methods: democratic Athenian and totalitarian Spartan. Elements of these systems are still found today.

Within this stage, three managerial revolutions are distinguished:
- the first is connected with the emergence of the power of priests and the emergence of writing as a result of business communication;
- the second is associated with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi and is an example of a secular aristocratic style of government;
- the third refers to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is a combination of state planning methods of regulation with production activities.

At the second stage, collectivism inherent in social relations, in its primitive, rough, often forced form, is replaced by individualism. This gave impetus to the development of the idea of ​​humanism, the doctrine of natural law and the social contract, the idea of ​​early liberalism.

J. Locke T. Hobbes profess bourgeois freedoms, private forms of life, equality of people's starting opportunities, the priority of individual rights in relation to society, which has a significant impact on the development of management science. In their opinion, the basis of social management should be a social contract, the observance of which should be monitored by the state.

At the third stage, a significant contribution to the development of management science was made by Zh.Zh. Rusco, Voltaire, D. Diderot, E. Kant.

The fourth stage in the development of management science is associated with the fourth revolution in the field of management, due to the emergence of capitalism and the beginning of the industrial progress of European civilization. A significant contribution to the development of the theory of economic and government controlled contributed by A. Smith, D. Ricardo C. Babbage.

A. Smith substantiated the idea of ​​ability market system to self-regulation on the reasonableness of the minimum impact of the state on the economy. Subsequently, this provision was used by one of the authors of the "German economic miracle» XX century by Ludwig Erhard.

Ch. Babbaju developed the project of the "analytical engine", with the help of which even then management decisions were made more quickly.

The fifth stage of development is associated with such names of management classics as F.W. Taylor and A. Fayol, M. Weber, F. and L. Gilbert, G. Ford. Appearance scientific theories management was due to the rapid development of new technologies, unprecedented scale of production. These factors sharply raised the question of the formation of scientific methods of management. What was required was not an abstract theory, but scientific research aimed at solving specific problems and developing practical recommendations.

F. Taylor led the movement scientific management, developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.

A. Fayol is the founder of the administrative school of management. He developed questions related to the role and function of management. A. Fayol singled out 5 main management functions, singled out psychological factors for increasing labor productivity. Formulated 14 principles of management.

Thanks to A. Fayol, management began to be recognized as an independent and specific professional activity, and management psychology becomes an independent branch of scientific knowledge.

A feature of this stage is that it is during this period that the first serious steps to combine the efforts of managerial, sociological and psychological approaches. Personalized relations in management are being replaced by the concept of “economic man”.

The weak link of the supporters of the classical school was the idea that there is the only way achieving production efficiency. Therefore, their goal was to find this method.

The sixth stage of development is associated with the names of E. Mayo, A. Maslow, C. Barnard, D. McGregor. The “economic man” is being replaced by the “social man”. E. Mayo and C. Barnard are considered to be the founders of this school. In particular, E. Mayo revealed that a group of workers is a social system that functions in accordance with certain laws. By acting in a certain way on the pu system, it is possible to significantly improve the results of labor.

Ch. Barnard became one of the first theorists of the organization's activities, defining the essence of intra-organizational interaction as cooperation.

A great contribution to the development of the school of human relations was made by A. Maslow, who developed hierarchical theory needs, and D. McGregor, who developed the theory of employee characteristics, the theory of "X" and the theory of "Y".

Later appeared quantitative school associated with the use of mathematics and computers in social management.

The seventh stage is characterized by the fact that, starting from the 60s. psychological approach completely covered the entire field of social management. Management problems are seriously developed in the works of well-known American, English, German researchers G. Mintzbrg, P. Drucker, G. Simon, S. Argyris, T. Peters, R. Waterman, N. Siegert, L. Lang, K. O "Dell, M. Woodcock, D. Francis and others.

Representatives of the system approach consider the subject, the object of management, the management process itself as a systemic phenomenon. The organization is viewed as an open system.

The situational approach does not deny the system approach, but focuses on taking into account specific situational factors that arise in the process of managerial activity. The effectiveness of management is determined by the flexibility of the management system, its ability to adapt to a specific situation.

Empirical (pragmatic) approach - its essence is to study and disseminate specific management experience, using appropriate techniques.

The quantitative approach is associated with the use in management of the knowledge of mathematics, statistics, cybernetics, the achievements of science and technology, the introduction computer technology. The quantitative approach is reflected in a number of management concepts.

The main functions of management psychology should also be highlighted:
- Cognitive - the study of the main psychological characteristics of management as a specific area of ​​professional activity, to determine its role and significance in the development of organizations and groups.
- Evaluative - identifying the compliance or non-compliance of the management system with the main trends of society, social expectations, needs and interests of employees.
- Prognostic - aimed at identifying the most likely and desirable changes in management activities within the near or more distant future, i.e. to determine the possible trajectories of development of management, to predict it.
- Educational (teaching). Its essence lies in the dissemination of managerial knowledge through the system of educational institutions, various institutes and centers for advanced training, retraining and retraining of personnel. Acquisition of knowledge, skills and experience in the practical implementation of management activities.

The control system is subdivided into two main subsystems - control and managed, which must be considered as relatively independent subsystems with their own inherent features. Each of them has a multi-level hierarchical structure, each of its links has its own directions of the corresponding links that form internal sources self-regulation.

In addition to the object ("O") and the subject ("S") of management, management interaction (relations), goals, external and internal control relations, it includes management functions, which are understood as specific areas of activity. Management functions can generally be classified according to their common meanings.

Along with the functions, the principles of social management should be highlighted. They act as fundamental provisions of the pathology of management and are of an objective and universal nature. A. Fayol was one of the first to formulate 14 basic principles of management.

Approaches to this issue are also very diverse. Let us dwell on one of them, in particular, V.I. Knoring.

In the US, management personnel is divided into 18 ranks. From the 1st to the 8th - the lower staff (clerical workers, typists, stenographers), their leaders (supervisors) occupy positions from the 9th to the 12th rank, middle managers (manager) - from the 13th to the 15th -th, a senior leaders are certified for positions of 16-18 ranks (executives) (see: Martynov S: D. Professionals in management. L., 1991). In the West, the manager is not the first leader or entrepreneur, managers occupy certain positions as heads of certain organizational units. In the European-American understanding, the director (the first head) should be mainly engaged in strategic management, and operational management he assigns to deputies (see: Meskol M., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. M., 1994).

Thus, the main tasks of management and its component part of the organization are solved by the management system. end result its functioning is the adoption and implementation of an effective management decision, which is always represented as an intellectual and psychological act of choosing one or more alternatives from a variety of possible options.

Describing social management, one of its main features and difficulties should be emphasized. In the system of social management, the subject and object of management can change places, the subject can simultaneously act as an object, and the object can act as a subject of management.