Expression as the external self of the personality. WHO AM I? The inner self is the inner self

The term "expression" is translated into Russian as expressiveness, a vivid manifestation of feelings, moods. Expression is also interpreted as the presentation to the outside (to another person, a group of persons) of the psychological characteristics of a person hidden for direct observation. Expressiveness means the degree of expression of a particular feeling, mood, state, attitude, etc. The terms "expression" and "expressiveness" are used not only by psychologists, but also by art historians, theater critics, when they need to emphasize the degree of expression spiritual world person or indicate the means of his expression, for example, music, painting, architecture. Thus, in existing definitions expression and expressiveness, there are indications of the connection of this phenomenon with the spiritual and spiritual world of man. Ideas about the connection between expression and the inner world of a person, which were formed largely in philosophical, aesthetic, art history literature, were supplemented by psychologists. The essence of this connection in the context of psychology is seen in the fact that expression is given a place not just an external accompaniment of mental phenomena. It is interpreted as part of these phenomena, as a form of their existence. Therefore, we can talk about expression as a personal education, as a tool for understanding the inner world of a person, as about his outer self. The entire history of the psychology of expressive, expressive, non-verbal behavior confirms the validity of this conclusion. The great Russian researcher of expressive behavior, Prince Sergei Volkonsky, in his books (32, 33) wrote that expressive behavior is “the revelation of the inner “I” through the external “I”. “This is a self-image, and, moreover, eternally changing” (33. p. 16).

The tradition of studying expression as the external self of a person was founded by the works of V. Klassovsky (65), I. M. Sechenov (165), I. A. Sikorsky (166), D. Averbukh (2), S. L. Rubinshtein (158) . Already in the middle of the last century, researchers of expressive behavior believed that “our body, placed between the soul and external nature, a mirror reflecting in itself the action of both of them, tells everyone who is willing and able to understand. These stories are not only our inclinations, worries, feelings, thoughts, but also the damage that it itself received from fate, passions, illnesses ”(65. P. 57).

Big influence The development of the psychology of expressive movements, as well as the formation of the concept of expression as the external self of the personality, was influenced by the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the brain”. In it, he emphasized that "all the infinite variety of external manifestations brain activity comes down to only one phenomenon - muscle movement ”(165. P. 71), thereby proving that expressive movements also serve as a means of manifestation mental processes. “Just look at this nervous lady who is not able to resist even the expected light sound. Even in her facial expression, in her posture, there is something that is usually called determination, - writes I. M. Sechenov, - this, of course, is an external muscular manifestation of the act with which she tries, albeit in vain, to defeat involuntary movements. It is extremely easy for you to notice this manifestation of the will ... only because in your life you have seen similar examples 1000 times ”(165. p. 79). Based on the ideas of I. M. Sechenov, an approach to expressive movements began to develop as a means of objectifying the psychological characteristics of a person, as a means of creating an external self of a person. In the works of I. M. Sechenov there are a number of considerations regarding the relationship between the external and the internal. Among them are the idea that all human mental movements find their expression in external appearance and the idea that the connection between the external and the internal is fixed due to the systematic coincidence of the external and the internal, thanks to the socio-psychological observation of expressive behavior and its interpretation in communication. The ideas of I. M. Sechenov were continued in the work of D. Averbukh. He writes: “Internal changes in a person entail changes in his appearance ... appearance, therefore, is not a random combination of forms, but a strict and distinct expression of generic and individual characteristics inherent in the subject” (2. p. 30).

The interest of researchers in the expressive behavior of the individual, in the expression of a person did not weaken throughout the twentieth century and increased as fundamental psychological works appeared, which led to the formation of the psychology of expressive, expressive behavior of the individual as an independent branch of psychological science. It is presented in several directions that have developed over the course of the 20th century - this is the German psychology of expression (Ausdruckpsychologie), Anglo-American psychology non-verbal behavior, non-verbal communications and domestic psychology of expressive movements or expressive behavior.

Despite the fact that the Russian psychology of expressive behavior began to take shape in the first half of the 19th century, it is believed that the German psychology of expression is the first scientific tradition in the study of human expression. The main achievements of this branch of psychology are set forth in a voluminous volume entitled "Ausdruckpsychologie" (211). As follows from it, the subject of the psychology of expression is the patterns of revealing, on the basis of outwardly given signs, the essential nature of the personality; the study of expression as a holistic dynamic phenomenon, in which the individual characteristics of a person, his current states, relationships, level of claims are presented, value orientations, lifestyle, etc. The first graphic codes for the expression of basic emotions, including movements of the upper, middle, lower parts of the face and consisting of combinations of the “pattern” of the eyebrows, mouth, eye shape, direction of wrinkles on the forehead, around the mouth and eyes, were compiled at the beginning of the century as part of the psychology of expression. As a basis, they are used for the purpose of encoding expression by many modern researchers.

A number of psychologists have made a significant contribution to the formation of the psychology of expression. One of them is Karl Gottschaldt (233). He raised the most important question about the field of phenomena, united by the concept of "expression". In his study, K. Gottschaldt observed with the help of a movie camera how a student solves a problem that was presented to him as a test that determines the level of development of his intellect. He fixed three stages of solving the problem: indicative, search for a solution and the stage of completion - success. For each of the stages of the decision, he recorded the “actual posture”, as well as facial, gestural, and intonational features of behavior. These data prompted the author of the work to clarify the concept of "expression". K. Gottschaldt proposed to distinguish between the concepts of "expression" and "external manifestations". By external manifestations is meant a direct representation of emotional states, and by expression is meant a set of directed actions associated with the experienced, with the social position, is permanent structure personality, its character. K. Gottschaldt explains his approach to understanding the expression, based on the fact that various movements, for example, intermittent movements in tense conflict situation, do not so much correspond to certain experiences of the individual, but rather indicate the general level of tension.

Following K. Gottschaldt, N. Friida, in her chapter “Mimicry and Pantomime” (211), expressed the opinion that expression is a specific position of a person, which is revealed in the style and manner of expression. R. Kirchoff in a generalizing theoretical work also emphasizes that the concept of expression is related to a wide range of phenomena and covers almost all means of expressing personality (211). “Personal expression” within the framework of the psychology of expression turns into one of the fundamental categories of psychology, becomes on a par with such concepts as manner, personality style. It captures something stable, essential, which distinguishes one person from another (facial movements that constantly accompany various facial expressions, for example, tension, displeased movement of the lips), postures, the pace of movements, their direction, abundance, angularity or plasticity, the appearance of laughter or smile, fear , a tendency to certain reactions to an event (for example, to a stern look), demeanor, etc. But such an interpretation of the concept of “personal expression” is not the only one.

From our point of view, it is more legitimate to talk about several interpretations of this concept.

1. On the interpretation in the broad sense of the expression, putting it on a par with such concepts as reflection. In this case, the subject of the expression is all of its "maximum being", presented in all external manifestations.

2. On the interpretation of the expression in narrow sense as a category covering personal, personal being. The subject of expression is a few stable features, style, manner.

3. About expression as a uniform manifestation of some kind of feeling or attitude, state.

4. On the expression as a dynamic phenomenon corresponding to specific conditions, personal relationships.

As a result of the broad and narrow interpretation of the concept of "personal expression" there has been an incredible increase in the range of those means by which the content to be expressed can be discovered. This class, which allows you to identify the essence of the personality, its originality, includes: facial expressions, gestures, handwriting, drawing, clothing, body shape, speech style, environment, etc. Depending on how the concept of "expression" is interpreted, it is determined a set of studied means, in accordance with which the directions of the psychology of expression are formed.

In each of the above interpretations of the "expression" one can see The general trend- associate expression (expression) with constantly repeating patterns of means of expression corresponding to different levels of organization and formal-dynamic characteristics of the individual. In other words, an expression is something stable, inherent only to a given person, even if it is related to the dynamic structures of the personality (the same type rejoices, gets angry, shows aggression, etc.). In this sense, expression (a set of means of expression) is an individual-personal formation, it represents the external, expressive I of a person.

In parallel with the German psychology of expression, but in a different direction, the domestic psychology of expressive behavior is developing, which pays special attention to the study of the relationship between expressive movements and emotional states of a person. Personal approach to expressive movements began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. Its formation was influenced by the works of I. A. Sikorsky (166), V. M. Bekhterev (22). I. A. Sikorsky in his book “General Psychology with Physiognomy” presented expressive patterns (codes) of the most complex human experiences, such as shame, grief, associated expression with professional activity, pointed to different types people represented in their expressive repertoire. Along with these ideas, I. A. Sikorsky clarified the concept of physiognomy and gave it the status scientific category. In general, I. A. Sikorsky considered expression as a personal formation, as the external self of a person.

V. M. Bekhterev in his work "Objective Psychology", published for the first time in 1907-1912, substantiates the approach to the study of the psyche through the analysis of its external manifestations. Special attention V. M. Bekhterev pays attention to facial expressions and facial expressions. He proposes a classification of mimic movements, considers them individual development etc. After the works of V. M. Bekhterev, I. A. Sikorsky, until the publication of S. L. Rubinshtein’s Fundamentals of General Psychology, expression is studied in ethological terms, within the framework of comparative psychology, for example, the work of N. N. Ladygina-Kots (102). This trend in the study of expression was continued by N. A. Tikh (177). The value of these works lies in the fact that they reveal the evolutionary and genetic prerequisites for consolidating the links between expressive behavior and mental states of a person.

From the point of view of the humanitarian approach, S. Volkonsky contributed to the development of the psychology of expressive behavior, and he called his book Expressive Man (32). This book discusses gestures, human facial expressions as a special sign system that can be developed with the help of various kinds of exercises, attention is paid to the problem of the relationship between gestures, human expression and his inner world. In the works of S. Volkonsky, such problems were first posed modern psychology expressions, as a problem of self-presentation, the use of expression in order to create an image of the I of the personality.

Subsequently, the humanitarian line in the study of expression was represented in Russian psychology by studies of the ontogenesis of speech (for example, the study of speech and non-verbal means of communication in children). These works emphasize that the basis for the formation of expressive movements as signs-indicators of the psychological characteristics of a person is the developing needs for communication and knowledge of oneself and another person. a huge role in the formation of the main provisions of the modern domestic psychology of expressive behavior, the work performed in the field of extralinguistics, in which expression is considered in connection with human speech behavior, played.

But the most significant influence on the development of the theory of the domestic psychology of expressive behavior (both its natural science and humanitarian branches) was exerted by the ideas of S. L. Rubinshtein, presented in the Fundamentals of General Psychology. His inclusion of a section on expressive movements in a textbook on general psychology gave this problem not only a fundamental scientific status, but also attracted the attention of many domestic psychologists to expressive human behavior. His thoughts about the unity of natural and social, natural and historical in expressive behavior are used by modern researchers to explain the variety of forms of expression, the contradictory relationships between them and the psychological characteristics of the individual. He emphasized that expressive behavior is an integral part of the development of human actions, his behavior and activities. S. L. Rubinshtein believed that “.... the action is not limited to its external side, but has its own internal content and expression of a person’s relationship to the environment, is an external form of existence of the internal, spiritual content of the personality, and expressive movements are not just external, empty accompaniment of emotions, and external form their existence or manifestation” (158, p. 409). S. L. Rubinshtein drew attention to the fact that the statistical and dynamic aspects of expression are interrelated and are a characteristic of the personality as a whole.

L. M. Sukharebsky paid special attention to expression as a personal formation in his works (176). Considering the facial expressions of a person in a wide variety of aspects, he comes to the conclusion that it is an objective indicator of the development of a person, his belonging to a particular profession. He believed that labor occupations, socialization of a person leave an imprint on the expression of his face, forming mimic masks characteristic only for a given individual, “traces” of his experiences, relationships, leading states. These conclusions were confirmed by him as a result of considering the facial expressions of sick people, as an indicator of deep-seated violations of their personality, emotional-need sphere.

Based on these ideas, in Russian psychology, expression, expressive movements are endowed with the function of revealing the internal in the external, “creating the image of a person” or his external self. person by person based on their appearance and expression (25). The formation of a socio-perceptual approach to human expression is associated with the name of A. A. Bodalev. Discussing the problem of personality expression, A. A. Bodalev points out that it is directly related to its psychological characteristics. From his point of view, “complex psychological formations, which are ensembles of processes and states that are continuously rebuilt in the course of activity, are dynamically expressed in the external appearance and behavior of a person in the form of a set of certain features organized into spatio-temporal structures” (25. P. 99 ) This set of features does not exist by itself, but acts as an indicator of mental processes and personality traits hidden for direct observation, that is, it is the expressive self of the personality. Further development of this problem within the framework of the psychology of communication led to the creation by V. N. Panferov (135, 137) of the concept of the relationship between the subjective properties of a person and the object characteristics of her behavior. He was one of the first in socio-psychological terms to pose the problem of the external expressive I of the personality, the question of the correlation of features-elements appearance, human behavior with its psychological qualities, Subjective (psychological) qualities are revealed, according to V. N. Panferov, through external appearance, which includes expression, activity and objective actions.

The Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior was originally formed as a branch that opposes itself German psychology expressions. Therefore, it more often uses the concept of "expression" in connection with the expression of emotional states, as dynamic elements in the structure of the personality, directly observable (without speculation on the psychology of expression). The terms "expression", "expressive" behavior are used in Anglo-American psychology in order to emphasize the expressive functions of non-verbal behavior, i.e., the functions of expression, the presentation of hidden and at the same time directly observable personality traits. Expression and non-verbal behavior have been studied and are being studied as objective indicators, as indicators of a wide variety of personality parameters, its changes under the influence of various kinds of influences. In other words, the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior also deals with the problem of personality expression, explores its external, expressive self.

The experimental psychology of non-verbal behavior is nothing more than an attempt to find consistent connections between expression and the psychological characteristics of a person. From many theoretical reviews carried out in the second half of the 20th century, it follows that the experimental psychology of nonverbal behavior did not so much change the idea of expression as it replaced the term "expressive" with the term "nonverbal", introducing into the circle of phenomena such as: kinesics, proxemics, take-shika, prosody, clothes, cosmetics, environment, etc. This clarification is necessary in order to emphasize once again that the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior also considers the same range of means as means of organizing behavior, communication, which was outlined by the psychology of expression. Therefore, such concepts as "expressive code" and "non-verbal code" essentially correspond to the same phenomenon - a certain program, pattern, a set of expressive, non-verbal movements that have a direct connection with the psychological characteristics of a person and his communication with other people.

A huge impact The work of Ch. Darwin (45) had an impact on the formation of the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior. His main provisions are often analyzed in the relevant literature, so there is no need to dwell on his ideas in detail. It is important to emphasize that this work influenced both the formation of the psychology of non-verbal behavior, which has a sociocultural orientation in its explanatory schemes, and the one based on the evolutionary-biological approach to explaining the relationship between the external and the internal. A striking example of finding a compromise between the evolutionary-biological approach and the ideas of a cultural-psychological analysis of the relationship between expression and human mental states is the book by K. Izard "Human Emotions" (55), in which he analyzes in a number of chapters the evolutionary-biological significance of facial expression, and also shows its role in social interaction, describes the "codes" of expressive manifestations of the main emotions.

In the 1940s, a structural-linguistic approach to the analysis of non-verbal behavior or human expression was formed. D. Efron, one of the first, applied structural-linguistic methods to study intercultural differences in body movements and gestures. Behind him, R. Birdwistell creates a visual-kinetic language of communication. M. Argyle develops systems for recording non-verbal communications. This line continues in the works of P. Ekman. But along with it, he develops and formalizes the original neuro-cultural concept of expressive behavior. Perhaps, the works of these authors, starting from the 60-70s, have a significant impact on the domestic psychology of non-verbal communications, on the differentiation of approaches within it.

In general, the psychology of expression covers more than wide circle phenomena than the psychology of non-verbal behavior. This is evidenced by the fact that within the framework of the psychology of expression, experimental physiognomy was formed and is still developing today, which refers to the stable characteristics of appearance, fixing the dynamic aspect of expression as “traces” of the prevailing experiences and relationships of a person. In the classical definition of physiognomy, it is emphasized that this is the expression of the face and figure of a person, taken without regard to expressive movements and due to the very structure of the face, skull, torso, limbs. But a close study of various works in the field of physiognomy convinces us that since the time of Aristotle, its representatives have been trying to combine the dynamic aspect of expression and the “traces” of experiences, the constitutional characteristics of a person, which relate to the static parameters of the expressive Self of the personality. The term "physiognomy" comes from Greek words- nature, character - thought, cognitive ability. Hence the art of recognizing a character by external signs is called "physiognomy", and the signs themselves are called "physiognomy". In modern studies, "physiognomy" is interpreted as the doctrine of the expression of a person in facial features and body shapes, the doctrine of the expressive forms of the psychological make-up of a person. More details about the history of the formation of physiognomy are given in the book by V. V. Kupriyanov, G. V. Stovichek (90).

Practical physiognomy as a branch of the psychology of expression began to take shape a very long time ago. Since ancient times, it was believed that the first ability of a person is the ability to organize his appearance. The Russian physiologist Bogdanov wrote that the art of applying physiognomic observations to everyday needs is one of the oldest. It is known that the ancient poets-dramatists placed in the manuscripts, in the section "characters" images of masks corresponding to the characters of the characters. They were sure that a certain type of face is inextricably linked with a certain character, therefore, in order for the viewer to correctly understand the psychology of the hero, it was necessary to accompany the text with images of character masks. The first and rather simplified physiognomic view concerns the relationship between physical beauty and moral, moral qualities of a person. “When a man’s heart is perfect, his outward appearance is also perfect.”

Aristotle is considered the founder of physiognomy. His treatise on physiognomy is analyzed in detail by A.F. Losev in the book “The History of Ancient Aesthetics. Aristotle and the Late Classic. Many of Aristotle's ideas are rightly criticized. For example, Aristotle wrote that whoever has thin, hard, upturned lips is a noble person; who has thick lips and the upper lip protrudes above the lower, that - stupid man; who has a wide, slow step, he is unexecutive, and whoever has a small step, he is enterprising. However, one cannot but pay attention to the fact that he was the first to identify the sources of contradiction between the (expression) code and its content. First, Aristotle notices that under various conditions one can achieve any expression, even one that does not correspond to them. Secondly, he notes the variability of modes of expression. Thirdly, he states that the coding of the state depends on the ability of a person to adequately express his experiences. And finally, Aristotle notes that there are signs of mental states that a person does not experience in this moment, but as residual phenomena they enter into the structure of his appearance.

Thus, even Aristotle noted that an expression is not always a sign real state that the structure of the expression includes features that are conventional in nature, that the coding of the internal in the external is determined by the ability of a person to control expression.

Many famous doctors, artists, writers showed interest in physiognomy. So, Leonardo da Vinci wrote in his treatise that “... facial signs partly reveal the nature of people, their vices and warehouse, but the signs on the face that separate the cheeks from the lips, the mouth, the nostrils from the nose and the main depressions from the eyes are distinct in people cheerful and often laughing; those in whom they are weakly marked are (these are) people indulging in reflections, those in which parts of the face are strongly protruding and deepening are (these are) bestial and angry, with a small mind; those in which the lines between the eyebrows are very distinct are prone to anger; those in whom the transverse lines of the forehead are strongly drawn are (these are) people rich in secret or explicit complaints. And you can also talk about many (other) parts ”(66. p. 162) According to Leonardo da Vinci, the artist must constantly study the movements of the human body, correlate them with the passions experienced. He advises "... watch those laughing, crying, consider those who scream with anger, and so all the states of our soul" (66, p. 184).

V. Lazarev notes in the preface to Leonardo da Vinci's book that the main prerequisite for the artist's psychological creativity is "a holy belief in a harmonious correspondence between body and soul." For Leonardo, "if the soul is disordered and chaotic, then the body itself in which this soul dwells is also disordered and chaotic." Physical beauty and a beautiful soul are one and the same for the artist, so he rarely resorted to depicting ugly faces. Along with general physiognomic observations, Leonardo paid much attention to images of the expression of states, relationships between people, gave advice on how to depict gestures, facial expressions of noble people. He firmly believed in absolute conformity emotional experiences their external manifestations, therefore, gives precise instructions on how to portray anger, despair, etc. Leonardo advises paying attention to the reasons that caused a certain state of a person, in his opinion, the expression and features of its image depend on this. “... Some cry from anger, others from fear, some from tenderness and joy, others from foreboding, some from pain and torment, others from pity and grief, having lost relatives or friends; with these weeping, one shows despair, the other is not too sad, some are only tearful, others scream, some have their faces turned to the sky and their hands are lowered, their fingers intertwined, others are frightened, with shoulders raised to their ears; and so on, depending on the above reasons. The one who pours out the lamentation raises the eyebrows at the point of their joining, and moves them together, and forms folds in the middle above them, lowering the corners of the mouth. The one who laughs has the latter raised, and the eyebrows are open and removed from each other ”(66. P. 186-197).

In the context of practical physiognomy, it is customary to carry out not only observations, but also apply measurements of the ratios of various parts of the face and associate the resulting formulas with certain personality characteristics. These techniques were used by Leonardo da Vinci. In his picturesque portraits, one can detect the presence of mathematical measurements. V. Lazarev believes that the famous smile of Mona Lisa “is built on the finest mathematical measurements, on strict consideration of the expressive values of individual parts of the face. And with all this, this smile is absolutely natural, and this is precisely the power of its charm. She takes everything rigid, tense, frozen from the face, she turns it into a mirror of vague, indefinite emotional experiences ... This smile is not so much an individual feature of Mona Lisa, but a typical formula of psychological revival ... which later turned into the hands of his students and followers into a traditional stamp” (66, p. 23).

A special contribution to the development of physiognomy was made by the work of I. Lavater "Fragments on physiognomy for the best knowledge of man and the spread of philanthropy." Lavater sketched thousands of faces and created 600 tables. The album, compiled from these tables, he called the "Bible of Physiognomy". Interesting is Lavater's attempt to restore a person's appearance based on knowledge of his beliefs, actions, creative activity("physiognomy in reverse"). He sought to realize this idea in the process of working on a physiognomic portrait of Jesus Christ (given on 90). Many interesting observations about the interaction of external appearance and psychological characteristics of a person can be found in the book by Francois de La Rochefoucauld “Memoirs. Maxims" (104). He wrote: “Attractiveness in the absence of beauty is a special kind of symmetry, the laws of which are unknown to us; this is a hidden connection between all facial features, on the one hand, and facial features, colors and the general appearance of a person, on the other” (104, p. 169).

A lot of food for thought on the peculiarities of the relationship between the physiognomic and dynamic aspects of the expressive self of a person is provided by the works of art of great writers who are distinguished by observation, insight, etc. It is enough to recall the “game of portraits”, the author and active participant of which was I. S. Turgenev. The essence of this game is as follows: 5-6 portraits were drawn in advance, in which Turgenev sought to convey his ideas about people of various social strata, their characters. Each participant in the game on the details of appearance had to give psychological characteristics depicted persons. As follows from the judgments of the participants in the "game" given together with the drawings in the 73rd volume of the "Literary Heritage", they showed a certain ability to establish links between the external and the internal. But the main thing is that their answers, in other words, the psychological portraits of the people depicted, coincided in content.

F. M. Dostoevsky paid special attention to the search for stable links between a person’s appearance and his soul, his personality. The writer searched for and described elements of expression that testify to the stable characteristics of a person. In the novel “The Teenager” we read: “... another person completely betrays himself with laughter, and you suddenly find out all his ins and outs ... Laughter requires, first of all, sincerity, but where is sincerity in people? Laughter requires good-naturedness, and people more often than not laugh maliciously... You won’t be able to see through a different character for a long time, but a person will laugh somehow very sincerely, and his whole character will suddenly appear in full view... laughter is the surest test of the soul” (48. T. 13. S. 370). Modern poetry also seeks to create holistic images of a person, involving a metaphorical analysis of his face.

For example, a poem by N. Zabolotsky "On the beauty of human faces":

There are faces like magnificent portals, Where everywhere the great seems to be in the small. There are faces - the likeness of miserable shacks, Where the liver is boiled and the abomasum gets wet. Other cold, dead faces Closed with bars, like a dungeon. Others are like towers in which no one lives and looks out the window for a long time. But I once knew a small hut, It was unprepossessing, not rich, But from its window a breath streamed down on me. spring day. Truly the world is both great and wonderful! There are faces - the likeness of jubilant songs. Of these notes, shining like the sun, A song of heavenly heights is composed.

(N. A. Zabolotsky. Poems and poems. M.-L., 1965. P. 144)

The formation of a natural-scientific approach to physiognomy begins with Bell's work "Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression", written in 1806. One hundred and thirty years later, based on works of this type, E. Brunswick and L. Reiter created schemes of facial expressions, changing the position of the lips, mouth, nose, eyes, eyebrow height, forehead. Combining these features, using a special board for demonstrating facial patterns, they asked the subjects to describe their impressions of these drawings. The first conclusion that was made on the basis of the analysis of the obtained results is the conclusion that the schemes of faces, created as combinations of random features, are quite clearly differentiated by the participants in the experiment in accordance with certain psychological characteristics. In the next experiment, E. Brunsvik and L. Reiter proposed to rank all schemes according to the following scales:

"intelligence", "will", "character" (energetic - not energetic, moralist, pessimist, good - evil, sympathetic - unsympathetic, cheerful - sad), "age". As a result of the study, they received data indicating that certain face patterns are consistently placed by the majority of subjects in certain places on the scales. An analysis of the features of faces assigned to certain scales showed that such features as the “height of the lips”, the distance between the eyes, and the height of the forehead are of the greatest importance for placing a face on a certain scale. For example, if the face diagram had " high forehead”, then the image as a whole produced more pleasant impression, and a person with such a face was perceived as more attractive, intelligent, energetic than the image with a "low forehead". Schemes in which the location of the lips, mouth was higher than in other figures, occupied a place on the “age” scale that corresponded to a young age. At the same time, the "very high mouth" indicates, according to the participants of the experiment, unintelligence and lack of energy as a character trait. "Frowning eyebrows", "suffering eyes", "long" upper lip are characteristic of sad, pessimistic people. Many researchers used face diagrams compiled by E. Brunswick, L. Reiter (given on 211).

One of the main conclusions of the physiognomic approach to the expressive I of the personality is the conclusion that people with a similar appearance have the same type of personality structure. This kind of assertion is questioned by many researchers. Despite this, to this day one can find "works" on the shelves of bookstores that propagate this dubious idea by describing the features of facial features and indicating their connection with certain personality traits. Let's take a look at one of them. For example, in the book of Francis Thomas "Secrets in the face." The author of this book claims that if a person has a long nose, then he is inventive and smart, like a fox; large, clean and shining eyes - an indicator of honesty and innocence; if a person’s eyebrows rise and fall while speaking, then this is a sure sign of an honest and brave man; wide and big mouth means a tendency to chatter, thick lips indicate a tendency to wine, etc. (229). It seems that the examples given are enough to once again be convinced of the inconsistency of many generalizations of physiognomists, and also that such books contain information that differs little from the delusions of ordinary consciousness.

In everyday life, a person associates the appearance, some features of the face with certain personality traits. This has been known for a long time. But, as a rule, he draws conclusions based on his personal experience, limited to a certain cool communication. Therefore, his conclusions about the relationship between the inside and the outside are not as deep and adequate as the observations given in Thomas's book. The desire of a person to judge a personality on the basis of its expression, to trust his physiognomic experience is noted by many researchers. So, in one of the studies, a group of people was presented with a set of photographs of people, which captured the moments when the person was in typical mental states for her. Participants of the experiment were asked to choose photos of two, from their point of view, the most preferred and two most rejected partners - neighbors for living in a communal apartment. Analyzing the results, the authors of the experiment come to the conclusion that positive and negative choices are not made by chance. The subject is guided in his choice by the person's appearance, attributing certain psychological characteristics to it (83)

studies than the work cited above also recorded the fact psychological interpretation people on the basis of their physiognomic features (see, for example, the works of V. N. Panferov, A. A. Bodalev). V. N. Panferov, having completed a large series of works in the late 60s - early 70s, devoted to the peculiarities of human perception based on his appearance, showed the limitations of physiognomic experience in cultural and historical frameworks. His works indicate those personality traits that are most often noted on the basis of her appearance, and also describe physiognomic stereotypes (135, 136, 138).

Representatives of the modern psychology of expression, the psychology of expressive, non-verbal behavior believe that in order to understand the essence of a person, it is necessary to analyze both the static (physiognomic) and dynamic structures of the expressive Self of the personality.

So, the results of the discussion of expression within the framework of philosophical ethics and aesthetics, art history disciplines, psychology, psycholinguistics, ethology and physiology were the foundation on which the psychology of expressive behavior was formed as interdisciplinary science. She adapted the provisions on the evolutionary-genetic prerequisites for the formation of expression, ideas about the relationship of various external manifestations of a person with brain activity, conclusions about the socio-historical determinants of the transformation of expressive behavior into a means of presenting the inner world of a person, the formation of his outer self.

From the above reflections of psychologists belonging to various directions studying personality expression, it follows, firstly, that by analogy with the classification of personality substructures and from the point of view of the variability of expression components, it consists of static and dynamic substructures. Secondly, based on the sources of the formation of expression, the external "I" of the personality, its substructures include social expressive movements and expressive movements that have a genotypic basis. The range of genotypic and acquired expressive movements, social and individual, personal and individual, their combination in the expressive self of a person is determined by the same factors, conditions, mechanisms as the interaction between the individual and the personal, the individual and the typical person in the personality. Different in origin types of expressive movements are a set of forms of existence and manifestation of multi-level components of the personality in its expressive self.

Thirdly, the expression of a person reveals his inner world in all its diversity and at the same time is an essential way of masking this world. Expressive behavior not only performs an expressive function, but also participates in the formation of a person's mental states, his affective reactions, so it does not always correspond to a person's actual experiences. Social, cultural fixation of forms of expression, ways of manifestation of the inner in the outer creates the conditions for the emergence of conventional sets of expressive movements. They, along with spontaneous expressive movements included in the structure of certain psychological formations, act as a means of communication, influence, regulation, formation of the external, expressive I of the individual.

Intensity, dynamics, symmetry - asymmetry, harmony - disharmony of movements, typicality - individuality - all these are characteristics of a person's expressive repertoire. The variety of elements of expressive behavior, the speed of their change, harmony, individuality, availability for reflection by a partner indicate that the subject has expressive talent, the ability to convey those parameters of his personality that are adequate to communication. An indefinite, monotonous repertoire, chaotic, convulsive movements indicate not only that a person does not know the “expressive language of the soul”, that he low level development of expressive giftedness, but also about the presence of deep internal conflicts. The development of an expressive repertoire must begin with the development of one's personality. Only in this case will the call addressed by K. S. Stanislavsky to the actors become the norm of behavior: “May the empty actor’s eye disappear forever from the stage, motionless faces, muffled voices, speech without intonation, clumsy bodies with a stiff spine and neck, with wooden hands, brushes, fingers, legs, in which movements do not shimmer, terrible gait and manners ”(172. p. 305).

In this book, the external, expressive I of a person is understood as a set of stable (physiognomy, individual constitutional characteristics of a person), moderately stable (appearance design: hairstyle, cosmetics, jewelry, clothes) and dynamic parameters of expression (expressive, non-verbal behavior), organized in spatial temporary structures and rearranged in the course of development of the psychophysiological, psychological and socio-psychological components of the personality structure. From these positions, expression as an external self of the personality associated with its stable and dynamic substructures can be discussed in the following directions: 1) as an indicator of the general psychomotor activity of the personality associated with its temperament (tempo, amplitude, intensity, harmony of movements); 2) as an indicator of the actual mental states of the individual; 3) as an expression of modality, a sign of the relationship of one person to another; 4) as a means of informing about the properties and qualities of a person; 5) as an indicator of the development of the individual as a subject of communication (programs for entering into contact, maintaining and leaving it); 6) as an indicator social status personality;

7) as a means of identifying a person with a certain group, community, culture, 8) as a means of masking, presenting and regulating the external self of the person; 9) as a means purposefully used by a person to control, neutralize negative relationships, conditions and create socially acceptable forms of behavior; 10) can be considered as an indicator of personal ways of discharge, relief in stressful situations. Along with these directions of personality structure analysis on the basis of her non-verbal behavior, she (personality) can also be studied from the point of view of using her expressive behavior to: 1) maintain an optimal level of intimacy with a partner; 2) to change relationships in communication; 3) to give a certain form to interaction with others (from conflict to agreement); 4) for the implementation of social stratification.

A multifaceted study of personality also involves consideration of the relationship between its speech and expressive behavior (correspondence, harmony, etc.). In this regard, we can talk about the possibilities for a person to use his expressive repertoire in order to clarify, change, enhance the emotional richness of what was said, in order to save a speech message. In general, in whatever direction the analysis of a person's expression is carried out, it is always the "language" of his soul.

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As a rule, harmony, integrity are inherent in those expressive signs that correspond to natural experiences. The deliberately feigned facial expression is disharmonic. The mismatch of facial movements (upper and lower parts of the face - a disharmonious "mask") indicates the insincerity of a person's feelings, his relationship to other people. Such a "disharmonious mask" can very accurately characterize a person, reflect his leading attitudes to the world. The harmony of expression, the synchronism of the elements of facial expressions is a kind of visual sign of a true relationship to another person, this is a sign inner harmony personality. Mimicry, facial expression is inseparable from personality, it expresses not just states, but states experienced by a particular person. From here come individual differences in the expression of the same emotion, attitude and, accordingly, the difficulty of their unambiguous understanding.

For centuries, in the process of socialization, mankind has developed methods for the formation of the external self of the individual and ideas about it. Such techniques are the sociocultural development of "expressive masks", the selection of a set of movements that make human behavior socially acceptable, successful, attractive. "Cultivation of expression" is one of the mechanisms of control not so much over the human body as over his personality. From the point of view of one famous researchers nonverbal communications of A. Scheflen, any element of expression (from posture to eye contact) exists in order to establish, maintain, limit relationships between interacting people. Therefore, interested public institutions are not just developing requirements for expressive human behavior, but using it to translate the socially desired spectrum of traits, states, relationships that should have a clear external expression. For example, for a long time, a “real” person was considered to have a simple face with big features, big hands, broad shoulders, a massive figure, a white-toothed smile, a direct look, a clear gesture, etc., and distinguished by efficiency, perseverance, stamina, courage. All those who, due to natural circumstances or conditions of upbringing, did not correspond to this behavioral model, risked being branded as "rotten intellectuals."

Despite the clear predominance of little conscious non-verbal patterns of behavior in the structure of expression, the subject uses expressive movements not only in accordance with their main function to express, but also in order to mask his real experiences and relationships, which becomes the subject of special efforts, leading to the development of control and control over the external self of the individual. Techniques for purposefully changing the expressive external self, its disguise were developed by representatives of the psychology of stagecraft. They associated these skills with the expressive giftedness of the individual, which, within the framework of the problem of the formation of the expressive I of the individual, can be interpreted as a set of abilities to "build" one's external I, "to reveal the inner "I" through the external "I". This process of "alignment" includes both cognitive-emotional and behavioral mechanisms, among which a special place is occupied by the idea of one's external self and its correspondence to the real, actual self of the individual.

Most psychological courses are aimed at making a person better adapted to reality. At the same time, much is taken as an axiom. For example: "In order to live better, you need to earn more money". Here people gather and begin to discuss how to make more money. Someone is busy looking for their other half, someone improves their memory. I do not deny the need for such events. But if you are only concerned with this reality - and as a rule, people of this varieties do not allow the idea that there are many other realities, that they, as beings, are present simultaneously in this many realities, and in fact their intention and meaning of life lies outside reality, then they do not go further than questions related to reality. But for me, these are the main questions. Therefore, not everyone gets here, or, if he does, he stays for a short time. For the reason that he is occupied only with our reality.

We have an outer "I" that deals with these issues with varying degrees of success. But we also have an inner "I": it knows who we really are. It is an endless source of wisdom, knowledge, love. But it turns out that a person, being both at the same time, is aware only of his external side. Outer side- Ego. The ego is the apparatus needed to manipulate the known, which most people do. They are introducing some certain meanings life, they don’t even look for them, they are given them in ready-made, and then all the energy is spent on realizing these meanings with varying degrees of success. They are typical.

We know it doesn't bring happiness, but most people try to save more and Moreover what they think will bring them happiness. Ultimately, they do not receive happiness and explain everything again in a certain way given to them.

It turns out that we know a lot, but we do not have access to it. All the same, we have a huge bank account, but at the same time we count the pennies in our wallet. Therefore, one of the most important points is to establish a connection between the outer and inner "I". Moreover, the external "I" is also necessary, I do not deny it at all. After all, being in reality, we need to act, and the external "I" does this. The outer "I" must have a certain equipment - the ability to do certain actions. There is no point in talking to a person who does not know how to do anything here. Because if he could not manifest himself here, how can he manifest the unknown that will be knocking at his door? But the approach to such a manifestation differs from the generally accepted one. It is based precisely on those impulses that come from the inner "I". You can call it the Higher Self, the inner essence.

I want to suggest that you enter this inner "I", and then bring the information received to the level of the outer "I". You can call it the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Right hemisphere is feminine, intuitive and controls the left side of the body. Left - masculine, logical, controls the right side of the body. This is the duality of man. Most people only use the left hemisphere. It seems that they have nothing but logic. Our whole world is built on logic, intuition is not taken into account, evidence is constantly required. It is very difficult to talk to people with the help of the intuitive part: they do not understand anything, they demand proof. But you just know it's an experience direct knowledge requiring no explanation. There is no torment of the mind.

The tragedy of people's lives lies in the fact that they are tormented, they cannot understand what is right and what is not, they are afraid to make a mistake, they are tormented by ideas of sin, etc. This is all the work of the conditioned mind. In principle, it is not necessary, it is not needed at all. You can act directly, based on the impulses of the inner "I". But actions resulting from impulses from the Higher Self or the intuitive part are unusual. They go against what is accepted. But most people are used to following logic. Now there is a very strong distortion of the logical part: one hemisphere is overloaded and the other is completely unused. Hence the division, fragmentation and constant torment. Therefore, the strengthening of the intuitive part is required. It does not mean that the one, the other, is not needed - they must act interconnectedly, unite. This is the most important thing - the combination of male and female. Here lies the key to understanding the relationship between man and woman. But this can only be known through oneself. If you open it and combine it in yourself, it becomes clear to you what is happening in the outside world as well.

I propose today to take a journey of consciousness into what our conditioned mind considers unknown. We need to take information from this journey, remember it and be able to present it. In fact, we travel all the time into the unknown, we are in the unknown, but we do not remember anything. This happens because of the separation of the inner and outer "I". They exist separately, although the inner "I" completely determines the outer. The outer "I" believes that it is in itself and is not connected with anything, does not depend on anything. It repeats the same thing, what it is filled with, what it considers itself to be.

A person is accustomed to consider himself a person. Personality is a set of habits. Take any quality and you will see that it is a habit. Habits create a psychological structure, for some it is very rigid, for others it is quite plastic, capable of change. This structure is self-supporting. Consider, for example, suicide. This is the result of a very rigid idea, which, as a result of a collision with a changing world, does not want to accept it. The world changes a rigid habit that chooses non-existence, but not the opportunity to change. Everything that happens acts on a rigid structure, and a person, changing, begins to flow along the river of life. If he insists on everything being the same, he simply collapses.

The river of life in all its diversity is very natural and understandable to our inner self. We are in it. If it were not so, then all our conversations would be meaningless. We are in it like the roots of a tree in the earth. The roots are not visible, but they feed the trunk of the tree. We prefer to see only what is above ground and do not want to see what is underground. We are internally rooted in existence, we have a huge number of roots that connect us with everything that is. But we deny all this and say that there is only what we see - that is, the Ego. I propose to make a series of journeys into our inner "I" in order for us to clarify what we have gathered for. It is there that the answers to those questions with which everyone came here are hidden. The main point is to establish contact with your inner "I", which contains all the answers to all questions.

The answer comes to the question. The question arises in the course of life. If we remember what questions we had at five, fifteen, twenty, forty years, we will see: they are different. You need to live something, then the next question arises. I say this to the fact that the very emergence of a question and a request, in my opinion, becomes an indicator of development. If a person asks the same question for a long time, this indicates that he does not develop at all. Because if he really wants to know the answer to the question, he will get it, but then the next question will appear.

One of the main points - and I always start with this - is a question or request. There are questions that arise in the conditioned mind, usually they are ordinary, trivial. If a person is ready for the fact that he is not limited to what he is accustomed to, and what he knows about himself, and is ready to plunge into the unknown, here he will gain a lot. If he does not want this, then what is happening will greatly annoy him. The atmosphere of uncertainty is very dramatic for the Ego, which loves certainty. It says it wants something new, but this new one is a variation on an old theme. I invite you into the unknown in all its immensity.

The term "expression" is translated into Russian as expressiveness, a vivid manifestation of feelings, moods. Expression is also interpreted as the presentation to the outside (to another person, a group of persons) of the psychological characteristics of a person hidden for direct observation. Expressiveness means the degree of expression of a particular feeling, mood, state, attitude, etc. The terms "expression" and "expressivity" are used not only by psychologists, but also by art historians, theater critics, when they need to emphasize the degree of expression of the spiritual world person or indicate the means of his expression, for example, music, painting, architecture. Thus, in the existing definitions of expression and expressiveness, there are indications of the connection of this phenomenon with the spiritual and spiritual world of a person. Ideas about the connection between expression and the inner world of a person, which were formed largely in philosophical, aesthetic, art history literature, were supplemented by psychologists. The essence of this connection in the context of psychology is seen in the fact that expression is given a place not just an external accompaniment of mental phenomena. It is interpreted as part of these phenomena, as a form of their existence. Therefore, we can talk about expression as a personal education, as a tool for understanding the inner world of a person, as about his outer self. The entire history of the psychology of expressive, expressive, non-verbal behavior confirms the validity of this conclusion. The great Russian researcher of expressive behavior, Prince Sergei Volkonsky, in his books (32, 33) wrote that expressive behavior is “the revelation of the inner “I” through the external “I”. “This is a self-image, and, moreover, eternally changing” (33. p. 16).

A great influence on the development of the psychology of expressive movements, as well as on the formation of the concept of expression as the external self of the personality, was the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the brain”. In it, he emphasized that “the entire infinite variety of external manifestations of brain activity is reduced to only one phenomenon - muscle movement” (165. p. 71), thereby proving that expressive movements also serve as a means of manifesting mental processes. “Just look at this nervous lady who is not able to resist even the expected light sound. Even in her facial expression, in her posture, there is something that is usually called determination, - writes I. M. Sechenov, - this, of course, is an external muscular manifestation of the act by which she tries, albeit in vain, to defeat involuntary movements . It is extremely easy for you to notice this manifestation of the will ... only because in your life you have seen similar examples 1000 times ”(165. p. 79). Based on the ideas of I. M. Sechenov, an approach to expressive movements began to develop as a means of objectifying the psychological characteristics of a person, as a means of creating an external self of a person. In the works of I. M. Sechenov there are a number of considerations regarding the relationship between the external and the internal. Among them are the idea that all human mental movements find their expression in external appearance and the idea that the connection between the external and the internal is fixed due to the systematic coincidence of the external and the internal, thanks to the socio-psychological observation of expressive behavior and its interpretation in communication. The ideas of I. M. Sechenov were continued in the work of D. Averbukh. He writes: “Internal changes in a person entail changes in his appearance ... appearance, therefore, is not a random combination of forms, but a strict and distinct expression of generic and individual characteristics inherent in the subject” (2. p. 30).

The interest of researchers in the expressive behavior of the individual, in the expression of a person did not weaken throughout the twentieth century and increased as fundamental psychological works appeared, which led to the formation of the psychology of expressive, expressive behavior of the individual as an independent branch of psychological science. It is presented in several directions that have developed during the 20th century - these are the German psychology of expression (Ausdruckpsychologie), the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior, non-verbal communications and the domestic psychology of expressive movements or expressive behavior.

Despite the fact that the Russian psychology of expressive behavior began to take shape in the first half of the 19th century, it is believed that the German psychology of expression is the first scientific tradition in the study of human expression. The main achievements of this branch of psychology are set forth in a voluminous volume entitled "Ausdruckpsychologie" (211). As follows from it, the subject of the psychology of expression is the patterns of revealing, on the basis of outwardly given signs, the essential nature of the personality; the study of expression as a holistic dynamic phenomenon, which presents the individual characteristics of a person, his current states, relationships, level of claims, value orientations, lifestyle, etc. The first graphic codes for the expression of basic emotions, including movements of the upper, middle, lower parts of the face and consisting of combinations of the “pattern” of the eyebrows, the mouth, the shape of the eyes, the direction of the wrinkles on the forehead, around the mouth and eyes, were compiled at the beginning of the century within the framework of the psychology of expression. As a basis, they are used for the purpose of encoding expression by many modern researchers.

A number of psychologists have made a significant contribution to the formation of the psychology of expression. One of them is Karl Gottschaldt (233). He raised the most important question about the field of phenomena, united by the concept of "expression". In his study, K. Gottschaldt observed with the help of a movie camera how a student solves a problem that was presented to him as a test that determines the level of development of his intellect. He fixed three stages of solving the problem: indicative, search for a solution and the stage of completion - success. For each of the stages of the decision, he recorded the “actual posture”, as well as facial, gestural, and intonational features of behavior. These data prompted the author of the work to clarify the concept of "expression". K. Gottschaldt proposed to distinguish between the concepts of "expression" and "external manifestations". External manifestations are understood as a direct representation of emotional states, and expression refers to a set of directed actions associated with the experienced, with the social position - this is a permanent structure of the personality, its character. K. Gottschaldt explains his approach to understanding the expression, based on the fact that various movements, for example, intermittent movements in a tense conflict situation, do not so much correspond to certain experiences of the individual, but rather indicate the general level of tension.

From our point of view, it is more legitimate to talk about several interpretations of this concept.

2. On the interpretation of the expression in the narrow sense as a category that encompasses personal, personal being. The subject of expression is a few stable features, style, manner.

3. About expression as a uniform manifestation of some kind of feeling or attitude, state.

4. About expression as a dynamic phenomenon corresponding to specific states, personality relationships.

In each of the above interpretations of “expression”, there is a general tendency to associate expression (expression) with constantly repeating patterns of means of expression corresponding to different levels of organization and formal-dynamic characteristics of the individual. In other words, an expression is something stable, inherent only to a given person, even if it is related to the dynamic structures of the personality (the same type rejoices, gets angry, shows aggression, etc.). In this sense, expression (a set of means of expression) is an individual-personal formation, it represents the external, expressive I of a person.

In parallel with the German psychology of expression, but in a different direction, the domestic psychology of expressive behavior is developing, which pays special attention to the study of the relationship between expressive movements and emotional states of a person. A personal approach to expressive movements began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. Its formation was influenced by the works of I. A. Sikorsky (166), V. M. Bekhterev (22). I. A. Sikorsky in his book “General Psychology with Physiognomy” presented expressive patterns (codes) of the most complex human experiences, such as shame, grief, linked expression with professional activity, pointed to different types of people represented in their expressive repertoire. Along with these ideas, I. A. Sikorsky clarified the concept of physiognomy and gave it the status of a scientific category. In general, I. A. Sikorsky considered expression as a personal formation, as the external self of a person.

V. M. Bekhterev in his work "Objective Psychology", published for the first time in 1907-1912, substantiates the approach to the study of the psyche through the analysis of its external manifestations. V. M. Bekhterev pays special attention to facial expressions and facial expressions. He proposes a classification of facial movements, considers their individual development, etc. After the works of V. M. Bekhterev, I. A. Sikorsky, up to the publication of S. L. Rubinshtein’s Fundamentals of General Psychology, expression is studied in ethological terms, in within the framework of comparative psychology, for example, the work of N. N. Ladygina-Kots (102). This trend in the study of expression was continued by N. A. Tikh (177). The value of these works lies in the fact that they reveal the evolutionary and genetic prerequisites for consolidating the links between expressive behavior and mental states of a person.

From the point of view of the humanitarian approach, S. Volkonsky contributed to the development of the psychology of expressive behavior, and he called his book Expressive Man (32). This book discusses gestures, human facial expressions as a special sign system that can be developed with the help of various kinds of exercises, attention is paid to the problem of the relationship between gestures, human expression and his inner world. In the works of S. Volkonsky, for the first time, such problems of modern psychology of expression were posed as the problem of self-presentation, the use of expression in order to create an image of the I of a person.

Subsequently, the humanitarian line in the study of expression was represented in Russian psychology by studies of the ontogenesis of speech (for example, the study of speech and non-verbal means of communication in children). These works emphasize that the basis for the formation of expressive movements as signs-indicators of the psychological characteristics of a person is the developing needs for communication and knowledge of oneself and another person. A huge role in the formation of the main provisions of the modern domestic psychology of expressive behavior was played by the work performed in the field of extralinguistics, in which expression is considered in connection with human speech behavior.

But the most significant influence on the development of the theory of the domestic psychology of expressive behavior (both its natural science and humanitarian branches) was exerted by the ideas of S. L. Rubinshtein, presented in the Fundamentals of General Psychology. His inclusion of a section on expressive movements in a textbook on general psychology gave this problem not only a fundamental scientific status, but also attracted the attention of many domestic psychologists to the expressive behavior of a person. His thoughts about the unity of natural and social, natural and historical in expressive behavior are used by modern researchers to explain the variety of forms of expression, the contradictory relationships between them and the psychological characteristics of the individual. He emphasized that expressive behavior is an integral part of the development of human actions, his behavior and activities. S. L. Rubinshtein believed that “.... the action is not limited to its external side, but has its own internal content and expression of a person’s relationship to the environment, is an external form of existence of the internal, spiritual content of the personality, and expressive movements are not just external, empty accompaniment of emotions, but the external form of their existence or manifestation” (158, p. 409). S. L. Rubinshtein drew attention to the fact that the statistical and dynamic aspects of expression are interrelated and are a characteristic of the personality as a whole.

Based on these ideas, in Russian psychology, expression, expressive movements are endowed with the function of revealing the internal in the external, “creating the image of a person” or his external self. person by person based on their appearance and expression (25). The formation of a socio-perceptual approach to human expression is associated with the name of A. A. Bodalev. Discussing the problem of personality expression, A. A. Bodalev points out that it is directly related to its psychological characteristics. From his point of view, “complex psychological formations, which are ensembles of processes and states that are continuously rebuilt in the course of activity, are dynamically expressed in the external appearance and behavior of a person in the form of a set of certain features organized into spatio-temporal structures” (25. P. 99 ) This set of features does not exist by itself, but acts as an indicator of mental processes and personality traits hidden for direct observation, that is, it is the expressive self of the personality. Further development of this problem within the framework of the psychology of communication led to the creation by V. N. Panferov (135, 137) of the concept of the relationship between the subjective properties of a person and the object characteristics of her behavior. He was one of the first in the socio-psychological plan to raise the problem of the external expressive I of the personality, the question of the correlation of signs-elements of the external appearance, human behavior with its psychological qualities. Subjective (psychological) qualities are revealed, according to V. N. Panferov, through the external appearance , which includes expression, activity and objective actions.

The Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior was originally formed as a branch that opposed itself to the German psychology of expression. Therefore, it more often uses the concept of "expression" in connection with the expression of emotional states, as dynamic elements in the structure of the personality, directly observable (without speculation on the psychology of expression). The terms "expression", "expressive" behavior are used in Anglo-American psychology in order to emphasize the expressive functions of non-verbal behavior, i.e., the functions of expression, the presentation of hidden and at the same time directly observable personality traits. Expression and non-verbal behavior have been studied and are being studied as objective indicators, as indicators of a wide variety of personality parameters, its changes under the influence of various kinds of influences. In other words, the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior also deals with the problem of personality expression, explores its external, expressive self.

Ch. Darwin's work (45) had a great influence on the formation of the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior. His main provisions are often analyzed in the relevant literature, so there is no need to dwell on his ideas in detail. It is important to emphasize that this work influenced both the formation of the psychology of non-verbal behavior, which has a sociocultural orientation in its explanatory schemes, and the one based on the evolutionary-biological approach to explaining the relationship between the external and the internal. A striking example of finding a compromise between the evolutionary-biological approach and the ideas of a cultural-psychological analysis of the relationship between expression and human mental states is the book by K. Izard "Human Emotions" (55), in which he analyzes in a number of chapters the evolutionary-biological significance of facial expression, and also shows its role in social interaction, describes the "codes" of expressive manifestations of the main emotions.

In general, the psychology of expression covers a wider range of phenomena than the psychology of non-verbal behavior. This is evidenced by the fact that within the framework of the psychology of expression, experimental physiognomy was formed and is still developing today, which refers to the stable characteristics of appearance, fixing the dynamic aspect of expression as “traces” of the prevailing experiences and relationships of a person. In the classical definition of physiognomy, it is emphasized that this is the expression of the face and figure of a person, taken without regard to expressive movements and due to the very structure of the face, skull, torso, limbs. But a close study of various works in the field of physiognomy convinces us that since the time of Aristotle, its representatives have been trying to combine the dynamic aspect of expression and the “traces” of experiences, the constitutional characteristics of a person, which relate to the static parameters of the expressive Self of the personality. The term "physiognomy" comes from the Greek words - nature, character - thought, cognitive ability. Hence the art of recognizing a character by external signs is called "physiognomy", and the signs themselves are called "physiognomy". In modern studies, "physiognomy" is interpreted as the doctrine of the expression of a person in facial features and body shapes, the doctrine of the expressive forms of the psychological make-up of a person. More details about the history of the formation of physiognomy are given in the book by V. V. Kupriyanov, G. V. Stovichek (90).

Aristotle is considered the founder of physiognomy. His treatise on physiognomy is analyzed in detail by A.F. Losev in the book “The History of Ancient Aesthetics. Aristotle and the Late Classic. Many of Aristotle's ideas are rightly criticized. For example, Aristotle wrote that whoever has thin, hard, upturned lips is a noble person; whoever has thick lips and the upper lip protrudes above the lower one is a stupid person; who has a wide, slow step, he is unexecutive, and whoever has a small step, he is enterprising. However, one cannot but pay attention to the fact that he was the first to identify the sources of contradiction between the (expression) code and its content. First, Aristotle notices that under various conditions one can achieve any expression, even one that does not correspond to them. Secondly, he notes the variability of modes of expression. Thirdly, he states that the coding of the state depends on the ability of a person to adequately express his experiences. And finally, Aristotle notes that there are signs of mental states that a person does not experience at the moment, but as residual phenomena they enter into the structure of his appearance.

Thus, even Aristotle noted that an expression is not always a sign of a real state, that the structure of an expression includes signs that are conventional in nature, that the coding of the internal in the external is determined by the ability of a person to control expression.

V. Lazarev notes in the preface to Leonardo da Vinci's book that the main prerequisite for the artist's psychological creativity is "a holy belief in a harmonious correspondence between body and soul." For Leonardo, "if the soul is disordered and chaotic, then the body itself in which this soul dwells is also disordered and chaotic." Physical beauty and a beautiful soul are one and the same for the artist, so he rarely resorted to depicting ugly faces. Along with general physiognomic observations, Leonardo paid much attention to images of the expression of states, relationships between people, gave advice on how to depict gestures, facial expressions of noble people. He was firmly convinced of the absolute correspondence of emotional experiences to their external manifestations, therefore he gives exact instructions on how to portray anger, despair, etc. Leonardo advises paying attention to the reasons that caused a certain state of a person, in his opinion, expression and features of her image. “... Some cry from anger, others from fear, some from tenderness and joy, others from foreboding, some from pain and torment, others from pity and grief, having lost relatives or friends; with these weeping, one shows despair, the other is not too sad, some are only tearful, others scream, some have their faces turned to the sky and their hands are lowered, their fingers intertwined, others are frightened, with shoulders raised to their ears; and so on, depending on the above reasons. The one who pours out the lamentation raises the eyebrows at the point of their joining, and moves them together, and forms folds in the middle above them, lowering the corners of the mouth. The one who laughs has the latter raised, and the eyebrows are open and removed from each other ”(66. P. 186-197).

A special contribution to the development of physiognomy was made by the work of I. Lavater "Fragments on physiognomy for the best knowledge of man and the spread of philanthropy." Lavater sketched thousands of faces and created 600 tables. The album, compiled from these tables, he called the "Bible of Physiognomy". Interesting is Lavater's attempt to restore a person's appearance on the basis of knowledge about his beliefs, actions, creative activity ("physiognomy in reverse"). He sought to realize this idea in the process of working on a physiognomic portrait of Jesus Christ (given on 90). Many interesting observations about the interaction of external appearance and psychological characteristics of a person can be found in the book by Francois de La Rochefoucauld “Memoirs. Maxims" (104). He wrote: “Attractiveness in the absence of beauty is a special kind of symmetry, the laws of which are unknown to us; this is a hidden connection between all facial features, on the one hand, and facial features, colors and the general appearance of a person, on the other” (104, p. 169).

A lot of food for thought on the peculiarities of the relationship between the physiognomic and dynamic aspects of the expressive self of a person is provided by the works of art of great writers who are distinguished by observation, insight, etc. It is enough to recall the “game of portraits”, the author and active participant of which was I. S. Turgenev. The essence of this game is as follows: 5-6 portraits were drawn in advance, in which Turgenev sought to convey his ideas about people of various social strata, their characters. Each participant in the game, according to the details of appearance, had to give a psychological description of the depicted faces. As follows from the judgments of the participants in the "game" given together with the drawings in the 73rd volume of the "Literary Heritage", they showed a certain ability to establish links between the external and the internal. But the main thing is that their answers, in other words, the psychological portraits of the people depicted, coincided in content.

For example, a poem by N. Zabolotsky "On the beauty of human faces":

There are faces like magnificent portals, Where everywhere the great seems to be in the small. There are faces - the likeness of miserable shacks, Where the liver is boiled and the abomasum gets wet. Other cold, dead faces Closed with bars, like a dungeon. Others are like towers in which no one lives and looks out the window for a long time. But I once knew a small hut, It was unsightly, not rich, But from its window the breath of a spring day flowed at me. Truly the world is both great and wonderful! There are faces - the likeness of jubilant songs. Of these notes, shining like the sun, A song of heavenly heights is composed.

(N. A. Zabolotsky. Poems and poems. M.-L., 1965. P. 144)

"intelligence", "will", "character" (energetic - not energetic, moralist, pessimist, good - evil, sympathetic - unsympathetic, cheerful - sad), "age". As a result of the study, they received data indicating that certain face patterns are consistently placed by the majority of subjects in certain places on the scales. An analysis of the features of faces assigned to certain scales showed that such features as the “height of the lips”, the distance between the eyes, and the height of the forehead are of the greatest importance for placing a face on a certain scale. For example, if there was a “high forehead” on the face diagram, then the image as a whole made a more pleasant impression, and a person with such a face was perceived as more attractive, intelligent, energetic than the image with a “low forehead”. Schemes in which the location of the lips, mouth was higher than in other figures, occupied a place on the “age” scale that corresponded to a young age. At the same time, the "very high mouth" indicates, according to the participants of the experiment, unintelligence and lack of energy as a character trait. "Frowning eyebrows", "suffering eyes", "long" upper lip are characteristic of sad, pessimistic people. Many researchers used face diagrams compiled by E. Brunswick, L. Reiter (given on 211).

One of the main conclusions of the physiognomic approach to the expressive I of the personality is the conclusion that people with a similar appearance have the same type of personality structure. This kind of assertion is questioned by many researchers. Despite this, to this day one can find "works" on the shelves of bookstores that propagate this dubious idea by describing the features of facial features and indicating their connection with certain personality traits. Let's take a look at one of them. For example, in the book of Francis Thomas "Secrets in the face." The author of this book claims that if a person has a long nose, then he is inventive and smart, like a fox; large, clean and shining eyes - an indicator of honesty and innocence; if during speaking a person's eyebrows rise and fall, then this is a sure sign of an honest and brave person; a wide and large mouth indicates a tendency to chatter, thick lips indicate a tendency to wine, etc. (229). It seems that the examples given are enough to once again be convinced of the inconsistency of many generalizations of physiognomists, and also that such books contain information that differs little from the delusions of ordinary consciousness.

In everyday life, a person associates appearance,

THEORETICAL STUDIES

PERSON AND ESSENCE:

EXTERNAL AND INNER HUMAN SELF

A. B. ORLOV

Confused about what is different and what is not,

means to be confused about everything.

Grof S.Beyond the brain

PERSONALITY

If we generalize the definitions of the concept of “personality” that exist within the framework of various psychological theories and schools (K. Jung, G. Allport, E. Kretschmer, K. Levin, J. Nutten, J. Gilford, G. Eysenck, A. Maslow, etc. .) (see, for example,), then we can say that personality is traditionally understood as “... a synthesis of all the characteristics of an individual into a unique structure that is determined and changed as a result of adaptation to a constantly changing environment” and “... is largely shaped by the reactions of others on the behavior of this individual. So, we can say that the personality of a person is social in nature, relatively stable and occurring in vivo. psychological education, which is a system of motivational-need relations that mediate the interaction of the subject and object.

Such a definition of personality is quite consistent with its understanding, in particular, in domestic (Soviet) psychology, oriented towards Marxism (L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontiev, L. I. Bozhovich, etc.). “In the social philosophy of Marxism, through the concept of “personality”, as a rule, essential social relations, social roles, norms, and value orientations assimilated by a person are characterized. . . ” .

It should be noted, however, that in principle right idea that “one is not born a personality”, that a person becomes a personality, “is dressed up” served in domestic psychology as the basis for a completely incorrect, in our opinion, point of view that not every person is a personality. Such an idea, on the one hand, gave an ethical, moral dimension to a purely psychological problem, gave rise to something that could be called a “heroic vision” of a person. So, for example, in a textbook on the psychology of personality by A. G. Asmolov we read: “To be a person means to have an active life position, about which one can say: “I stand on this and I cannot do otherwise.” To be a person means to make choices that have arisen due to internal necessity, to be able to assess the consequences of the decision taken and to hold accountable for them to oneself and society. To be a person means to have the freedom of choice and to bear the burden of choice throughout life. To be

personality - it means to make a contribution to the society for which you live and in which the life path of an individual turns into the history of the Motherland, merges with the fate of the country. Such a definition of personality deprives the vast majority of adults, not to mention children, of the right to be considered a person. On the other hand, the ethical (or, one might say, more down-to-earth, pedagogical) definition of personality, thanks to its indirect denial of personality in the child, in the student, has served and still serves to justify manipulative, formative pedagogical practice: children must be “made out” as individuals.

From the above generalized definition of personality, it follows, firstly, that personality is an attributive characteristic of each human subject, but not by this subject itself, and, secondly, that personality is such a psychological characteristic of the subject that regulates its relationship with objective reality. Thus, a personality is a system of motivational relations that a subject has.

MOTIVATIONAL ATTITUDE - COMPONENTS, FUNCTIONS, TYPES

If we now turn to the consideration of the motivational relation as such, that is, to the consideration of that “molecule” or “cell” (L. S. Vygotsky) that makes up a person’s personality, then we can say that such a unit of personality is not a motive , not a need, etc. in their separate, but a holistic complex of interrelated determinants - a motivational attitude. The components of the motivational attitude are described in detail in a number of psychological theories of motivation (see,,,,,,,, etc.). These components - determinants include: objectified need, de-objectified motive, purpose and meaning. Each of these four determinants in the structure of the motivational attitude corresponds to a certain function: needs - an activating function; motive - motivating function; goals - guiding function; sense is a comprehending function. At the same time, these components and their corresponding functions can act in the structure of a motivational relationship both as antagonists (for example, need and meaning, motive and goal) and as synergists (for example, need and motive, meaning and goal).

For further analysis, it is also extremely important to distinguish between subject, subject and object contents. The subject content is the totality of a person's motivational relations or the content of his personality (i.e., the content of objectified needs, deobjectified motives, goals and meanings). Subject content is an area of personal dynamics and personal determination. Subjective and object content are a set of quasi-motivational relations that are not objectified and not de-objectified, respectively, and thus are not included in the area of personal dynamics. In other words, these contents are localized not between the poles "subject" and "object", but on these poles themselves. For example, an unobjectified need has no subject content and can only be characterized through subject content; consequently, unobjectified needs form the subjective content and the area of subjective (non-personal) dynamics and determination. Similarly, an unobjectified (only known) motif also does not have an objective content and can only be characterized through object content; it is the non-objective motives that form the object content and the area of object (also non-personal) dynamics and determination.

Making a distinction between subject, subject and object content, it is important to take into account the following fundamental circumstance: only the area of subject content is potentially conscious, while subject and object

content as such is in principle unconscious. If the subject content forms the sphere of our subjective unconscious, which has traditionally been the subject of all variants of depth psychology (from psychoanalysis to ontopsychology), then the object content is our objective unconscious, the existence of which is reflected in the intuitive insights of V. Frankl and K. Jung, , , and in a more systematized form is presented in the works of a number of theorists of modern transpersonal psychology (see, for example,).

The ratio of subject, subject and object content can be represented graphically in the form of the following diagram (see Fig. 1):

Rice. one. The ratio of subject (P), subject (S) and object (O) contents

The ratio of the four functions of the various components of motivational education in this scheme can be represented as follows (see Fig. 2):

Rice. 2.The ratio of the functions of the various components of motivational education: Ak - activation, Po - motivation. On - direction. Os - comprehension

Consideration of the ratio of the four functions of the motivational relation allows, in the first approximation, to single out three types of motivational relations. The first type is affectively accentuated motivational relations located near the area of subjective content and representing “affectively developed” motivations with high potential activation and motivation, but poor comprehension and without a detailed target structure. The second type is cognitively accentuated motivational relations, which, adjoining the objective limit of the continuum of personal manifestations, on the contrary, are well understood and algorithmized, but experience a clear deficit in terms of activation and motivation. And finally, the third type of motivational relationships is represented by harmonious motivations.

Rice. 3. Types of motivational relationships:

AAMO - affectively accentuated motivational relationships; GMO - harmonious motivational relationships; KAMO - cognitively accentuated motivational relationships

In the phenomenal plane of personality self-awareness, the first two types of motivational relationships are most often perceived as “external motives” (passion and duty, respectively), as manifestations of a foreign “external force” applied to the personality, as manifestations of attachment and / or dependence. On the contrary, motivational formations of the third type manifest themselves as “internal motives” and give rise to special states of consciousness of the individual, which have received the name “flow state” in psychology and which are characterized, in particular, by indifference in relation to social assessments, slowing down of subjective time, loss of such a characteristic of conventional consciousness as clear

the boundary between myself and what surrounds me (see,).

These schemes (see Fig. 1 - 3) also make it possible to more clearly present the areas of intrapersonal and extrapersonal dynamics and determination: if intrapersonal dynamics is the self-determination of the personality by its own subject content, represented by motivational relationships that make up the personality, then the impersonal determination is the influence on the personality “outside”, that is, from the side of subjective and object contents. The processes of extrapersonal dynamics and determination proceed on the “boundaries” of the personality and at the same time ensure its openness to non-objective content due to convergent processes of objectification and deobjectification, and its closeness to this non-objective content due to divergent processes of repression and resistance. The dyads of antagonist processes (objectification/repression and deobjectification/resistance) form, respectively, the subjective and objective “boundaries” of the personality. These boundaries can be represented as a kind of psychological "membrane" with a selective throughput in relation to the subjective and object contents and thereby maintaining the integrity of the personality. Moreover, through these “membranes”, the personality not only builds and regenerates itself through the processes of objectification and deobjectification, but also frees itself from “decay products”, removes disintegrated motivational relations from the area of subject content through the processes of repression and resistance (see Fig. 4) .

Rice. four.The ratio of areas of intrapersonal and extrapersonal dynamics. Subjective and objective “boundaries” of personality

“EMPIRICAL” PERSONALITY AND ITS STRUCTURE

If we return to original definition personality as a set of motivational relations of the subject to objective reality, then, taking into account all of the above, personality can be represented as a kind of shell that surrounds the area of subjective content and separates given area from the area of object content. At the same time, depending on the type of motivational relations that make up the personality, it can be made up of both external (affectively and cognitively accentuated) and internal (harmonious) motivations. The personal “shell” as a whole can be considered as an area of potential personal development. Each “empirical” (that is, concrete, really existing) personality is a concrete actualization of this general potential and thus has a well-defined localization or, more precisely, a configuration within a given area (see Fig. 5).

Rice. 5.Correlation between the area of potential personal development and a specific “empirical” personality

The scheme shown in fig. 5, allows you to see three types of zones, or fragments of the "empirical" personality:

1) zones consisting of cognitively accentuated motivational relationships; these zones can be called zones of a person’s psychological defenses, it is they that make up that side of the personality,

which K. Jung designated by the term “persona”;

2) zones consisting of affectively accentuated motivational relations; these zones can be called zones of human psychological problems, they constitute that aspect of the personality, which K. Jung designated by the term “shadow”; according to K. Jung, the “shadow”, or the personal unconscious (as opposed to the collective unconscious) is “the totality of those mental processes and contents that by themselves can reach consciousness, for the most part have already reached it, but because of their incompatibilities with it have undergone repression, after which they are stubbornly kept below the threshold of consciousness.

3) zones consisting of harmonious motivational relationships; these zones can be called zones of psychological actualizations, or the “face” of a person (cf.: “I am a priori ” in the ontopsychological system of A. Meneghetti) (see Fig. 6).

Rice. 6.Zones: psychological defenses - "person" (a), problems - "shadow" (b) and actualization - "face" (c) of a person in the structure of his "empirical" personality

Thus, the "empirical" personality is a disintegrated (by definition) set of "person", "shadow" and "face".

It should be noted that we use these concepts, of course, not in their original meanings, but in those meanings that are given and determined by the theoretical context of the concept presented. In other words, we use the “terminological shells” of individual concepts that exist in various theoretical traditions. At the same time, we consider the content of these concepts as the closest (but not initially identical) to the content with which they are filled within the framework of the concept of personality and essence of a person.

ONTO- AND ACTUALGENESIS OF “EMPIRIC” PERSONALITY

Intrapersonal by their nature, the processes of emergence and development of "persona" and "shadow" in a person's personality are conditioned by circumstances related to the plan of interpersonal relations. The “persona” and the “shadow” of a personality are thus formed not according to their own internal logic, but due to reasons that have a communicative nature and interpersonal origin. They arise in the child's personality solely because he is forced to communicate with adults who already have their own "persons" and "shadows". The child is forced to gradually give up his universal "face", from his original, basic personality, consisting of harmonious motivational relations that function in the logic of the “value process” (K. Rogers), and develop an “adult” personality-individuality, consisting mainly of “persona” and “shadow” and functioning in the logic of “value systems”, t i.e. fixed “positive” and “negative” values. The main driving force of this process is the child's desire to maintain acceptance and love from the adults around him (see,).

In accordance with the understanding of this process in the esoteric psychological system of G. I. Gurdjieff (see), an understanding that was subsequently reproduced in the works of such major psychologists and psychotherapists of our time as A. Maslow, K. Rogers and A. Meneghetti:

“The actions of a small child are such that they reflect the truth about his being. He or she is not manipulative. . . But as soon as socialization begins, personality begins to form. The child learns to change

behavior so to match the patterns accepted in the culture. This learning occurs partly through purposeful learning and partly through a natural tendency to imitate. As an inevitable consequence of the long period of human social dependence(and the absence of instinctive limitations characteristic of lower animals) we thereby acquire sets of habits, roles, tastes, preferences, concepts, ideas and prejudices, desires and imaginary needs, each of which reflects the characteristics of the family and social environment and not really internal tendencies and attitudes. All this makes up a person.” An anonymous author describes the process of socialization (formation of personality) as a genuine drama:

“How can you lose yourself? Betrayal, unknown and unthinkable, begins with our secret psychic death in childhood ... it is a full-fledged double crime ... He (the child) should not be accepted as such, as he is. Oh, they "love" him, but they want him or force him or expect him to be different! Therefore, it should not be accepted. He learns to believe it himself and eventually takes it for granted. He actually renounces himself... His center of gravity is in "them" and not in himself... Everything looks quite normal; no intentional crime, no body, no charge. All we can see is the sun rising and setting as usual. But what happened? He was rejected not only by them, but by himself. (He really doesn't have ya) What did he lose? Just one genuine and vital part oneself: one's own yes-feeling, which is the very capacity of its growth, its root system. But alas, he did not die. “Life” goes on, and he must live too. From the moment of his renunciation of himself, and depending on the degree of this renunciation, all he now, without knowing it, is concerned with is the creation and maintenance of a pseudo-I (p seudo-self ). But this is only expediency - I am without desires. He believes that he is loved (or feared), the mowers actually despise him, he considers himself strong when in fact he is weak; he must move (but these movements are caricatured), not because it amuses and pleases, but in order to survive, not because he wants to move, but because he must obey. This necessity is not life, is not his life, it is defense mechanism against death. It is also a death machine... In short, I see that we become neurotic when we seek or defend a pseudo-I, I-system; and we are neurotic to the extent that we are self-less” (cited in ).

Similar transformations of the “value process” of the child into various value systems during the child's internalization of various social roles and norms were the main subject of research in domestic developmental and educational psychology. Thus, for example, in a well-known study by A. V. Zaporozhets and Ya. Z. Neverovich, it was shown that the internalization of a group demand by a child occurs, as it were, in three stages. At first, the child fulfills the group demand (behind which, in one way or another, there is the demand of an adult, educator) to be on duty, accepting him as someone else, and in every possible way tries to elude this work that is indifferent to him. At the second stage, the child is "on duty" if there is an external support, a "stimulus-means" like praise or external control over his behavior. At the third stage, functional-role relations social group, its norms and requirements acquire a personal meaning for the child.

Let us now consider the actual genesis of the various structures that make up the “empirical” personality.

First of all, the actual genesis of the personality is represented by the process of personalization, which ensures the strengthening of the personal “persona”, representing a tendency to

the transformation of the entire “empirical” personality into one “persona”. This process can take place in various forms, one of which can be called "horizontal" personalization, or "spin" (rotation, shift) of the "person", its pushing on other personal zones. Such personalization manifests itself, on the one hand, as a demonstration of the strengths, “facades” (K. Rogers) of the personality, and on the other hand, as a disguise, concealment by a person of his personal. problems both in communication with other people and in communication with oneself. Another form of personalization - “vertical” personalization or “fortification” (strengthening, thickening) of the “persona” - manifests itself primarily in fencing off, in the “internal withdrawal” (A.N. Leontiev) of a person from what surrounds him, usually combined with a feeling (often illusory) of an increase in internal psychological security.

The process of personalization, in its two different forms, is the transmission of oneself to the world, to other people, as a strong or powerful "person". It can proceed autonomously through three different channels, have three different parameters - “authority”, “reference”, “attractiveness” (AV Petrovsky). However, in all cases, the process of personalization leads to the fact that a person becomes: a) more closed, more fenced off from other people; b) less capable of empathy, empathy in relationships with other people; c) less capable of expressing outwardly, presenting others with their own psychological problems, less congruent.

Moreover, a successful process of personalization can lead to the autonomization of individual fragments of the “shadow” of a person, to their transformation into encapsulated complexes of the individual unconscious. The fact is that personalization leads to a reduction and reduction of the zones of actualization of a person, which act, in particular, as intermediaries, mediators between the “persona” of a person and his “shadow”. The disappearance of such zones means the mutual isolation of the “persona” and the “shadow”, the loss of contact between them, which in turn gives rise to the phenomena of “negative psychology” and generally aggravates the situation of “existential schizophrenia”, which is characteristic of the life of a modern person (see, , ).

The second aspect of the actual genesis of personality is the process of personification. Personification is personalization with an inverse sign; unlike personalization, it manifests itself not in a person's desire to “be a person”, but in his desire to be himself. This process can also take place in two different forms - as a “horizontal” personification or “anti-spin” of a “persona”, i.e. a shift of the “persona” from other personality zones, its contraction horizontally, and as a “vertical” personification or “relaxation” (weakening, thinning) "persons". In all cases of personification, we are dealing with an increase in the zones of actualization of a person, with a weakening of the confrontation between “persona” and “shadow” in a person’s personality, with the rejection of personal “facades”, that is, with a greater self-acceptance of a person. A successful personalization process enhances integration personality structures, increases the degree of positivity, empathy and congruence (K. Rogers) of a person and thereby contributes to an increase in the degree of general authenticity of a person of his essence (see below). The parameters of personification (positive valuelessness, empathy and congruence), in contrast to the parameters of personalization (authority, referentiality, attractiveness), do not form autonomous, separate lines of development, on the contrary, they are closely related to each other: it is impossible to personify only according to one of these parameters - greater non-judgment is always associated with greater empathy and greater congruence of the individual. By its very nature, personification is a much more holistic, organic, and integrative process than personality personalization (see Figure 7).

Rice. 7.The processes of personalization (a) and personification (b) in a person's personality

As we have already noted, the conditions for intrapersonal processes (personalization and personification) are interpersonal, communicative processes. This thesis allows us to postulate the existence of both personalizing communication and personifying communication. In the first case, we are dealing with communication with a clearly defined evaluative context, with communication carried out in a system of interpersonal relations, which is characterized by a well-defined “emotional map” of likes and dislikes, with communication in which a person must be adequate not to himself, but predetermined and often ritualized communicative and value cliches. In personifying communication, on the contrary, attitudes towards non-judgmentalism, empathy and congruence to oneself predominate. Exaggerating somewhat, we can say that personalizing communication leads to the disintegration of the personality, autonomization of the “persona” and “shadow”, psychopathologizes it, increases the zones of psychological defenses and problems, reduces the zones of actualization, while personifying communication, on the contrary, is a condition for the integration of a person’s personality, makes this person more holistic, treats her: psychological defenses are “dismantled”, psychological problems are constructively resolved, the zones of self-actualization expand, and harmonious, optimal motivational education. Thus, personalizing communication, as it were, leads the “empirical” personality away from the optimum of its full-fledged functioning; personifying communication, on the contrary, brings the “empirical” personality closer to this ideal.

SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE “EMPIRICAL” PERSON

Important consequences of the processes of personalization and personification are changes in the psychological meaning of the self-concept of a person, his self-consciousness. These changes are associated with the peculiarities of self-identification and self-acceptance of a person. The process of personalization leads to the fact that a person accepts in his personality only her “persona” and self-identifies with her. Here we are dealing with cases of the so-called false self-identification of a person. Since the “persona” in an “empirical” personality is, as a rule, fragmentary, it is a “polypnyak” of “subpersonalities” (“subpersonalities”), then self-identification in the case of a personalizing personality turns out to be not only false, but also multiple.

As you know, the concept of subpersonality was introduced into scientific use within the framework of psychosynthesis, a psychotherapeutic system developed by the Italian psychiatrist and psychologist R. Assagioli (see,). In accordance with his ideas, a subpersonality is a dynamic substructure of a personality that has a relatively independent existence. The most typical subpersonalities of a person are those associated with the social (family or professional) roles that he takes on in life, for example, with the roles of a daughter, mother, son, father, grandmother, beloved, doctor, teacher, etc. Psychosynthesis, as a psychotherapeutic procedure, involves the client's awareness of his subpersonalities, followed by disidentification with them and gaining the ability to control them. Following this, the client gradually gains awareness of the unifying inner center and integrates subpersonalities into a new psychological structure,

open to self-realization, creativity and joy of life.

In cases of false self-identification, the answer to the question “who am I?” turns out to be a list of inherently social roles, positions, functions: “husband”, “father”, “military”, “colonel”, “breadwinner”, “sportsman”, “philatelist”, etc. Generalization of the “person”, absorption one “subperson” of others, leads, as a rule, to the emergence of a “superperson” (according to the “authority” parameter - “father of nations”, “Fuhrer”, “great helmsman”; according to the “reference” parameter - “expert”, “leading specialist ”, “Academician”; in terms of “attractiveness” - “beauty”, “star”, “super-model”), in a generalized “persona” the plurality of human self-identifications is overcome (but even then only partially), but the falsity of these self-identifications is still here more intensified.

What happens to the self-consciousness of a person whose personality is personified? In this case, a person is inclined to accept in himself not only his personal, but also his shadow sides and manifestations, he, on the one hand, sees himself in everything, but, on the other hand, he does not fully identify himself with any of his roles or functions. . For example, the role of a father is perceived by a person as one of his roles, to which he as such is not reduced. In other words, his true Self (essence) each time bypasses the “nets” of false self-identifications and is rather negatively defined in relation to them: I am not a “husband”, not a “father”, not a “military”, etc. In this sense, personification personality is always associated with a crisis of self-identification and with the realization of the fundamental psychological fact that the personality and essence of a person are two different psychological instances: personality is not essence, essence is not personality. The personification of a personality also leads to the alignment, “simplification” of its empirical contour, to the “drawing” of the zones of psychological defenses and problems into the zone of psychological actualization of a person. The personified personality or “face” of a person represents harmonious “internal” motivations and existential values. Such a personality is characterized by altered (compared to conventional) states of consciousness and “peak experiences” (A. Maslow), it can be characterized as a “fully functioning personality” (see , , , , , , ).

So, we examined the phenomenon of personality, its internal structure, a set of intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that ensure its functioning and formation, as well as its self-consciousness.

The main property of a personality is its attributive character: a personality is not a subject, but an attribute. In relation to the true subject, the human personality acts as an external “shell” consisting of motivational relations, which can both translate and transform the true subjective manifestations of a person.

In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the origin of the word “personality” itself. As you know, the Latin word "persona" originally served to designate a special mask used by an actor in the ancient theater. This mask, on the one hand, helped the actor: equipped with a special bell, it amplified the sound of his voice and conveyed this voice to the audience. On the other hand, she hid the face of the actor under the guise of a character. Interestingly, the etymology of the word “persona” (“per” - through, “sonus” - sound) - “that through which the sound passes” - even more clearly denotes both the attributive and dual (facilitating / obstructing) nature of the personality (see ) .

THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN

Whom does the personality help or hinder? Who is the real subject?

To designate a given subject as a transpersonal (i.e. beyond- and extra-personal and, consequently, beyond- and extra-social) mental reality, we, following G. I. Gurdjieff and his followers

The gradual awareness of the impersonal or, more precisely, the transpersonal nature of the essence, or the Inner Self of a person, which is currently taking place, sometimes acquires in the domestic psychological science rather eccentric shapes. “In real life,” writes, for example, A. G. Asmolov, “every person is inhabited by a trickster, or a cultural hero, whose existence manifests itself in situations that require the choice and setting of super-goals, resolving contradictions with a social group and oneself, searching for non-standard ways of development”. Such conceptualization reduces the true essence of a person to the role of ... a trickster, a jester.

Distinguishing personality and essence, the outer and inner self of a person means at the same time posing the problem of interaction between these mental instances. As already noted, this interaction can be described in terms of general view as a combination of two differently directed processes - objectification and repression, which form the internal (subjective) boundary of the personality. These processes can also be described in terms of “self-acceptance” and “self-acceptance”. In this case, we will talk about accepting or not accepting oneself no longer as a person, but as a true subject of life, existing independently and outside any social norms, stereotypes, value systems, etc.

Important psychological phenomena that characterize the dynamics of content on the boundary between personality and essence are the so-called phenomena of false and genuine self-identification.

We have a false self-identification whenever a person identifies himself with this or that personal formation, with this or that social role, mask, mask in its origin and function. He, as it were, forgets about the true subject, ignores it, puts a sign of identity between himself and his personality (or, more precisely, subpersonality). Genuine self-identification, on the other hand, is always associated with renunciation.

from whatever personal self-determinations and self-identifications, with the constant awareness of the fact that my essence can have any roles and identities, but is never reduced to them, always remains behind them, one way or another manifesting itself in them. Genuine self-identification also means a constant search for an answer to the question “Who am I?”, inner work on self-exploration, the desire to understand the dissonance of subpersonalities and hear through it the purest, undistorted messages of the essence. False self-identification (usually self-identification of a person with one or another of his subpersonalities) is dangerous in that it deproblematizes the inner world, creates the illusion of its self-evidence (I am me, my ego), closes a person access to his essence.

According to G. I. Gurdjieff (see), the main obstacles standing in the way of the actual development of a person are his own qualities, the most important of which is the ability to identify (i.e., complete identification of oneself with what is happening, self-loss in combination with the orientation of processes attention and awareness exclusively outside). A kind of identification is "precautionary" (concidering) - self-identification with the expectations of other people. G. I. Gurdjieff distinguished two types of such courtesy. Inner consideration reveals itself in a constant sense of scarcity, lack of attention and affection from other people and in a constant desire to fill this deficit by identifying with the expectations of others. External caution, on the contrary, is associated with a developed self-awareness and is an internally motivated practice of empathy, not due to the actions, experiences and expectations of other people.

The second obstacle is the ability to lie, that is, to speak about what is really unknown. A lie is a manifestation of partial (untrue) knowledge, knowledge without true understanding. The lie reveals itself as mechanical thinking, reproductive imagination, constant external and internal dialogue, excessive movements and muscle tension, absorbing time and energy of a person.

The third obstacle is the inability to love. This quality is closely connected with the ability to identify in the form of internal caution and with the multiplicity of "I" of each person, with his disintegration. The inability to love manifests itself in the constant metamorphoses of “love” into hatred and other negative emotional states(anger, depression, boredom, irritation, suspicion, pessimism, etc.), which fill literally the entire emotional life of a person, carefully hidden, as a rule, under the guise of well-being or indifference (see).

All these internal obstacles on the way of self-examination and self-improvement of a person are consequences of the process of personality formation, consequences of the fact that the original human potentiality (essence) is captured by its personal “shell”, in a kind of “psychic trap”.

G. I. Gurdjieff wrote about this psychological lack of freedom and, consequently, the conditionality of man as follows: “Man is a machine. All his aspirations, actions, words, thoughts, feelings, beliefs and habits are the results of external influences. Man cannot produce a single thought or a single action out of himself. Everything that he says, does, thinks, feels - all this happens to him ... A person is born, lives, dies, builds a house, writes books not as he wants, but as it all happens. Everything happens. A person does not love, does not hate, does not desire - all this happens to him ”(see).

K. Spit also notes that according to G. I. Gurdjieff: “… every adult has several “I” (selves), each of which uses the word “I” for self-description. At one moment there is one “I” and at another another, which may or may not feel sympathy for the previous “I”.

This "I" may not even know that another "I" exists, because between the different "I" there are relatively impenetrable defenses called buffers. Clusters of “I” form subpersonalities connected associations- some for work, others for the family, others for the church or synagogue. These clusters may not know about other clusters of "I" if they are not associated with them by associative links. One "I" can promise, and the other "I" will not know anything about this promise because of the buffers and therefore will have no intention of fulfilling this promise. . . . The "I" that controls a person's behavior at a given moment is determined not by his or her personal choice, but by the reaction to the environment that one or the other "I" calls into existence. A person cannot choose what kind of “I” he should be, just as he cannot choose what kind of “I” he would like to be: the situation chooses. . . . We do not have the ability to do anything, we do not have “free will”…” .

In one of his works, G. I. Gurdjieff described the real situation of human existence as follows: “If a person could understand the whole horror of the life of ordinary people who revolve in a circle of insignificant interests and insignificant goals, if he could understand what they are losing, then he would understand that only one thing can be serious for him - to be saved from the general law, to be free. What can be serious for a prisoner condemned to death? Only one thing: how to save yourself, how to make an escape: nothing else is serious” (see).

As if developing this metaphor, G. I. Gurdjieff also pointed out: “You do not understand your own life situation- you're in jail. All you can wish for, if you are not insensitive, is how to escape. But how to escape? You need a tunnel under the prison wall. One person cannot do anything. But let's suppose there are ten or twenty people; if they work together and if one succeeds the other, they can dig a tunnel and escape.

Moreover, no one can escape from prison without the help of those who have escaped before. Only they can tell how escape is possible, or they can send tools, maps, or whatever else is needed. But one prisoner alone cannot find these people or somehow contact them. Organization needed. Nothing can be achieved without organization” (see).

So, each of us (as a person) is the jailer of his own essence, but does not know, is not aware of this.

An important manifestation (symptom) of the loss of contact, the interaction of personality and essence in the case of false self-identification is the inability of a person to dream and create dynamic creative imagery in his fantasy (see).

Stereotyped and fixed false self-identification is associated with self-non-acceptance and, consequently, with non-acceptance of other people, it leads to stagnation of personal development, a sharp polarization of “persona” and “shadow” in a person’s personality. And vice versa, crises of personal development (age and existential) are caused, as a rule, by a person's refusal from established false self-identifications.

In the case of false self-identification, the personality dominates the essence, gradually shapes the person in accordance with the laws and norms of interpersonal and personalizing communication, uses the essence as a source of energy for the purposes of own development. However, the more successful such development, the further the “empirical” personality in this development goes from the universal authenticity of his childhood, the more crushing his final.

L. N. Tolstoy in the famous story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” described such a profound existential crisis of the “empirical” personality, associated with the painful realization for the personality of the drama that the anonymous author already quoted called “our secret mental death in childhood”: Ivan Ilyich Golovin , being mortally ill, “... began to sort out in his imagination the best

minutes of your pleasant life. But - a strange thing - all these best moments of a pleasant life now seemed not what they seemed then. Everything - except for the first memories of childhood.

And the farther from childhood, the closer to the present, the more insignificant and doubtful were the joys. . . . And this dead service, and these worries about money, and so on for a year, and two, and ten, and twenty - and all the same. And what's next is dead. Precisely evenly, I walked downhill, imagining that I was going uphill. And so it was. In public opinion, I went to the mountain, and just so much life went out from under me ...

... worse than his physical sufferings were his moral sufferings, and this was his main torment.

His moral suffering consisted in the fact that ... it suddenly occurred to him: what, like in fact my whole life, conscious life, was “not right”.

It occurred to him that what had seemed to him before a complete impossibility, that he had not lived his life as he should have, that this could be true ... And his service, and his life arrangements, and his family, and these the interests of society and service - all this could be wrong.

... all this was not right, all this was a terrible huge deception, covering both life and death.

Is it possible to assume that there is a different type of development, a different outcome of the relationship between the personality and the essence of man? “In the best of worlds,” notes K. Spieth, “acquired habits of a person should be useful to the essential nature of a person and should help it to function adequately in the social context in which a person lives, and for a realized person this is undoubtedly the case. there is. Unfortunately, the average person lacks the ability to use personality to satisfy their essential desires. The essential can manifest itself only in the simplest instinctive behavior or in primitive emotions. All other behavior is controlled, as we have seen, by the random sequences of 'I's that make up the personality. Personality may or may not correspond to essence. . . . In most of us, personality is active and essence is passive: personality determines our values and beliefs, occupations, religious beliefs, and philosophy of life. . . . Essence is mine. Personality is not mine, it is something that can be changed by changing conditions or artificially removed with the help of hypnosis, drugs or special exercises.

Genuine self-identification, unlike false, is more a process than a state. In the course of this process, the essence of a person is gradually freed from the domination of the personality, gets out of its control. As a result, a person who subordinates his personality to his essence enters the context of transpersonal communication and begins to use his personality as a means, an instrument of his essence. From the "master" the personality becomes the "servant" of the essence (see).

According to G. I. Gurdjieff, the realization and liberation of man presupposes a reversal of the traditional relationship between personality and essence: personality must become passive in its relation to essence. Only in this way can a permanent and integrated "I" arise. The main way of such work on self-realization lies through “. . . intensification of the struggle between essence and personality. Both essence and personality are necessary for this work. . . . Islam calls this battle a holy war (jihad), and in this war, the more impartially the opposite sides are designated, the greater the intensity of the confrontation, the more complete is the destruction and subsequent renewal.

The exit of a person from the interpersonal plane of reality into the transpersonal plane of reality in the most essential way transforms his entire psychological structure. The personality is harmonized, freed from the “persona” and “shadow”, simplified into a “face”, its objective and subjective boundaries disappear.

The object pole appears before a person no longer as one or another separate “knowledge” each time, but as consciousness, that is, a holistic, integrated worldview. The subjective pole reveals itself not as this or that separate “message” each time, coming from the depths of the unconscious, but as conscience, i.e., a holistic, integrated sense of self. A person ceases to feel like a person, a kind of arena for the clash of “good” and “evil”, a moral being full of contradictory knowledge and feelings, opposing other people individually, a lonely ego, he begins to perceive himself both as a source and as an intermediary , a conductor of joyful love (a special experience of transpersonal communication, the experience of essential identity with other people). The most striking examples of such completely personified personalities are the personalities-faces of Buddha, Christ, Mohammed.

The drama of the relationship between personality and essence in human life is, in our opinion, the subject of genuine humanistic psychology. Its most important provisions are, firstly, recognition, a statement of the duality of a person (external and internal man, external and internal self, personality and essence) (see , , ; secondly, a special, wary-critical attitude towards socially centered and socially determined processes of personality formation (see, , , , ), thirdly, the denial of traditional forms of education as a disharmonious interaction between adults and children, between the world of adulthood and the world of childhood (see , ) and, finally, fourthly, the idea of cultivating transpersonal relationships, personifying communication in interpersonal interactions of various types - therapeutic, pedagogical, family (see.

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EXTERNAL AND INNER HUMAN SELF

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