What is a social phenomenon. social phenomenon

Concrete-historical approach to social phenomena

Option 1

Cognition - the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. AT narrow sense the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or - in broad sense- all the world within those boundaries individual people and society as a whole.

Main Feature social cognitionas one of the types cognitive activity is the coincidence of the subject and object of knowledge. In the course of social cognition, society cognizes itself. Such a coincidence of the subject and object of cognition renders a huge impact both the learning process itself and its results. Received social knowledge will always be connected with the interests of individual subjects of cognition, and this circumstance largely explains the presence of different, often opposite conclusions and assessments that arise when studying the same social phenomena.

Social Cognition Begins with the Establishment of Social Facts.

Types of social facts:

actions or deedsindividuals or large social groups;
products material or spiritual people's activities;
verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, assessments of people.

Selection and interpretation(i.e., explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, and also on the tasks that he sets for himself.

The purpose of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth.

Truth called the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge.However, it is not easy to establish the truth in the process of social cognition, because:

an object knowledge, and that is society, is enoughcomplex in structureand is in constant development, which is influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment social patterns extremely difficult, and open sociallaws are probabilistic, because even similar historical events and phenomena never completely repeat themselves.
limited ability to usesuch a method empirical research, how experiment (reproduction of the studied social phenomenon at the request of the researcher is almost impossible). Therefore, the most common method social research is a scientific abstraction.

The main source of Obtaining knowledge about society is a social reality, practice. Because the public life changes quickly enoughin the process of social cognition, one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths.

Understand and correctly describe the processes taking place in society, discover the laws community development only possible when usingconcrete historical approachto social phenomena.

The main requirements of a concrete historical approach are:

studying not only the situation that has developed in society, but also the reasons that resulted from it;
consideration of social phenomena in their relationship and interaction with each other;
analysis of interests and actions of all subjects historical process(both social groups and individuals).

If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are found between them, then one usually speaks of the discovery of historical patterns.

historical patterns called common features, which are inherent certain group historical phenomena.

Identification of such patterns based on the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period and make upthe essence of the concrete-historical approachand ultimately are the goal of social cognition

Option 2

Features of social cognition, a concrete historical approach to social phenomena

The term "social cognition" is interpreted as the knowledge of society, social phenomena and processes taking place in it. In this sense, social cognition differs from the cognition of other (non-social) objects and has the following features:

society is the most complex of the objects of cognition, therefore the essence of social phenomena and processes, the regular connections between them are found much more difficult than it happens in the study of inorganic and organic nature within natural sciences;
social cognition involves the study of not only material, but also ideal, spiritual relations. These relations are not only an integral part of the material life of society, but also, by their nature, are much more complex and contradictory than the connections in nature;
in social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition, since people are the creators of their history, but they also cognize it. Therefore, the subject and object of knowledge coincide. This identity cannot be evaluated unambiguously. On the one hand, it has positive value, since the processes taking place in society are closest to the cognizing subject and his direct, personal and acquired life experience which contributes to a deep understanding and correct knowledge of these processes. On the other hand, different, sometimes diametrically opposed wills, interests, goals are represented in the total object of knowledge. As a result, a certain element of subjectivism is introduced both into the historical processes themselves and into their knowledge;
Another feature of social cognition is limited opportunities observations and experimentation in the study of social reality. AT this case is the main source of knowledge historical experience, public practice.

Social cognition includes not only the description of social phenomena, but also their explanation, the identification of their essence. Successful Solution This difficult task is associated with the application of a concrete historical approach to social phenomena, which involves the study of social phenomena in their diverse relationships, interdependence and historical development. This approach makes it possible to understand a separate social event, revealing how its unique individuality associated with specific historical conditions, and something common to similar events occurring in different time, are their objective regularities.

Option 3

Cognition is the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within the boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.
The main feature of social cognition as one of the types of cognitive activity is the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition. In the course of social cognition, society cognizes itself. Such a coincidence of the subject and object of cognition has a huge impact on both the process of cognition itself and its results. The resulting social knowledge will always be associated with the interests of individuals — the subjects of knowledge, and this circumstance largely explains the presence of different, often opposite conclusions and assessments that arise in the study of the same social phenomena. Social cognition begins with the establishment of social facts. There are three types of such facts:
1) actions or deeds of individuals or large social groups;
2) products of material or spiritual activity of people;
3) verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, assessments of people.
The selection and interpretation (i.e., explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, and also on the tasks that he sets for himself.
The goal of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth. Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. However, it is not easy to establish the truth in the process of social cognition, because:
1) the object of knowledge, and it is society, is quite complex in its structure and is in constant development, which is influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is extremely difficult, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature, because even similar historical events and phenomena are never completely repeated;
2) the possibility of using such a method of empirical research as an experiment is limited (it is practically impossible to reproduce the studied social phenomenon at the request of the researcher). Therefore, the most common method of social research is scientific abstraction.
The main source of knowledge about society is social reality, practice. Since social life changes rather quickly, in the process of social cognition one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths.
Understanding and correctly describing the processes taking place in society, discovering the laws of social development is possible only when using a concrete historical approach to social phenomena. Basic requirements this approach are:
1) the study of not only the situation that has developed in society, but also the reasons that resulted from it;
2) consideration of social phenomena in their relationship and interaction with each other;
3) analysis of the interests and actions of all subjects of the historical process (both social groups and individuals).
If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are found between them, then one usually speaks of the discovery of historical patterns. Historical patterns are called common features that are inherent in a certain group of historical phenomena. The identification of such patterns on the basis of the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period is the essence of the concrete historical approach and, ultimately, is the goal of social cognition.

1) actions or deeds of individuals or large social groups;

2) products of material or spiritual activity of people;

3) verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, assessments of people.

The selection and interpretation (i.e., explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, and also on the tasks that he sets for himself.

The goal of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth. Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. However, it is not easy to establish the truth in the process of social cognition, because:

1) the object of knowledge, and it is society, is quite complex in its structure and is in constant development, which is influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is extremely difficult, and open social laws are of a probabilistic nature, because even similar historical events and phenomena are never completely repeated;

The main source of knowledge about society is social reality, practice. Since social life changes rather quickly, in the process of social cognition one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths.

Understanding and correctly describing the processes taking place in society, discovering the laws of social development is possible only when using a concrete historical approach to social phenomena. The main requirements of this approach are:

1) the study of not only the situation that has developed in society, but also the reasons that resulted from it;

2) consideration of social phenomena in their relationship and interaction with each other;

3) analysis of the interests and actions of all subjects of the historical process (both social groups and individuals).

If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are found between them, then one usually speaks of the discovery of historical patterns. Historical patterns are called common features that are inherent in a certain group of historical phenomena. The identification of such patterns on the basis of the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period is the essence of the concrete historical approach and, ultimately, is the goal of social cognition.

1. Features of social cognition, a concrete historical approach to social phenomena.

2. State, its features.

1, Cognition is the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within the boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.

The main feature of social cognition as one of the types of cognitive activity is the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition. In the course of social cognition, society cognizes itself. Such a coincidence of the subject and object of cognition has a huge impact on both the process of cognition itself and its results. The resulting social knowledge will always be associated with the interests of individuals - subjects of knowledge, and this circumstance largely explains the presence of different * often opposite conclusions and assessments that arise in the study of the same social phenomena. Social cognition begins with the establishment of social facts. There are three types of such facts: 1) actions or deeds of individual individuals or large social groups; 2) products of material or spiritual activity of people; 3) verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, assessments of people. The selection and interpretation (i.e., explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, and also on the tasks that he sets for himself. The purpose of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth. Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. However, it is not easy to establish the truth in the process of social cognition, because: 1) the object of cognition, and it is society, is quite complex in its structure and is located in constant development influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is extremely difficult, and open social laws are of a probabilistic nature, because even similar historical events and phenomena are never completely repeated;

2) the possibility of using such a method of empirical research as an experiment is limited (it is practically impossible to reproduce the studied social phenomenon at the request of the researcher). Therefore, the most common method of social research is scientific abstraction. The main source of knowledge about society is social reality, practice. Since social life changes rather quickly, in the process of social cognition one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths.

1) the study of not only the situation that has developed in society, but also the reasons that resulted from it; 2) consideration of social phenomena in their relationship and interaction with each other; 3) analysis of the interests and actions of all subjects of the historical process (both social groups and individuals). If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are found between them, then one usually speaks of the discovery of historical patterns. Historical regularities are common features that are inherent in a certain group of historical phenomena. The identification of such patterns on the basis of the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period is the essence of the concrete historical approach and, ultimately, is the goal of social cognition.

2. State - the most important institution political system society. AT political science no consensus has yet been reached on the definition of the concept of the state. Various theories highlight one of the aspects social entity states: either serving the common good, the interests of society and the individual, or organized coercion, suppression by the exploiting classes of the actions of the exploited. One of the most common is the idea of the state as a political-territorial sovereign

organization of power in society, which has a special apparatus for the implementation of its functions and is able to make its decrees binding on the population of the whole country. The state acts as a political, structural and territorial organization society as its peculiar outer shell. That's why when we are talking about the state, one must keep in mind not so much the state as a special apparatus, a kind of “machine”, but rather a state-organized society (or, in other words, a political, territorially and structurally organized form of society). The features of the state that distinguish it from pre-state (primitive communal, tribal) forms of society are:

1) division of the population according to territorial principle what gives rise to such an institution as citizenship (citizenship); 2) the presence of a special public authority, separated

from society; 3) the presence of a special layer. category of people "professional comma controlled (bureaucracy); 4) taxes intended to ensure the implementation by the state of its functions; state attributes (anthem, coat of arms, flag). Features of the state that distinguish it from others political organizations modern society (political parties, trade unions, etc.), are: 1) sovereignty (i.e., the sovereignty of the state within the country and its independence on international arena); 2) law-making (only the state can issue legal acts binding on the entire population of the country); 3) monopoly on the legal use of violence. The functions of the state are the main directions of its activity, expressing the essence of the state and corresponding to the main tasks of a certain historical stage development. According to the object of influence, the functions of the state can be divided into internal and external. Internal include: economic (coordination economic processes, and sometimes economic management),

social (system organization social security), cultural (formation of conditions for meeting the spiritual needs of the population), protective (maintaining the stability of existing public relations, protection of human rights and freedoms, law enforcement). Among external functions implementation can be distinguished international cooperation and defense organization

states. Attempts to turn the state into a comprehensive system that completely controls the life of society lead to the establishment of totalitarian dictatorships, the enslavement of the individual by the all-powerful state. Therefore, in democratic societies, only the activities to protect the foundations of the existing order, the protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual should remain in the hands of the state. The state yields many of its functions to a self-governing and self-organizing civil society, "withdrawing" from the economy, social sphere, culture, losing ideological and educational functions. New crisis moments in the development of the country (for example, during the years of economic recession, during social unrest and unrest), the state should come to the rescue, having a stabilizing external impact on social relations.

Ticket number 10

1. Spiritual production and spiritual consumption.

2. The political system of society, its structure.

1. Spiritual production is usually understood as

production of consciousness in a particular public form carried out by specialized group-

mi of people who are professionally employed by qualified mental labor. Product

spiritual production are ideas, theories,

concepts, laws, spiritual values, as well as the in-

dividends and the social

connections. Distinctive feature spiritual

production lies in the fact that its product is

there are ideal formations that cannot be

alienated from their direct producer.

Scientists distinguish three types of spiritual productions

1) science; 2) art; 3) religion.

Some philosophers tend to add to them

also morality, politics and law. However, morality

given by society itself, and not invented by the profession

sionals. a public relations, arising me-

waiting for individuals as a result of political and legal

howling activities of individual members of society, hardly

can be called spiritual. However, this

pros is still debatable*

The most important type of spiritual production is

there is science. Science is called theoretically

systematic view of the world around

reproducing its essential aspects in the abstract

logical form and data-based

scientific research.

On the early stages its existence science

did not have any significant effect on

development of society / However, over time,

the stance has changed. Around the 19th century science begins

play a significant role, ahead of the development of material

industrial production, which in turn changes

nyatsya in accordance with the logic of the development of science.

Science becomes special kind spiritual production

stva. whose products predetermine the appearance

new branches of material production (chi-

missions, radio engineering, rocket science, electronics,

nuclear industry, etc.). a huge role

acquire the so-called scientific models of general

natural development, through which society

gets the opportunity without resorting to such methods

knowledge as an experiment, to determine goals and

control of its development.

Other the most important spiritual production

wa is art. Art is specific"

some form public consciousness and human

activity, which is a reflection

understanding of the surrounding reality in art

images. By creating artistic images* co-

which, with a certain degree of conventionality, can be

equal to scientific models, experimenting with

we use our own imagination, people

can better understand themselves and the world in which they live

wut. Through art, artists, writers,

sculptors often reproduce hidden, imperceptible

nye, but very significant aspects of the surrounding

reality.

As far as religion is concerned as a kind of spiritual pro-

production, then the theories created with its help and

ideas played big role in the development of society

de all in the early, pre-scientific stages of its development,

forming in people abstract thinking* way-

the ability to isolate the general and the special in the surrounding

the world. However, emerging within the framework of religious

views of spiritual values and developing on

their basis public relations play important role in

life of many societies and individuals.

Spiritual consumption is a satisfaction

meeting the spiritual needs of man:

cognitive, aesthetic need to exchange

ideals and values.

The main property of spiritual consumption, from

that distinguishes him from the material, is his universal

shchy character. In contrast to tangible

stei, the size of which is limited, spiritual values

do not decrease in proportion to the number of

Trubetskoy, P.A. Florensky, S.L. Frank...) who made up the course of God-seeking with its characteristic irrationalism, personalism and mystical understanding of freedom and creativity. It is impossible not to mention GV Plekhanov Ticket 8 1. Philosophy of Hegel. The first expounded the principle of the dialectical method. The true significance and revolutionary character of Hegelian philosophy consisted in the fact that it dealt with...

The social contract of T. Hobbes, J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau economic doctrine A. Smith, theories of utopian socialists, the sociological doctrine of O. Comte, Marxist theory). e) Social science of the 20th century (M. Weber's theory of values, technocracy, existentialism). 2. Social Sciences: a) sociology, b) political science, c) cultural studies, d) history, e) religious studies, f) economics and ...

Structural-functional analysis- one of the most important research approaches to the study of social phenomena, in which their elements and the relationships between them within the framework of the whole (society) are studied. Greatest influence reached in the 1950s and 60s. Here society acts as complete system, studied from the side basic structures. Structural-functional analysis is based on the structural division of social integrity, each element of which is given a certain functional purpose. Also, the basis of the system-functional approach is the assumption that individual social phenomena perform certain functions resulting in the maintenance and change of the social system.

The founder of the concept of functionalism is E. Durkheim, who was the first to formulate the problem associated with the functional division of labor in an organization, and the problem of the interconnectedness of the functions of individual system units. Later, the problems of functionalism were developed by anthropologists B. Malinovsky and A. Radcliffe-Brown, who considered social facility(society) as an adaptive system in which all parts serve to satisfy the needs of the system as a whole, ensuring its existence in the external environment.

Structure(lat. - structure) - a set of stable connections of an object, ensuring its reproducibility in changing conditions. Structure refers to the relatively unchanging side of a system. It is recognized that order is the "normal" means of maintaining social interaction.

Also Starting point structural-functional analysis is the concept functions each system unit in relation to the system as a whole. This does not mean the mathematical understanding of the function, rather, the "function" is closer to biological sciences where it means "life or organic process, considered from the point of view of what contribution it makes to the preservation of the organism.

In structural-functional analysis, the concept functions has two meanings:

1. official the role (“appointment”) of one of the elements of the social system in relation to another or to the system as a whole (for example, the functions of the state, law, education, art, family, etc.);

2. addiction within a given system, in which changes in one part are derived (function) from changes in another part (for example, changes in the ratio of urban and rural population seen as a function (consequence) of industrialization). In this sense, functional dependence can be seen as a kind of determinism.

Within the framework of the structural-functional approach, two major regulations studies of any societies:

1. in order to explain the essence of a social phenomenon, it is necessary to find its function, which it performs in a broader social context;

2. for this you need to look for direct and side effects, positive and negative manifestations, i.e. functions and dysfunctions of this phenomenon.

Great importance in structural-functional analysis has the concept systems.

System is a series of elements or components that, during certain period time are in a more or less stable relationship. An analogy is often made between society and human body. However, the predominant attention in the structural-functional analysis is given to abstract theories of social systems.

American sociologist T. Parsons identified four basic conditions for the survival of an organization in the external environment, which are closely related to the functions of its individual subsystems.

1. Adaptation subsystem. This subsystem manages the flow necessary resources from external environment into the organization and organizes sales and profit, should orient the organization in relation to the external environment and promote an active positive exchange between individual units of the external environment and the organization. Parsons believes that the adaptation subsystem is an economic subsystem, since the basis of its function is economic contacts, actions and interactions. If the subsystem does not fulfill its function, the organization cannot exist due to an imbalance between the input and output of resources from the system.

2. Goal Achievement Subsystem- the most important system unit of the organization, since it mobilizes organizational resources, actively influences various parts external environment, focusing them on achieving the main organizational goals, through coordinating influence, connects all parts of the organization into a single whole.

3-4. Integration and latency subsystems(maintenance of samples) it is advisable to consider together, since the processes of formation of these subsystems are similar and at many stages are characterized by an inseparable unity. These subsystems should ensure not only the internal integrity of the organization as a system, but, more importantly, the distribution of functions between individual system units, i.e. creation and maintenance of the system social roles, as well as conjugacy of individual functions.

These four functions are represented in society as follows:

adaptation function(1) provides economic subsystem, with the help of which society adapts to changes in the external environment, supplies and distributes the products necessary to satisfy certain physical needs of people. Adaptation is carried out through such institutions of this subsystem as enterprises, banks, through the status-role relations "entrepreneur - employee", "producer - consumer", etc.

Political subsystem implements the function goal achievement (2) through state institutions, parties, social movements and functional - role relations about political power.

Social subsystem performs a function (3) and provides internal unity society, the solidarity of its members through institutions social control(right, others regulatory systems), which use appropriate forms of encouragement and coercion.

Cultural subsystem carries out the function of maintaining interaction patterns (4) in the system through the institutions of socialization (family, school, etc.), which preserve and renew the motivation of individuals; patterns of their behavior, cultural principles through such role relationships as "parent - child", "teacher - student".

According to modern sociologist D. Easton, the process of integration in the system can proceed in three stages:

1. Conformity- the stage of integration - the achievement of such a state of objects included in the system (social groups or individuals), which is characterized by their agreement with system requirements(requirements in relation to members of the organization) as legitimate.

2. Mobilization- the stage during which individuals identify with system roles corresponding to the status field of this system. These roles are recognized as significant and paramount, forming the basis of their activities. This level of integration should be recognized as higher, since members of the organization put the goals of the organization higher than personal goals.

3. Consolidation- the stage of integration, during which there is an internalization of norms, including institutional and organizational rewards and punishments, cultural values role requirements and expectations. It involves the identification of individuals in relation to the norms of their social group, the emergence of in-group involvement and in-group favoritism. Like the first two stages of integration, consolidation is carried out both at the sensual and rational levels.

supporter systems theory society in sociology is the sociologist N. Luhmann. He believes that the subject of sociology is social systems. N. Luhmann speaks of the social system as semantic, whose elements are communications. Elementary communication is an indissoluble element of the social system. Communication itself is not visible, it is observed as an action (hence, social system- action system). the most extensive communication system is world society. If communication has taken place, then it does not "belong" to any of the people participating in it.

The work was added to the site site: 2016-01-17

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">Ticket #9

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669"> 1. Features of social cognition, concrete historical approach to social phenomena.

2. State, its features.

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">1, Cognition is the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In the narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in the broad sense, the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within those boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">The main feature of social cognition as one of the types of cognitive activity is the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition. In the course of social cognition, society cognizes itself. Such a coincidence of the subject and object of cognition has a huge impact on both on the process of cognition itself, and on its results.The resulting social knowledge will always be associated with the interests of individuals - the subjects of cognition, and this circumstance largely explains the presence of different * often opposite conclusions and assessments that arise in the study of the same social phenomena. Cognition begins with the establishment of social facts.There are three types of such facts: 1) actions or deeds of individuals or large social groups; 2) products of material or spiritual activity of people; 3) verbal social facts: opinions, judgments, evaluations of people. Selection and interpretation (i.e., explanation) of these facts largely depend on the worldview of the researcher. el, the interests of the social group to which he belongs, as well as the tasks that he sets for himself. The goal of social cognition, as well as cognition in general, is to establish the truth. Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. However, it is not easy to establish the truth in the process of social cognition, because: 1) the object of cognition, and it is society, is quite complex in its structure and is in constant development, which is influenced by both objective and subjective factors. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is extremely difficult, and open social laws are of a probabilistic nature, because even similar historical events and phenomena are never completely repeated;

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">2) the possibility of using such a method of empirical research as an experiment is limited (it is practically impossible to reproduce the studied social phenomenon at the request of the researcher). Therefore, the most common method of social research is scientific abstraction. The main the source of obtaining knowledge about society is social reality, practice.Since social life changes quite quickly, in the process of social cognition, we can talk about the establishment of only relative truths.

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">Understanding and correctly describing the processes taking place in society, discovering the laws of social development is possible only when using a concrete historical approach to social phenomena. The main requirements of this approach are:

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">1) the study of not only the situation that has developed in society, but also the causes of which it resulted; 2) consideration of social phenomena in their interconnection and interaction with each other; 3) analysis of the interests and actions of all subjects of the historical process (both social groups and individuals).If in the process of cognition of social phenomena some stable and significant connections are found between them, then they usually talk about the discovery of historical patterns.Historical patterns are called common features, which are inherent in a certain group of historical phenomena.The identification of such patterns on the basis of the study of specific social processes in specific societies in a certain historical period is the essence of the concrete historical approach and, ultimately, is the goal of social cognition.

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669"> 2. The state is the most important institution of the political system of society. In political science, there is still no consensus on the definition of the concept of the state. Various theories highlight one of the aspects the social essence of the state: either serving the common good, the interests of society and the individual, or organized coercion, suppression by the exploiting classes of the speeches of the exploited One of the most common is the idea of the state as a political-territorial sovereign

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">organization of power in society, which has a special apparatus for the implementation of its functions and is able to make its decrees binding on the population of the whole country. The state acts as a political, structural and territorial organization of society, as therefore, when it comes to the state, one must have in mind not so much the state as a special apparatus, a kind of “machine”, but rather a state-organized society (or, in other words, a politically, territorially and structurally organized form of society The features of the state that distinguish it from pre-state (primitive communal, tribal) forms of society are:

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">1) the division of the population according to the territorial principle, which gives rise to such an institution as citizenship (citizenship); 2) the presence of a special public authority, separated from society; 3) the presence of a special layer. category of people "professional comma management (bureaucracy); 4) taxes designed to ensure the implementation of the state of its functions; state attributes (anthem, coat of arms. flag). Signs of the state that distinguish it from other political organizations of modern society (political parties, trade unions, etc. .), are: 1) sovereignty (i.e., the sovereignty of the state within the country and its independence in the international arena); 2) law-making (only the state can issue legal acts binding on the entire population of the country); 3) monopoly on legal use of violence The functions of the state are the main directions of its activity, expressing the essence of the state and corresponding to the main tasks certain historical stage of development. According to the object of influence, the functions of the state can be divided into internal and external. Internal include: economic (coordination of economic processes, and sometimes economic management),

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">social (organization of the social security system), cultural (formation of conditions for meeting the spiritual needs of the population), protective (maintaining the stability of existing social relations, protection of human rights and freedoms, law enforcement ) Among the external functions, one can single out the implementation of international cooperation and the organization of defense

;font-family:"Arial";color:#5e6669">states. Attempts to turn the state into a comprehensive system that completely controls the life of society lead to the establishment of totalitarian dictatorships, the enslavement of the individual by an all-powerful state. Therefore, in democratic societies, only activities to protect the foundations of the existing order, protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual.The state cedes many of its functions to a self-governing and self-organizing civil society, "withdrawing" from the economy, social sphere, culture, losing ideological and educational functions.New crisis moments in the development of the country (for example, in years of economic recession, during social unrest and unrest), the state should come to the rescue by exerting a stabilizing external influence on social relations.

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