Thousands of kilometers And here again Khoroshevskoe highway. But now the transmitter that is being transported along it cannot be placed in a passenger car. This is the most powerful apparatus of all that Bonch-Bruevich collected. A truck rolls along the highway. Today, the first experience of ultra-long distance is to take place.

Stephen Oppenheimer, British physician, formerly of population genetics and DNA genealogy, and then switched to history prehistoric period, - together with the Bradshaw Foundation, drew a map of the early migrations of mankind, which clearly showed how climate change have influenced the movement of people for thousands of years. Arzamas translated the map and asked him to explain why the dates he gives differ from those suggested by Oppenheimer.

Over 160 thousand years ago

Modern man - Homo sapiens appeared in Africa. The oldest known to archaeologists certificates of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome found in East Africa.

160–135 thousand years ago

Four groups of hunters and gatherers formed, three of which went south to the Cape Good Hope, southwest to the Congo Basin and west to the Shore Ivory, carrying with it the first generation of the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup L1 gene.

135–115 thousand years ago

One group of people 125 thousand years ago passed through the green Sahara along northern route to the Nile and the Levant.

115–90 thousand years ago

The branch that reached the Levant died out about 90 thousand years ago. global cooling turned this area and all of Africa into a harsh desert. Later this territory was mastered by Neanderthals.

90–85 thousand years ago

85 thousand years ago, one of the groups crossed the Red Sea in the Bab el-Mandeb Strait (called the "Gate of Tears"), migrating along south coast Arabian Peninsula towards India and eating food collected along the coast. All non-African peoples came out of this group.

85–75 thousand years ago

From Sri Lanka they continued to move along the coast indian ocean to Western Indonesia, then to the Asian part of the land. Still adhering to the coast, they bypassed Borneo and moved towards South China.

74 thousand years ago

Volcano Toba

The eruption of the supervolcano Toba (Sumatra) led to nuclear winter, which lasted 6 years, instantly began a thousand-year ice age and a sharp reduction in the population to 10 thousand adults. Volcanic ash covered the territory of modern India and Pakistan with a layer of up to five meters.

74–65 thousand years ago

After the devastation of the Indian subcontinent, it was repopulated. on boats individual groups people sailed from Timor to Australia and from Borneo to New Guinea. In the north, during the early pleniglacial period, there were severe colds.

65–52 thousand years ago

A sharp increase in temperature 52 thousand years ago allowed separate groups of people to finally rise north to the Fertile Crescent and return to the Levant. From there, about 50 thousand years ago, through the Bosphorus, they began to rise to Europe.

52–45 thousand years ago

Little Ice Age. The Aurignacian culture of the Upper Paleolithic period moved from Turkey to Bulgaria and Europe. Stone tools of a new type began to be found all the way up the Danube, in Hungary and Austria.

45–40 thousand years ago

Groups of people with east coast Asia began to move west along the steppes Central Asia. From Pakistan they went to Central Asia, and from Indochina to the Tibetan Plateau.

40–25 thousand years ago

Central Asians moved westward towards of Eastern Europe, north to North polar circle and join the residents East Asia, spreading across North-Eastern Eurasia. During this period, stunning works of art appeared, such as paintings in the Chauvet cave (France).

25–22 thousand years ago

The ancestors of the Native Americans who crossed the Bering Isthmus, which connects Siberia and Alaska, from the last glacial maximum reached Meadowcroft either through an ice-free corridor or along the coast.

22–19 thousand years ago

During the last ice age, the population Northern Europe, Asia and North America decreased; there were separate surviving groups of people locked in their refugia. In North America, an ice-free corridor was closed, and the path along the coast also froze.

Refugiums

Places where species or groups of species experience unfavorable periods of geological time - in this case places where people experienced the last ice age.

19–15 thousand years ago

The last glacial maximum 18 thousand years ago. In North America, on southern border glaciations, individual groups continued to develop a diversity of language, culture and genes, moving into South America. Australian rock painting— Mural Bradshaw.

15–12.5 thousand years ago

Continued improvement global climate led to renewed migration along the coast. Radiocarbon analysis confirmed the presence of people in the settlements of Monte Verde (Chile) from 11,790 to 13,565 years ago. Simple stone tools were found here - flint flakes and cobblestones.

12.5–10 thousand years ago

The re-exploration of North America 12.5 thousand years ago from the south, following the retreating ice to the north. 11.5 thousand years ago in the Subarctic, people left the Bering Refugium, becoming representatives of the Eskimo-Aleutian language family and Na-Dene languages.

10–8 thousand years ago

Final termination ice age laid the foundation for agriculture. The Sahara was green, as evidenced by images of giraffes in life size on petroglyphs in Niger. Recolonization of Britain and Scandinavia.

The places where Agriculture

55th parallel

Since ancient times, the Arabian Peninsula has been inhabited nomadic tribes pastoralists. The founder of Islam, Muhammad, managed to rally them together. The state he created in just a hundred years managed to turn into one of the strongest powers in the world.

How did the Arab Caliphate begin?

Around the 630s, the Arabs began to arrange regular sorties outside their native Arabian Peninsula. The reason is simple - the young state needed resources and new territories.

By subjugating other lands, the Arab nobility gained access to the “horn of plenty”: slaves, captives, who could be returned for a rich ransom, and most importantly, tribute collected from all captured peoples.

At the very beginning, the Arabs were quite loyal to the population and the structure of the countries they captured. They did not interfere with local traditions, did not arrange mass migration of peoples and were distinguished by religious tolerance. Moreover, they even adopted some elements of the cult from conquered strangers.

But later the situation began to change. In all the conquered states, the process of Arabization was launched local population. Most quickly and relatively painlessly, this took place where, even before the formation of the caliphate, numerous Arab communities lived. For example, in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Approximately the same was observed with the spread of Islam.

Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism in the subordinate territories began to gradually fade away, although the Arabs did not persecute representatives of other religions.

True, the Gentiles were severely limited in their rights.

Such a rapid transformation of the Caliphate into a major power is still called a phenomenon by many historians. The fact is that on their way to greatness, the Arabs faced two of the most powerful states of that time - Byzantium and Sasanian Persia. But people from the Arabian Peninsula were lucky. Both of these empires were in decline due to years of confrontation with each other and internal crisis. The Arabs took advantage of the weakness of their formidable rivals, which resulted in three waves of aggressive campaigns.

First wave

From the very beginning, the Arabs were lucky. They managed to conquer the Levant from Byzantium, and rich and fertile Mesopotamia from Persia. And in 633, the Caliphate invaded the borders of the Sassanid Empire itself. The confrontation lasted nineteen years and ended with the complete victory of the Arabs.

The Sassanid dynasty ceased to exist, the territory of Persia went to the caliphate, and Islam replaced Zoroastrianism.

While the war with the Persians was going on, the Arab commander Amr ibn al-As in just a year (641-642) managed to annex Egypt to the territory of the Caliphate. Five years later, the Arabs organized the first invasion of North Africa two armies, total strength about forty thousand people. At the head of this army was Sheikh Abdullah ibn Saad.

The results of this invasion were not so impressive. Only Carthage fell under the influence of the Caliphate. After spending more than a year in exhausting campaigns in the deserts, the sheikh returned with an army to Egypt.

In 656, a fire broke out within the state Civil War provoked by the assassination of Caliph Usman. The throne was occupied by Ali ibn Abu Talib, but a few years later he also died.

Despite the confusion, the Arabs managed to subdue the countries of Transcaucasia and Derbent. True, not for long. Already by 661, almost all of this territory had become independent of the caliphate - the help of Byzantium had an effect.

Second wave

As soon as the situation in the caliphate calmed down, the Arabs again poured into North Africa, which was under the control of Byzantium.

The fifty thousandth army under the command of Uqba ibn Nafi managed to take the city of Kairouan and turn it into the main outpost for further military advance in the shortest possible time. This fortress became the capital new area Ifriqiya, located on the territory of modern Tunisia.

The war with the nomads, who were actively supported by Byzantium, was unsuccessful for the Arabs. First, Ibn Nafi himself died in one of the battles, and then Zuheir, the commander sent in his place.

Another civil war and an uprising in Syria prevented the suppression of the uprising. The second North African campaign had to be urgently curtailed.

third wave

New military campaign began in the late 780s. First of all, the Arabs zealously took up the return lost territories Transcaucasia. Behind short term they were able to conquer three East Georgian principalities, but fully entrenched only in one of them - Kartli.

Then the caliphate sent troops to the west of Georgia, where the principality of Egrisi was located, dependent on Byzantium. The local ruler decided that it was pointless to fight the Arabs and therefore simply surrendered the city and helped the invaders drive out the Greeks.

Thus, by the year 700, almost all of Transcaucasia was under the rule of the Caliphate, with the exception of a few mountainous areas who were subject to Byzantium.

When the Transcaucasian states were finished, the Arabs sent their armies to the countries of the Maghreb (as they called the North African coast). There, of course, they were already “not welcome”. Therefore, the waxes of the caliphate had to re-capture the cities of their former province of Ifriqiya. But Byzantium was waiting for such a turn of events and arrived from Constantinople big army, which was supported by detachments from Sicily, as well as the Visigoths from Roman Spain.

At first, the Arabs decided not to get involved in an open battle, but retreated to Kairouan. But soon the opponents still had to face. The decisive battle took place near Carthage, where the Arabs defeated the Allied troops and freely entered the city.

Another battle took place near Utica. But even here the Caliphate was stronger. Two crushing defeats forced Byzantine Empire relinquish claims to the North African coast. And the Arabs continued their conquests.

In less than ten years, they managed to subjugate all the countries of the Maghreb. The only exception was the city of Ceuta, located on the coast of modern Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. By joining such vast territory, Arab Caliphate increased his "appetites" and began to look towards the delicious Iberian Peninsula.

In 711, the commander Tariq ibn Ziyad landed with his army in Spain. The war with the Visigoths lasted about three years, and ended with the destruction of their state.

While the war was going on in the Pyrenees, the Arabs in 712 managed to significantly expand their eastern borders, having conquered the region along the lower reaches of the Indus called Sindh.

This is how “historians” incorporated into church ideology want to present us with our ancient ancestors who lived 30-40 thousand years ago on the territory of present-day Russia:

According to the Church formed under the influence official history on the territory of modern Russia, almost until the baptism of Russia in 988, wild tribes lived. About any organized society that owns scientific knowledge, there was no talk.

Let's do small digression into prehistory. Completely prehistoric. However, if we talk about the Slavic ancestors of the Russians, everything that they had before the Baptism of Russia is all prehistory. Since there are currently no documented sources, except for rare artifacts. Everything pagan was carefully destroyed - and some people got the impression that this was the case (including under the influence of the Russian school history) that there was no one before the advent of Christianity in our Russian territories. The Slavs, they say, having somehow originated somewhere, having come from nowhere, came from somewhere and ran in skins through the forests with digging sticks. Animals, they say. And this suits many.

One gets the feeling that our ancestors climbed trees until the arrival of the Ruriks. But is it?

In 1879 in the village of Kostenki, Khokholsky district Voronezh region the first car park was opened primitive man. AT different time more than 26 Stone Age sites were discovered and explored. In time, they belong to a huge chronological interval: from 40,000 to 20,000 years ago.

Kostenki is recognized as the richest place in Russia where Upper Paleolithic sites - people modern type. Here on the territory of about 10 sq. km, more than 60 sites have been discovered (on a number of dwellings, sometimes very large), dating from 50 to 15 thousand years ago.
In connection with the huge area (albeit at different times) of settlement, researchers are looking for arguments in favor of recognizing Kostenki as one of the oldest proto-cities on the planet!

Under the roof of the museum, an ancient dwelling was mothballed, built of mammoth bones and surrounded by five pits-pantries for storing food supplies.

Scientists of the international archaeological expedition (Russia, USA, Great Britain and Italy), who worked at a unique complex of Late Paleolithic sites in the village of Kostenki, Voronezh Region, managed to prove that modern people settled on the Don more than 40 thousand years ago.

In 2001, a whole skeleton of a young mammoth was discovered at the same site, including the always poorly preserved skull. If this find was made in Siberia, then it would be an ordinary phenomenon. But it was in Kostenki, where archaeologists throughout the study found only individual mammoth bones brought to the sites by people in ancient times for their household needs. The found mammoth either got stuck in the swampy soil and died there, or fell into a karst funnel unnoticed by him. In the same year, the head of a human figurine from a mammoth tusk was found 35-37 thousand years ago according to the radiocarbon dating system and according to paleomagnetic data - older than 42 thousand years. This is a world sensation, since by now it is the oldest sculptural image of a person in the Paleolithic of Europe. The age of the sculptural images from Galgenberg and Vogelherd, which were previously considered the oldest, was determined at the level of about 30-32 thousand years. Thus, the age of the oldest works of art in Europe falls by 10,000 years ago!

According to the results obtained from the American laboratory in 2002, the age of the lowest cultural layer of Kostenki 12 can drop to 50,000 years instead of the traditional 40,000 years for the Upper Paleolithic! Despite a solid previous study, Kostenki today is an iceberg, most of which rests under water and waits in the wings and its researcher.

In 1955, in the Vladimir region, under construction work a Paleolithic burial known as Sungir was found, in which the remains of a man and two children were found.

Here is what we learn from the data of these archaeological studies.

The reconstruction of the clothes and appearance of the men from the Sungir-1 burial showed that our ancient ancestors dressed well 25-30 thousand years ago, very stylishly even in modern glamorous times.

The quantity and elegance of ornaments, tools and household items found here excludes common ideas about people in Upper Paleolithic as a continuous struggle for survival.
The powerful physique of a man from the Sungir-1 burial is surprising.
With a height of 180 cm, he was much stronger modern man and wider at the shoulders - the length of his collarbone was 190 mm.
His clothes were richly embroidered with exquisite mammoth tusk ornaments.
The level of technology possessed by the Sungir people is surprising - for example, they not only easily drilled bone beads and plates, but also knew how to straighten mammoth tusks to make bone spears! None modern technologies it is impossible to straighten the tusks (editor's note: there is a version of the softening of the mammoth tusk in hydrochloric acid, only at the same time the bone loses its hardness and becomes unsuitable for making a durable spear; modern people straightening the tusk while maintaining bone hardness has not yet been possible).
The reconstruction of the appearance and clothes of the buried man shows that he looked quite imposing from the point of view of modern aesthetics and could act in action films as the main positive character:

Reconstruction of the dwellings of our ancestors 25-30 thousand years ago according to archaeological excavations:

Another burial and reconstruction of the faces of people and clothes. This is the burial of two teenagers, a boy and a girl, who died at the same time, probably from some kind of illness or poisoning. Their clothes are also richly and skillfully decorated with beads.

All found remains of clothing are trimmed with a total of tens of thousands of beads.
Clothing decorated in this way speaks not only of high culture wearing it, but also about the presence a large number free time to make it.
The same situation is with found household items. They are carefully carved from mammoth bones, they have drawings on them, but the most interesting thing is that ocher was used for their coloring!
And from obtaining ocher is one step to obtaining iron, which arises as by-product when burning ocher from spherosiderite (in Russian, spherosiderite is called “bloodstone”) and swamp ore.
But even if there was something iron in use at that time, it could not have survived for 25-30 thousand years in the rather damp Vladimir land. But the holes in the bone beads clearly show that they were most likely drilled with something metallic. Only drilling with a metal tool would make it possible to produce beads in such huge quantities for abundant embroidery even of children's clothes (in total, more than 10 thousand beads were found in the local excavations, i.e. the ancients established their mass production).

These things, which were used by our ancient ancestors, who lived on modern Vladimir lands, not less than 25 thousand years:

Based on the evidence that decoration provides us, we can conclude that already 25-30 thousand years ago in the territory Vladimir region there were settlements of people who actively used the achievements of science in everyday life and organized their economy in such a way that they had time for creativity.
These are the "wild inhabitants of the trees."
Interestingly, all these artifacts are located in open access in museums and everyone can get acquainted with them. If desired.