By structure, unions are divided into simple and compound.
Simple ones are one-word unions: but, if, yes, barely, if, and, for, or, if, how, when, whether, or, than, but, for now, since, as if, also, too, although, than, to.
Compound conjunctions represent the semantic unity of two or more words: because, because, since, due to the fact that, despite the fact that, while, before, meanwhile, especially since, nevertheless, as, as if, or maybe, namely, not that, and, and also, as soon as, barely, but, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, since, after, like.
By origin, unions are non-derivative and derivative.
Non-derivative (primitive) unions are not divided into morphological elements and do not correspond in modern Russian with generating words: a, and, but, yes, or, whether, or, etc.
Derivative unions have kept alive word-formation connections with significant words from which they were formed: what, in order, as if, although, due to the fact that etc.
By use, unions are divided into single, repeated and double.
Single conjunctions are used in a sentence once and stand before the component that is attached, or between the connected parts: She got lost in the forest and began to look for her way home, but she didn’t find it, but came to the house in the forest (JI. Tolstoy); It is very difficult to tell everything in order, because of the participants in the incident, only Alyonushkin Bashmachok (D. Mamin-Sibiryak) remembered the whole thing; As soon as I saw the Greek woman's threshold, my eyes darkened (A. Pushkin).
Repeating conjunctions are used more than once. These include unions and ... and ..., yes ... yes ..., or ... or ..., not that ... not that ..., then ... then ... , either... or..., neither „. neither ... and some others: What do you have over the edge here? It is either cold, or very hot, or the sun hides, or it shines too brightly (I. Krylov); Either my eyes did not penetrate my son, or the old man deceived me (A. Pushkin); There is no love for either the village or the city (S. Yesenin); Are there tears, is she sweating over her eyelashes, right, it’s hard to say (N. Nekrasov); Behind the village is either a forest or a park, wild, oaky (I. Bunin). *
Repeating unions are heterogeneous. Some of them are formed by repeated repetition of a single union, while the repetition is usually optional; such is the union
and ... and ... (some scientists do not consider such unions to be repeated). In other cases, a repeating union cannot be reduced to a single union: neither ... neither, then ... then, not that ... not that. Repeating unions are classified as simple.
Double (pair) unions consist of two non-coinciding and positionally disconnected parts: not only ... but also, because ... insofar as ... so, if ... then, barely ... how, although ... but, not that ... but, if not ... then, not that ... but (a), etc. For example: Than. the brighter the fate of Prince Andrei seemed to him, the more gloomy his own seemed (JI. Tolstoy); If my first poem was the fruit of sober and very hard work, then the second was written in a state of the most genuine and undeniable inspiration (V. Veresaev); And although a victorious horn is heard, my last, deadly jump will test the enemy blood (S. Yesenin); Let me love another, but with her, with my beloved, on the other, I will tell you about you, dear (S. Yesenin); Not only was there no fish, but the rod did not even have a fishing line (M. Sadovsky). The role of the second part of the double union can be both a particle and a modal word: If you let her live with you under the same roof, then she deserves it (I. Turgenev) - therefore, she stands still.
By syntactic properties conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating unions serve to connect syntactically equal units, i.e., connect homogeneous members simple sentence and parts of compound sentences. The formal feature of the compositional union is that, being located between the connected components, it is not included in the syntactic structure of any of them: Living, be able to survive everything: sadness, and joy, and anxiety (F. Tyutchev); The sea still whispered with the shore, and the wind still carried its whisper across the steppe (M. Gorky).
By meaning, i.e., by the nature of the relations they express, the coordinating unions are divided into:
- connecting unions, expressing the relationship of enumeration (and, yes (in the meaning of and), and ... and, neither ... nor, also, also): The farm was spread far to the side, and there was such silence near the pier, which happens only in deserted places dead autumn and at the very beginning of spring (M. Sholokhov); Uncut hay, forest and monastery (S. Yesenin);
- adversarial conjunctions expressing the relationship of opposition, inconsistency, difference (a, but, yes (in the meaning of but), however, the same, but, otherwise): The birches were still burning, but they crumbled, quietly dropping the last leaves through a dream, which a lot lay around each birch (V. Soloukhin); The ear was not bad, but the dry days were ruined (S. Yesenin); I felt somehow sad; however, something like laughter stirred in my soul (F. Dostoevsky); Fedya never cried, but at times a wild stubbornness came over him (I. Turgenev);
- separating unions expressing relations of mutual exclusion, alternation of actions, phenomena, signs (or, or, whether ... whether, then ... then, not that ... not that, or ... or, either ... or, either ... or, or that, or not that, not that, otherwise): Either she - a telegram - fell into a snowdrift and now lies deep under the snow, or she fell onto the path and was pulled away by some passerby ... (A. Gaidar); Either rain, then hail, then snow, like white fluff, then the sun, shine, azure and waterfalls ... (I. Bunin); A storm covers the sky with darkness, twisting snow whirlwinds: then, like a beast, she will howl, then she will cry like a child (A. Pushkin); Are you sad or happy? (S. Yesenin); Having lost me, sir, she will either die of sadness or die of hunger (M. Lermontov); Get up this very minute, otherwise I won’t even talk to you (M. Bulgakov); Please leave me, otherwise I will have to take action (A. Chekhov); .
- gradational unions (they are also called double comparative unions), expressing a comparison or opposition in terms of significance (not only ... but also, not that ... but, not only ... but and, not only not ... but , not so much ... as, not even that ... that, not even ... let alone not, etc.): They did not know anything not only about Sintsov, but also about the entire editorial staff (K. Simonov); With the rest of the servants, Gerasim was not on friendly terms - they were afraid of him - but in meek (I. Turgenev);
- connecting unions (yes and, yes and that, (and) moreover, (and) moreover, also, also, and also, etc.), expressing additional information to what has been said, not provided original plan statements: Many women loved me, and I myself loved more than one (S. Yesenin); He rarely mentioned Asya, and even then in passing (I. Turgenev); Over tea, my uncle ordered me to sort out my warehouse in the hay, and also go to the janitor to clean the dishes, wash the floor and put the apartment in order (A. Gaidar);
- explanatory conjunctions(namely, that is, or (in the sense that is), like that, exactly, etc.), expressing an explanation and clarification: They drank in the usual way, that is, a lot (A. Pushkin); Anna spent the whole day at home, that is, at the Oblonskys ... (JI. Tolstoy); She is called that, that is, her nickname is Manilovka, and Zamanilovka is not here at all (N. Gogol).
By semantic feature Subordinating conjunctions are usually divided into:
- explanatory (what, so that, as if): I wanted my heart to remember the garden and summer more deafly (S. Yesenin); To the credit of our national pride, it should be noted that in the Russian heart there always dwells a wonderful feeling to take the side of the oppressed (N. Gogol); I was convinced that I had found for every unfortunate lonely person a joyful exit into people, into the world (M. Prishvin); The forest was still full of people, and no matter how many of them were sent under command to different sides, it seemed that they would never resolve (K. Simonov);
- temporary (when, before, after, barely ... as, as soon as, barely, only, barely, only, only, before, since, until, until, until, etc.): I'll be back when the branches spread out in our spring white garden(S. Yesenin); As soon as we entered this charming garden, fatigue was forgotten (A. Kern); Several days passed before I figured something out (A. Trifonov); As soon as they set sail, water gushed out of the rotten bottom in different places (M. Sholokhov);
- causal (because, because, since, in view of the fact that, especially since, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, because etc.): Oh, if you would grow with your eyes, like these leaves, in depth (S. Yesenin); According to Cui, the word is not fully defined, because it can be completed with music (V. Rabinovich); Since the site turned out to be too swampy, it was necessary to urgently start drying it (A. Kuprin); I mumbled something and quickly disappeared, because in Vaska's case there was also my share of guilt (A. Gaidar);
- conditional (if, if ... then, if, if, if, if, if, if, if, once, etc.): If you love, then without reason, if you threaten, then in earnest, if you argue, it’s so bold (A. K. Tolstoy); Therefore, it is a sin to close beautiful cheeks in front of the world, since mother nature gave them (S. Yesenin); If there were no hell and heaven, they would have been invented by man himself (S. Yesenin);
- concessive (despite the fact that, although, regardless, let it be, let it be others): The horse began to get tired, and sweat rolled down from him in hail, despite the fact that he was constantly waist-deep in snow (A. Pushkin); No, he did not think now about being with his division there, in the very center of the shaking plain southern Russia earthquakes, but, although his mind was intractable to such thoughts, his heart felt solemn and terrible shocks coming from there (K. Simonov);
- consequences (so, as a result of which): Antokolsky met my parents in Rome, in the early seventies, so that he, too, remained in my memory from the very young years(V. Mamontov);
- goals (so that, in order to, for the sake of, so that, then so that): He used all his eloquence in order to turn Akulina away from her intentions (A. Pushkin); Often an artist, in order to better understand the present, refers to the events of the past (Yu. Prokushev); Sasha pinned an agricultural exhibition badge on his jacket so that everyone could see that he had been to Moscow (S. Antonov);
- comparative (as if, as if, as if, just as, like, like, like, as if, for sure): I watch how the Eskimo looks at the train, I bite, as a tick bites into my ear (V. Mayakovsky) ; The doors suddenly clattered, as if the hotel was missing a tooth (V. Mayakovsky); Something suddenly expanded with extraordinary force in Romashov's chest, as if he was about to fly (A. Kuprin);
- comparative conjunctions that coincide with subordinating conjunctions on a formal basis, but in meaning are not opposed to coordinating conjunctions: if ... then, while, meanwhile, how, then how, as, how, than ... that. For example: The fathers did not go to each other, she had not yet seen Alexei, while (= o) the young neighbors only talked about him (A. Pushkin). Comparative conjunctions, due to the fact that they do not express syntactic inequality, are sometimes included in compositional conjunctions, especially in cases where a replacement for a union is possible.
All parts of speech are usually divided into independent and auxiliary. The first ones are the most important.
They are the basis of linguistic diversity. The latter perform an auxiliary function. These include unions. In Russian, they serve to link Exist and special rules on their use. In addition, such parts of speech can be divided into types. What are unions in Russian? You will find the answer to this question below.
What are unions?
In Russian, this part of speech is designed to connect as well as parts and at the same time express the semantic relationships between them.
Unlike prepositions close to them, unions are not assigned to any case. All of them are classified on various grounds. So, according to their structure, unions are divided into two types: simple and compound. The former consist of one word (or, too), while the latter consist of several since).
Main classification
There is one more reason on which unions in Russian are divided into types. The table fully reveals the essence of this classification.
Types of unions depending on the functions performed |
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writing (serve to connect both homogeneous members and parts of compound sentences) | Subordinating (connect the main and subordinate parts in a complex sentence) |
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Connecting | And, yes, too, no-no, also | Explanatory | To how... |
Causal | Because, because... |
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opposing | Yes, but, but, but, however | To, then to... |
|
Temporary | When, barely... |
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Conditional | If when... |
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Dividing | Or, or, something, or something, not that, not that | concessions | Although, let... |
Comparative | As if... |
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In addition, all unions can be divided into non-derivatives (and, how) and derivatives, that is, formed from other parts of speech (despite).
Punctuation points
Exist special rules, according to which it is determined whether any punctuation mark should be applied or not. As a rule, it is most often a comma. It is always placed before the union, but not after.
It should be noted that, despite the similarity of some parts of speech, the same rules cannot be applied to them. Thus, the conjunctions and prepositions dotting the Russian language, although they have much in common, are still characterized differently. Let us return to the rules established directly for the part of speech that interests us. So, a comma before unions is needed if they are adversative (“She didn’t get angry, but even screamed”), paired (“Whether it will snow, or rain”) or subordinating (“I will come if you call"). In addition, this punctuation mark is needed if it separates parts of a complex sentence (“Spring has come, and starlings have arrived”). If the union connects homogeneous members, then a comma is not required ("Green and blue balls rushed into the sky"). These are general rules use of this part of speech in writing. If, when writing, there is a comma before the union, then a pause should be made in speech at this place.
), which is used to express the syntactic (composing or subordinating) connection of units of different nature and volume, from clauses ( Research continues and hypotheses multiply["Knowledge is power" (2003)]) to phrases ( Apples and prunes are traditionally served with goose[Recipes of national cuisines (2000-2005)]) and even word components ( two and three storey houses). Unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Subordinating conjunctions prototypically connect clauses (although a connection between a word and a clause is possible ( The decisive argument was the fact that the Germans in 1940 did the same in relation to the French[“Domestic Notes” (2003)]) and words with the word ( Petya is smarter than Vasya)), and coordinative - any homogeneous components (word and word, word and clause, clause and clause). Unlike a preposition that is functionally close to a subordinating conjunction, the conjunction does not attribute a case.
Conjunctions are classified according to a number of formal and semantic grounds: according to their formal structure, according to their syntactic and semantic properties, according to their ability to be used illocutionarily (see Illocutionary Uses of Unions):
Classification of unions according to formal structure (I)
Classification of unions according to formal structure (II)
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Classification of unions according to syntactic and semantic properties
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Classification of conjunctions according to their ability to be used illocutively
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Etymologically, many Russian conjunctions come from prepositional-pronominal and prepositional-nominal phrases ( because while), less often - from participle forms of the verb ( although) Many conjunctions are polysemic and sometimes belong in other meanings to other parts of speech, primarily to particles ( yes, and, though, barely) and pronouns ( what how); sometimes significant parts of speech are used in the function of conjunctions ( truth), which significantly complicates their statistics.
In some cases, a word traditionally referred to unions (see lists of unions below) has in one sense or another intermediate properties (conjunction and particle, union and preposition, coordinating and subordinating union, simple and compound union). In these cases, in the absence of more detailed research, the assignment of a word to unions or to one or another class of unions should be recognized to some extent as conditional.
Unions should be distinguished from the so-called. allied words(pronominal words that connect parts of a complex sentence and are at the same time members of the sentence).
The lists of conjunctions in this article are from Academic Grammar 1954 [Grammar 1954: 665–673] and Academic Grammar 1980 [Grammar 1980: §§1673–1683].
The term "union" is a tracing paper from the Greek. syndesmos and lat. conjunctio.
1. Formal classes of unions
Unions are traditionally divided into simple (see) (consisting of one word) and compound () (consisting of more than one word). This division, although in most cases there are purely orthographic conventions behind it, is also given in this article.
By how many conjuncts the union connects and which of them are marked by the union indicator, the unions are divided into:
1.1. Simple vs. compound unions
1.1.1. Simple unions
Simple conjunctions consist of one, usually one- or two-syllable word.
List of simple conjunctions [Grammar 1980: §1673]: but, anyhow, already, an, good, be, as if, like, yes, so that, even, barely, if, if, then, then, but, and, for, or, so, if only, how, when, if, if, whether, or, only, rather than, but, for now, for now, for now, because, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, unless, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, too, only, exactly, at least, although, than, purely, that, in order to, slightly, allegedly.
1.1.2. Compound or compound unions
Complex, or compound, unions consist of two or more words that semantically represent one unit. Most constituent unions are formed by:
Some complex conjunctions, such as because, because, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, then that; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; as, after, since, as, in case, in order to and some others allow different punctuation - a comma is placed either before the whole union or before the word what / how / to / if:
(1) Almost all gardeners, though this was not officially allowed, a strip of land about two meters wide was plowed in front of the fence from the side of the street, and potatoes grew on it. [BUT. Varlamov. Kupavna (2000)]
(2) <…>many issuers from list A could fly out of it and pension funds would have to sell these papers though they are reliable and promising. [BUT. Verzhbitsky. Pensioners' assets will be preserved (2010)]
In the terminology of the AG-80 [Grammar 1980(2): §2949] the first variant is called "undivided", the second - "partitioned" .
Different punctuation reflects a certain semantic difference between the divided and undivided variants: in the first case, the meaning corresponding to the main clause is included in the meaning of the complex sentence as a presumption. Accordingly, this meaning does not fall within the scope of different kind modal operators. Wed:
(3) a. Shekhtel came to Moscow because
b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow because
By including (3a) in the scope of the modal word maybe the meaning of ‘Shekhtel came to Moscow’ remains unaffected by the epistemic modality expressed by this word, i.e. (3b) does not imply ‘it is possible that Shekhtel ended up in Moscow’.
For a similar sentence with undivided because this statement is false:
(4) a. Shekhtel came to Moscow, because his mother was a housekeeper at the Tretyakovs. [Izvestia (2002)]
b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow, because his mother was a housekeeper at the Tretyakovs.
1.1.2.1. Simple unions as part of compound
The following are the main simple unions, with the participation of which complex unions are formed. At the same time, the lists of complex conjunctions are not exhaustive, their purpose is to demonstrate the mechanism of word formation.
With the participation of the union what compound unions formed due to the fact that, anyway, no matter what, then that, in spite of the fact that, not that, because, because, on the condition that, unless, so, all the more so, even more so, just now.
With the participation of the union how compound unions formed no matter how, while, before, as if, as if, suddenly, as if, as, for example, as soon as, meanwhile, before, as, as, as, after just like, because, just like, just like, almost like, just like, just like, exactly like, just like, since, since, then like, just like.
With the participation of the union to compound unions formed without not, instead of, in order to, so that, not that, for the sake of, in order to.
With the participation of the union if unions formed if, if not, as if, in case.
With the participation of unions how, than unions formed whatever, earlier than, before; before.
With the participation of unions only, only unions formed as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, barely, just, barely, just, just a little.
1.1.2.2. Prepositions in compound conjunctions
Unions are formed with the participation of prepositions due to the fact that, instead of, in spite of the fact that, in relation to the fact that, up to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that that, due to the fact that, in comparison with the fact that, due to the fact that, on the basis of the fact that, in addition to the fact that, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, about the fact that, in spite of the fact that, unlike , regardless of the fact that, in spite of the fact that, regarding the fact that, under the guise of that, like, under the pretext of that, as, in addition to the fact that, about the fact that, because, because, after as, in comparison with the fact that, in addition to that, according to the fact that, judging by the fact that.
1.1.2.3. Particles in compound unions
With the participation of particles would, no, really unions formed as if, good, if, if, if, as if, as if, as if, when, if, if only, as if, if only, if only, what would, and not, what would, as if not, not yet, not yet, not yet, not that, but not that, not that, if, when, if, if.
1.1.2.4. Adverbs in compound conjunctions
With the participation of adverbs, unions are formed: for nothing that, Suddenly, as soon as, before, just like, as well as, earlier than, just like, especially, Nevertheless, exactly-in-just like.
1.1.2.5. Pronouns in compound conjunctions
With the participation of a pronominal noun then formed the following unions: otherwise, and then, and then, not that, yes and that, not that, I mean, i.e, whether, due to the fact that, thanks to, similar to, while, though, especially since, while, before as. With the participation of a pronominal adjective then union formed since.
1.2. Single, double and repeated alliances
1.2.1. Single unions
The vast majority of unions in the Russian language are single, they are found among both coordinating and subordinating ones. Single unions are located between the connected parts of the text or are positionally adjacent to one of them:
(5) She came but he left; He left, because she came; He is tired And gone; Insofar as she came, he left.
List of simple single unions (see also list simple unions(cm. )): but, anyhow, already, an, good, be, as if, like, yes, so that - even, barely, if, if, but, then, and, for, or, so, if, like, like that, when, if, if, whether, or, only, than, but, for now, for now, for now, because, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, unless, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, too, only, exactly, at least, though, than, purely, what, so that, slightly, supposedly.
List of compound single unions: and not that, but that, and that, and that and, and not, and not that, without not, due to the fact that, as if, be it, in view of the fact that, instead of, despite the fact that, in in relation to the fact that, up to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as opposed to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like that, no matter how, no matter what, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that , in case, in comparison with the fact that, while, and even then, for nothing, in order to, it would be good, until, until, until, just, barely, if only, if would, if, if not, due to the fact that, then what, then so that, proceeding from the fact that, as if, as if, as if, as if not, as suddenly, as if, as for example, as- then, as soon as, when, when, if, if, if, as soon as, except that, if only, only, meanwhile, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, in case, about that that, despite the fact that, unlike how, regardless of the fact that, despite the fact that, n that, not that, not that, but not, regarding the fact that, because, before, under the guise of that, just as, under the pretext of that, until, until, until, as long as since, besides, about the fact that, on account of the fact that, after, as compared with the fact that, because, because, before, before, on the condition that, just like, just like, just like -how, as well as, in order to, perhaps, since, earlier than, in addition to that, as if, depending on the fact that, just like, since, in order to, judging by the fact that, since, so that, so that, all the more so, the more that, that is, while, that is, if only, if only not, just, just, exactly like, at least, than to, whatever, not to, just a little, just a little.
Unobvious from the point of view of the formal classification of conjunctions is a construction like Masha and Petya and Vanya, where, on the one hand, the conjunction And labels more than one conjunct, and on the other hand, it labels not all conjuncts. The first circumstance would seem to rule out this And from among single unions; the second - excludes it from the number of repeating ones (see).
In this article, the interpretation is adopted, according to which in the construction of the type Masha and Petya and Vanya featured a repeat of a single And. This interpretation is justified by the fact that the specified construction, in its semantic and syntactic properties, is close to a single And, but not with repeating and... and. Yes, repetitive and... and, unlike a single one, is not used with a symmetrical predicate (for more details, see Coordinating conjunctions / p. 2. Repeating conjunctions), and this restriction does not apply to the construction under discussion. Compare: * And Spanish, and Italian, and French are similar vs. Spanish and Italian and French are similar.
1.2.2. Double alliances
Double conjunctions are found among both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. They consist of two parts, each of which is located in one of two connected syntactically or semantically unequal parts.
Subordinating double unions are characterized by syntactic disparity - one of the clauses is the main one (see Glossary), and the other is dependent (see Glossary):
(6) If the sauce won't be hot enough then you can add red ground pepper [Recipes of national cuisines: Scandinavian cuisine (2000-2005)];
(7) I only guessed that if I would save this woman then would be rewarded with some magical reward. [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]
(8) But barely he threw back the pillow how discovered a cigarette case made of dark red transparent plastic [A. Solzhenitsyn]
At the same time, the second part of the union if...then can go down, especially colloquial speech, provided that each of the clauses contains a subject:
(9) However, if you are tired and want to relax, we have such places here, like cafes, restaurants. ["Screen and Stage" (2004)]
(10) If the sauce is not spicy enough, you can add red ground pepper
(11) *I only guessed that if If I had saved this woman, I would have been rewarded with some magical reward.
For coordinating double unions, the semantic inequality of conjuncts is characteristic: usually the second conjunct is more unexpected for the Speaker: He's not so much tired as upset; He was more angry than offended.. In this way, double coordinating conjunctions differ from recurring ones, which presuppose the equality of parts: He is tired and upset(for details, see Coordinating conjunctions / p. 3.2. Double alliances, Coordinating unions / p. 2.1. Repeating unions: Semantics, Coordinating unions / p. 2.3. Repeating vs. double coordinating unions).
Coordinating and subordinating double alliances have their own characteristics.
Double coordinating unions usually connect not whole clauses, but homogeneous members, and consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first of the compared members, the second before the second: He is equally well versed in both the theoretical and practical aspects of the matter.
Double subordinating conjunctions consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first clause, the second before the second: As soon as she entered, he got up and left.
List of double alliances: enough ... to, barely ... how ..., if ... then, if ... then, if we talk about ... (then), if not ... then, how ... so, and, moreover, ... (also), not ... ah, not ... but, not to say that ... (but), not so much ... how much, not only ... but also, not that ... but rather ... than, it was worth ... how, only ... how, than ... it would be better, as for ... (that), at least ... otherwise.
1.2.3. Recurring alliances
Repeating conjunctions are found only among coordinating ones. They are formed by reproducing the same or, less commonly, functionally close components: and...and, or...or, then...then etc., which are placed before each of two or more equal and formally identical parts:
(12) I always had a dream that someone would appear who or will buy or give, or will give Spivakov a real violin for life use. [FROM. Spivakov. Not Everything (2002)]
The exception is the union whether... whether, whose parts are located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, i.e. after the first full-stressed word:
(13) First of all - your rest is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, dwarf whether, full-length whether household member (T. Mann, trans. S. Apta)
Union whether ... or the first part is located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, the second part is in front of the conjunct:
(14) First of all - your rest is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, dwarf whether, or full size household
List of repeated unions: And ... And ... And; neither ... neither ... neither; whether ... whether... whether; or ... or ... or; then ... then ... then; or ... or ... or,not that ... not that ... not that; or ... or ... or; be ... be, though ... though; then ... then ... otherwise; then ... then ... and then; or ... or ... either; or ... or ... or; either ... either ... or; whether ... or; or ... or ... maybe; maybe ... maybe ... maybe; maybe ... maybe; maybe ... maybe.
Repeating alliances deserve detailed consideration, because they have common semantic and syntactic features typologically relevant. To understand these features, it is important to distinguish a repeated union from a formally similar unit - a repeated single union. The main formal difference between them is that the repeated union is repeated before each, including the first, conjunct, while the single union can only be located between the conjuncts, thereby not affecting the position before the first conjunct. Wed repeating examples and... and and repeat single And, respectively:
(15) Sounded And requirements, And criticism … ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]
(16) So that inside you - peace, and outside - lively life, cultural values And boutiques, And trams, And shopping pedestrians, And small cafes with the aroma of sweet cheesecakes. ["Brownie" (2002)]
2. Semantic-syntactic classes of unions
IN this section two types of unions are considered - coordinating and subordinating, in accordance with two types of relations between the syntactic units that the union expresses - composition (coordination) and subordination (subordination).
2.1. Writing vs. subordination
Composition and Submission – Two Fundamental Types syntactic relations which have a variety of manifestations in different languages.
For example, in German composed clauses require a different word order:
(17) Ergeht nach Hause, denn er ist krank – ‘He is going home because he is sick, lit. is sick’
(18) Ergeht nach Hause, Weil er krank ist– ‘He is going home because he is sick, lit. sick eat’
Even though composing and subordinating basic concepts grammar, there is no single generally accepted approach to their definition (see Composition, Submission, Composition and submission). Along with the traditional syntactic approach, according to which the elements of the coordinating construction are characterized by the same syntactic function, and the elements of the subordinating construction are different syntactic functions, [Beloshapkova 1977], there are also semantic and pragmatic-communicative approaches.
With all the differences in approaches, the generally accepted idea is that the compositional relations are characterized by symmetry, and the subordinating - asymmetry. The symmetry of the composition is manifested in different levels language: morphological (cf. * smoking and reading lying down is harmful; *he was handsome and smart), syntactic (usually the same members of a sentence are composed), lexico-semantic (cf. when and where did it happen vs. *yesterday and at five o'clock).
In the Russian grammatical tradition, the question of distinguishing between composition and subordination and the question of distinguishing between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are equated to each other. Strictly speaking, however, this different questions. But the difference is significant, first of all, for those languages where the union is not the main means of polypredicative connection. For the Russian language, where the allied way of framing the dependent predication dominates, the indicated difference, somewhat coarsening, can be neglected. Typical examples of composing conjunctions in Russian are - and, but, or, or, typical examples subordinating unions - because, when, so that, as a result of which, if, although.
Within the class of subordinating conjunctions, in addition, the following distinction is essential: unions that usually introduce actant (subject or object) clauses, and unions that usually introduce circus constant clauses. In Russian terminology, the first roughly correspond to explanatory conjunctions (what, to, as, as if etc.), and the second - all other subordinating unions ( because though, if, when and etc.). In the typological literature, for conjunctions leading an actant clause, the term is adopted complementizer, for unions heading a circumstantial clause - the term adverbial subordinator. English term complementizer wider than the Russian term explanatory conjunction: Complementizers include, in particular, interrogative particle whether heading the actant clause.
It should be borne in mind that conjunctions that introduce actant and circumstantial clauses do not necessarily form two non-overlapping groups. So, in Russian, unions to, as if, as if can serve both functions. Wed:
(19) <…>Kazbich imagined as if Azamat, with the consent of his father, stole his horse, at least, I suppose so. [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)] – the clause fills in the object valency of the main predicate
(20) The snakes busily studied the situation, as if figured out where to start ... ["Criminal Chronicle" (2003)] - the clause does not fill the valency of the main predicate
The distinction between actant and circus constant clauses - and in the case when both types of clauses can be introduced by the same union, as in (18) - (19), and the distinction between unions - is based on a number of formal grounds (see the article Subordination for more details). For example, the removal of an interrogative pronoun is permissible from an actant, but not from a circo-constant clause, cf. examples (20) and (21) respectively:
(21) a. Do you want to be paid a million?
b. How do you want to be paid?
(22) a. Did you come to get paid a million?
b. ??? How did you come to get paid?
2.2. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are traditionally divided into three semantic groups:
- connecting unions: and, yes, and also; like ... and, not only that ... also, not ... but, not ... but, not to say that ... but, not so much ... how much, not only ... but also, not that ... but, rather ... than;and... and... and; Yes Yes Yes; neither... nor... nor; whether... whether... whether; or... or... or; then ... then ... then; either ... or ... or, not that ... not that ... not that; either ... or ... or; be ... be, at least ... at least; then ... then ... and then; then ... then ... and then; either ... or ... either; either... either... or; either ... or ... or; be it... or; or... or... or maybe; maybe... maybe... maybe; maybe... maybe; maybe... or maybe;
- opposite unions: but yes in meaning but, however, but, but, and then;
- dividing unions: or, either, otherwise, not that, not that; or... or, either... or; whether ... whether, whether ... or, at least ... at least, what ... what, whether ... or; and then, and maybe (be); not... so, if (and) not... then; maybe (be), maybe (be) ... maybe (be), maybe (be) ... or maybe (be); not that ... not that, either ... or; then... then.
2.3. Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are divided into the following semantic groups:
(1) causal conjunctions ( because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that);
(2) conjunctions of consequence ( so, and then, and not that);
(3) target unions ( so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that);
(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (if), if, if);
(5) concessive alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, while; it would be good, let it be; only truth);
(6) temporary alliances ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as soon as, after, as long as, until, until, until, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, a little, a little, a little, before, while);
(7) comparative conjunctions ( as, that, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (like), like, exactly, exactly (like), than, rather than).
(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, what, as if, how);
3. Illocutionary use of conjunctions
An illocutionary conjunction is such a use when it expresses a connection between the propositional content of one clause in a compound sentence and the illocutionary modality of another:
(23) Yes, and until forgot, give them a coin. [BUT. Belyanin. Ferocious Landgrave (1999)]
Bye expresses here the temporal connection between the propositional meaning of the subordinate clause and the illocutionary modality of the request included in the content of the main one. Wed with non-illocutionary conjunction till(see Subordinating unions / clause 7.1. Temporary unions) :
(24) Knead the dough until till it not will become brilliant and will not lag behind the fun. [Recipes of national cuisines: Czech Republic (2000-2005)]
Conjunctions are capable of illocutionary use insofar as, because, once, if, till, to, otherwise, otherwise, not that, so, for and some others. Wed examples:
(25) Insofar as we don't know each other, let me introduce myself: Vasily Ivanovich Stepanenko. ["Science and Life" (2007)]
(26) A once so, on what to test combines? [BUT. Azolsky. Lopushok (1998)]
(27) You brat, cut yourself short, not that lie in your grave! [M. Gigolashvili. Ferris Wheel (2007)]
(28) Rejoice, nothing was asked, so rest! [SMS messages from senior students (2004)]
4. Statistics
The statistics of groups of unions is given for the Main Corpus with unresolved homonymy, because the check shows that in the Corpus with removed homonymy, the homonymy of conjunctions with particles and pronouns is not removed. Thus, the data for the much smaller, dehomonymized Corpus are not more accurate. In addition, many unions are polysemantic and are included in several classes at once. Any accurate statistics of many unions, especially frequent, multi-valued, double ones, often turns out to be completely impossible. The data presented below reflect, therefore, far from a complete picture. In general, unions, like other auxiliary parts of speech, quite evenly permeate the most diverse registers of speech, so that their diachronic analysis, as well as analysis in different language registers, is relatively uninformative, especially in relation to entire classes and subclasses of unions.
More informative is statistical analysis some individual unions, namely, those that are unambiguous and not homonymous to other parts of speech. This is usually characteristic of compound (see), while not double (see) and not repeating (see) unions, such as similar to. Such an analysis makes it possible to correct the descriptions of some conjunctions existing in dictionaries and grammars as bookish, obsolete or rare. Compare, for example, alliances so that, single or and some others that have returned to the modern language as colloquial or frequent in newspaper texts. The statistics of some individual unions for the Main and Newspaper Corps is given.
Some unions are given with incompletely removed homonymy, but only in cases where their statistics are still relatively representative. For example, for the union And homonymy with a particle is not removed And. However, since the allied lexeme is much more frequent, statistics on And, however, is of interest. For some unions, individual filters were developed, which made it possible to partially remove homonymy - for example, for comparative union how only contexts were taken into account comparative degree.
Table 1. Frequency of the main semantic-syntactic classes of conjunctions
|
Main building |
||
|
coordinating conjunctions (% of all words) |
||
|
subordinating conjunctions (% of all words) |
||
|
Total |
||
|
classes of coordinating conjunctions (% of all conjunctions) |
||
|
connecting |
||
|
adversative |
||
|
separating |
||
|
substitution |
statistics not possible |
|
|
classes of subordinating unions (% of all unions) |
||
|
causal |
||
|
consequences |
||
|
targeted |
||
|
conditional |
||
|
concessions |
||
|
temporary |
||
|
explanatory |
||
|
comparative alliances (% of all alliances) |
||
Table 2. Frequency of main unions in percentage (from total number words)
|
Union |
Main corpus with unresolved homonymy |
newspaper building |
||
|
coordinating unions |
connecting |
1. as well as 3. and...and(with a distance of three words) 4. like...and 5. not so much... how much 6. not only but 7. not that ... but<но> 8. not that ... but 9. no no 10. rather than |
||
|
opposite |
2.en(in conjunction with not And No) 3.but 5.but |
|||
|
separating |
1.and then 2.be it...or 3.if not...then 4.or 5.or or 6.whether ... or 7.Lily 8.or 9.or either 10.maybe... maybe 11.not that... not that 12.then ... then(with two word spacing) 13.or ... or |
|||
|
subordinating unions |
causal unions |
1.thanks to 2.due to the fact that 3.due to 4.due to the fact that 5.due to the fact that 6.then what 7.for 8.because of 9.insofar as 10.because 11.because |
||
|
conjunctions of consequence |
1.otherwise 2.not that 3.so |
|||
|
target alliances |
1.so that 2.in order to 3.then to 4.so as to 5.so that 6.to |
|||
|
conditional alliances |
1.if 2.if 3.if only 4.if 5.if only 6.if 7.as soon as 8.once |
|||
|
concession unions |
1.while 2.for nothing that 3.kindly 4.if only 5.while 6.despite the fact that 7.though 8.whereas 9.although |
|||
|
temporary alliances |
1.barely 2.as soon as 3.when 4.just 5.till 6.until 7.until 8.as 9.after 10.before 11.earlier than 12.since |
|||
|
explanatory conjunctions |
1.as if 2.how 3.what 4.to |
|||
|
comparative conjunctions |
1.as if 2.than 3.similar to 4.like 5.how |
|||
Notes on Tables:
1) homonymy with particles and pronouns has not been removed;
2) homonymy between single and double / repeated unions has not been removed;
3) homonymy between unions different groups not removed;
4) parts of double and repeated unions are given with a distance of up to 4 words, unless another distance is indicated.
Bibliography
Main literature
About punctuation in compound subordinating unions and the conditions for their division, see also [Rosenthal et al. 1999: section 108]. “The conditions for dismembering a complex union include: 1) the presence of negation before the union not; 2) the presence of amplifying, restrictive and other particles before the union; 3) presence before the union introductory word, 4) the inclusion of the first part (correlative word) in a series of homogeneous members.
Conjunctions with a close set of properties are found in the main European languages(cf. English. both… and, either… or, neither… nor, German. sowohl… als auch, entweder… oder etc.). However, as can be seen from the examples, the very sign of "repeatability", i.e. the coincidence of parts of the union is not typologically significant.
/>Mikhail Nikolaevich Peterson (1885-1962) - Soviet linguist, representative of the Moscow Fortunatov school. He is the author of works on Russian syntax and methods of teaching the Russian language, as well as works on other languages - French, Armenian, Lithuanian.
MN Peterson was active in teaching. In teaching languages, he used a peculiar technique: he began teaching not with exercises, but with reading and analyzing an unadapted text. In the very first lessons, Peterson conducted a comprehensive analysis of one or two words, one phrase. Gradually, the pace accelerated, the volume language information increased, and soon students could independently analyze the most complex texts.
The scientist was an opponent of Marrism, for which he was persecuted (in the press he was called a “representative of pseudoscience”), and in the late 1940s he was forced to leave teaching and practically did not publish. Back to active teaching activities M. N. Peterson could only after in 1950.
We bring to the attention of the readers of the portal the article by M. N. Peterson "Unions in the Russian language", published in the journal "Russian Language at School" (No. 5, 1952). The article gives a classification of unions and describes their main functions. Even 60 years after it was written, the article will be very useful for teachers of Russian as a native language and as a foreign language.
I. Unions and their varieties
Unions, together with a bunch, prepositions and particles, belong to the category of service (non-independent) words, which are opposed to significant (independent) words - parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs.
The main difference between these categories of words is that significant parts of speech can be sentence words and sentence members. Service words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words.
Functional words of a later origin than significant ones, and originated from significant ones. Depending on communication needs official words continue to develop, expressing more and more new semantic relationships between significant words. In many cases, the origin of service words from significant ones is quite clear. Compare, for example, union what and place-estate what, pretext about and adverbs about. It is more difficult to establish this for unions such as and, but.
Unions are service words expressing semantic relationships between homogeneous members sentences 1 or between parts of a complex sentence (main or subordinate clauses).
Unions according to their structure can be divided into simple and compound.
Simple unions, in turn, can be divided into non-derivative for a given era, or primitive ones, such as and, neither, but, And derivatives- such as what, to, when, though, if.
Composite unions: because that, because, in order to, because, so that, so that, because etc. The number of compound unions is increasing.
Of all these unions, the most ancient in origin are simple non-derivatives; they are followed by simple derivatives; compound unions appeared later than all.
By use, unions are single, repeated and paired:
- single: and, ah, but, yes and etc.
- repeated: and - and, neither - neither, that - that, or - either, not that - not that, or - or and etc.
- paired: not only - but also, although - however, although - but, if - then and etc.
Unions by their role in the proposal can be divided into two categories: some unions express semantic relationships between individual words in a sentence (and, neither, yes, but, that, not that, or) , other unions express semantic relationships between parts of a complex sentence.
Between those and other unions there are similarities and differences.
Unions such as and, but, are also used to connect parts of a complex sentence. Their meaning is the same in both cases. For example:
AND get together, And fit in,
AND in such an hour of trouble
Be a hostess
Agile and dashing.
(Twardowski)
AND fields bloom,
AND the forests murmur
AND lie in the ground
Piles of gold.
(Nikitin)
Here in both cases - enumeration.
The same parallel examples can be given for other unions. However, there are more differences between those and other unions.
There are many conjunctions that are used only to express semantic relationships between parts of complex sentences: what if, because, when, though and etc.
Semantic relations expressed by complex sentences with conjunction And, much richer than the semantic relations expressed by the same union between the individual words of the sentence (see examples below).
Unions expressing semantic relations only between parts of a complex sentence are of a later origin. Along with the growth in the use of complex sentences, which is caused by the need to express more and more complex relationships between phenomena, the number of unions is increasing, their meaning is becoming more diverse.
The number of conjunctions that express semantic relationships between individual words in a sentence is also increasing, but not to the same extent.
Thus, those and other unions are in constant interaction.
The semantic relations expressed by both those and other unions can be described in detail only in syntax. Here will be given the most necessary information first, about the meaning of unions that connect individual words in a sentence, and then about the meaning of unions that connect parts of complex sentences.
II. Unions expressing semantic relations
between individual words in a sentence
The most common union And. More than half of all cases are due to combinations with this union. Those semantic relations that are expressed by the union And, most often found in our language practice, closely related to our social activities.
According to the semantic relations they express, unions can be divided into four groups:
1) unions expressing enumeration (and, neither, yes, or, then );
2) unions expressing opposition (but not only - but also and etc.);
3) unions expressing comparison (how than );
4) unions expressing goal (to ).
Some of these unions express other semantic relationships, which will be shown later.
1. Unions expressing enumeration
This group includes connecting and separating unions.
AND
Union And expresses an enumeration of words that are in homogeneous relationships and denoting various objects, signs, phenomena.
AND I want to live And drink, And eat,
I want warmth and light...
(Twardowski)
Upon re-union and - and, in addition to enumeration, gain is expressed.
AND sling, And arrow, And crafty dagger
Years spare the winner.
(Pushkin)
Union And may have the meaning of opposition (see below).
NO
Union neither (repeated) expresses the same enumeration in negative sentences (with reinforcement):
Then he saw clearly
As in the village boredom is the same
Though not neither streets, neither palaces,
Neither kart, neither points, neither poems.
(Pushkin)
I love my homeland, but with a strange love!
My mind won't defeat her
Neither glory bought with blood
Neither peace full of proud confidence,
Neither dark old cherished legends
Do not stir in me a pleasurable dream.
(Lermontov)
YES
Union Yes usually gives the statement a colloquial character.
dog, man, Yes cat, Yes falcon
Once upon a time they swore to each other in eternal friendship.
(Krylov)
The same union is used when repeating a word for reinforcement:
- You know, everyone scolds our steppe, they say it is boring, red, hills Yes hills, as if she is homeless, and I love her (Fadeev).
Union Yes also serves to express opposition (see below).
Union yes and has an attaching connotation of meaning.
The caretaker stood, stood - yes and went(Pushkin).
OR
Union or serves to express an enumeration with a hint of a choice of two or more possibilities:
These are our "lags" ( or"migi", or"yaks"), they said(Fadeev).
Repeated conjunctions are used with the same meaning either - whether-bo, whether - whether, whether- or:
I am with strangers or shy, or put on airs(M. Gorky).
County official, pass by - I was already wondering where he was going: for the evening whether to some brother or straight to your home(Gogol).
THEN
Union then (repeated) serves to express the enumeration of objects or phenomena that exist not simultaneously, but alternately:
Lieutenants then appeared in the city then disappeared, there were always many new ones ...(Fadeev)
All the girls, raising their heads, listened to the intermittent, then thin, axis-nom, then low, rumbling rumble, trying to see the plane in the white-hot air(He is).
NOT THAT
Union notthen (repeated) expresses an enumeration of objects or phenomena, the existence of which is assumed and one of which excludes the other:
In all her movements was noticed not that negligence, not that fatigue(Turgenev).
And she herself seemed to come to life, and some kind of not that hope for something not that design(Goncharov).
The repeated union is used with the same meaning. either:
... And it smelled of a fresh, cold mouth either wind, either distant, barely perceptible smell of fresh steppe hay(Sholokhov).
The value of the enumeration is expressed by some paired conjunctions, for example as - so and:
Siberia has many features. How in nature, so in human manners(Goncharov).
2. Unions expressing opposition(but, but, yes, but, but and etc.)
After all, it is not marble, not alabaster, but alive, but so cold!(Fadeev).
A crow perched on a fir tree,
I was quite ready to have breakfast,
Yes thoughtful...
(Krylov)
I hesitated a little but sat down(Turgenev).
They tear up a little
But they don’t take intoxicating things in their mouths.
(Krylov)
Wanted to travel around the world
AND did not travel a hundredth.
(Griboyedov)
Various shades of opposition and comparison are expressed by paired unions not only - but (and), not only - but (and), not so much - How many and etc.
They already Not only in appearance, a and by sound they distinguished their own and German aircraft(Fadeev).
3. Unions expressing comparison (how, than)
These unions do not express relations between homogeneous members of sentences.
Seryozha Tyulenin was the youngest in the family and grew up how grass in the steppe(Fadeev).
And the father, who wheezed, whistled and du-deeds on him more, how on one of his children, loved him more, how any of the others(Fadeev).
4. Unions expressing purpose (to)
Yuri got on the back of the truck, to to look at the sky(A. Tolstoy).
Union to also expresses a relationship not between homogeneous members of the sentence.
III. Unions expressing semantic relations
between parts of a complex sentence
In the first place in terms of usage, and here is the union And, followed by ah, but what to and others. Union predominance And associated with its versatility. The usage of individual unions varies depending on the nature of the text. The material is grouped by value.
1. Enumeration
Union proposals And designate enumerations of either simultaneous or sequential events.
Their faces among the foliage converged so close that their breath mingled, And they looked straight into each other's eyes(Fadeev).
And this spring they graduated from school, said goodbye to their teachers and organizations, And the war, as if it was waiting for them, looked straight into their eyes(Fadeev).
Compound sentences with conjunction And may have other meanings.
1) The first part of a complex sentence expresses the basis, cause, the other - a consequence.
There was little hope for poor Ashik-Kerib to get her hand, And he became sad, like a winter sky(Lermontov).
2) The first part of a complex sentence expresses a condition, the second - a consequence:
He will give a sign - And everyone is busy(Pushkin).
3) The second part expresses the opposite of what the first expresses:
I love you, And you will never be mine(Lermontov).
Everyone knew her And nobody noticed...(Pushkin)
The enumeration is also expressed by unions Yes (the use of this union is very small), yes and (with connecting meaning), repeated no no (in negative sentences), whether - whether, or, either - or (with the meaning of choice, separation), then - then (indicates alternation) not that - not that (with a touch of assumption and exclusion of one of the phenomena), also, also and etc.
The cymbals and appliances are rattling,
Yes glasses ringing.
(Pushkin)
Boris does not want to help me, yes and I don't want to contact him(L. Tolstoy).
Neither the arrows didn't fly neither the guns didn't roar(Krylov).
guilty whether was a teacher or the student was to blame, but every day the same thing was repeated(L. Tolstoy).
That cold, then very hot,
That the sun will hide then shines too brightly.
(Krylov)
The strange old man spoke very slowly, the sound of his voice also amazed me(Turgenev).
2. Opposite
but, but, yes, however, the same, but, although denote the opposite of different strengths.
Union but used when comparing various phenomena:
The same striking contrast is found in the development of culture in Soviet Azerbaijan and in Iran. Illiteracy has been eliminated in Azerbaijan, but in Iran, illiterates make up about 85 percent of the population. In Azerbaijan, there is one higher educational institution for every 163,000 people of the population, but in Iran - by 3.4 million people. In Azerbaijan, there is one doctor for every 525 people. population, but in Iran - by 11.3 thousand people(“Pravda”, December 30, 1949 “Unbreakable Union Soviet republics”, page 1).
A stronger opposition is expressed by the union but ; it is strengthened by negation, which is almost always in one of the parts of a complex sentence:
You know, I'm not afraid of anything in the world, I'm not afraid of any struggle, difficulties, torment, but If only I knew how to drink...(Fadeev).
A rather strong opposition expresses the union Yes :
Vladimir would write odes,
Yes Olga did not read them.
(Pushkin)
It would be better for me to leave him and hide in the forest, Yes it was a pity to part with him - and the prophet rewarded me(Lermontov).
Unions give a touch of amplification however, but:
The eye is eagerly looking for a spark, but every turn of the river deceives our hopes(Korolenko).
The windows in the house were closed, the door same on the porch was wide open. (Goncharov).
Suppose he knows forest paths.
Prancing on horseback, not afraid of water,
But mercilessly eat his midges,
But he was familiar with the works early.
(Nekrasov)
Oppositions of various forces are expressed by the union although (though):
AND though it was restless
remained unscathed
Under oblique, three-layer fire,
Under hinged and direct...
(Twardowski).
Stronger opposition, when in the second part - but yes:
Although in her eyes I read something wild and suspicious, although there was something indefinite in her smile, but such is the power of prejudice...(Lermontov).
Though sees the eye Yes numb tooth.
(Krylov)
Union though called concessive, but, revealing the meaning of this term, they usually indicate opposition.
Unions what to and much more rare as if, as if, as if commonly called explanatory, associating this term with the verb speak up. The meaning of this term lies in the fact that complex sentences with these unions express the content of speech, thoughts or feelings attributed to one or another character, as opposed to "alien speech", transmitted literally.
Associations with unions as if, bud- it would be as if transmit this content presumably.
WHAT
In the hallway ... a fat woman came out and answered my questions, what the old caretaker died a year ago, what a brewer settled in his house, and what she is a brewer's wife(Pushkin).
Compound sentence with conjunction what also denotes the degree of manifestation of some feature:
His comrades-in-arms greeted him with such sincere joy, what something that did not allow him to sleep, eat, or breathe fell off from his soul(A. Tolstoy).
TO
Meanwhile the horses came, and the caretaker ordered, to immediately, without feeding, they harnessed them to the tent of the visitor(Pushkin).
– Chocolate? - the captain was surprised and pulled the tube out of his mouth. - The first time I've heard, to the senior lieutenant in the bare steppe needed chocolate(A. Tol-stop).
Compound sentences with conjunction to also indicate the goal:
BUT so that the mouse race did not harm him,
So he founded the police of cats.
(Krylov)
More often this meaning is found in combination with the indefinite form of the verb:
Donetsk red-hot winds and the scorching sun as if on purpose, to set off physical nature each of the girls, one was gilded, the other was darkened, and the other was calcined, as in a fiery font, hands and feet, face and neck to the very shoulder blades(Fadeev).
IF
You look, and you don’t know whether its majestic width is coming or not, and it seems, as if it is all poured out of glass, and as if the blue mirror road, without measure in width, without end in length, flies and pours over the green world(Gogol).
She dreams as if she
He walks through a snow field.
(Pushkin)
Suddenly it seemed to me as if a string rang weakly and plaintively in the room(Turgenev).
4. Temporal relations
Compound sentences with conjunctions when, how, while, barely express temporal relationships with different shades. The same relationship is expressed big amount compound unions: as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, after, as soon as, as soon as and others. Some of these unions indicate the simultaneity of two actions), others indicate the previous action, and others indicate the subsequent action (sometimes with an additional touch of the rapid succession of one action after another). The meaning of the temporal correlation of actions can be very diverse. We give examples of only some of the unions (with simpler meanings).
WHEN
When blue clouds will move like mountains across the sky, the black forest is staggering to the root, the oaks are cracking, and lightning, breaking between the clouds, will illuminate at once the whole world- then the Dnieper is terrible!(Gogol)
HOW
I how looked at the steppe, where we sang so many songs, and at this sunset, and barely held back tears(Fadeev).
TILL
Compound sentences with conjunctions for now, for now, for now express that one event happened before another:
And the lonely figure of Nikolai Ivanovich loomed for a long time in the depths of the street, till the tram did not close it(A. Tolstoy).
Bye does not require a poet
TO sacred sacrifice Apollo,
Into the worries of vain light
He is feebly immersed.
(Pushkin)
BARELY
Compound sentences with conjunction barely express events that quickly follow one after another:
But barely he entered, as the spectacle of a new miracle made him clutch his hand on the leather coat of the ship's commander(V. Kataev).
5. Causal relationship
Compound sentences with conjunctions So as, because, for, due to the fact that, due to the fact that and some others express the reason:
Dad even regretted that they put on a coat on me, because it was very hot like summer(V. Kataev).
When crossing fast rivers, one should not look at the water, for immediately the head is spinning(Lermontov).
6. Condition
Compound sentences with conjunctions if, if, whether - whether, once, if, when, as soon as and others express the condition and the consequence that follows from it. Conjunctions with particle would express the hypothetical condition:
He is my father.
AND if I have to,
I will give all my blood for him.
(A. Kuleshov)
How well people could live in the world, if they just wanted if they just understood!(Fadeev).
- Don't mess with her. If she has already put on such a cap, you won’t overcap her, ”Shura Dubrovina said to Maya(Fadeev).
We went through dozens of villages with him,
Where, how, where with a mortal manhole.
AND once he walked, but did not reach,
So I have to get there.
(Twardowski)
BUT when all the people rise to the emancipation patriotic war- then woe to the enemy! Woe!(V. Kataev)
A relatively smaller role for expressing semantic relationships between parts of a complex sentence is played by other unions: concessionary (let, let, really, for nothing, despite the fact that), comparative (like, than, rather than, as if, word-but, exactly, just like), consequences (so), waist belt (i.e., viz.). Here are some examples:
Let I am weak, my sword is strong.
(Zhukovsky)
He was clearly visible for nothing that riding in the shade(Turgenev).
as if mother over her son's grave,
A sandpiper groans over the dull plain.
(Nekrasov)
He laughed exactly steel rang(M. Gorky).
The mistress's words were interrupted by a strange hiss, so the guest was scared(Gogol).
Our garden is dying, strangers are already hosting it, i.e the very thing that the poor father was so afraid of is happening(Chekhov).
IV. Conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence
This is not about repeated and pair unions, but about single ones, which are usually not used at the beginning of a sentence.
Most often, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence are found in dialogic speech, expressing an attitude towards what the interlocutor said:
“How Tanya has grown! How long ago
I think I baptized you?
BUT I got my hands on it!
BUT I was so hard on my ears.
BUT I fed with gingerbread!”
(Pushkin)
- Quiet. Do you hear?
- I hear. This snow is rustling. Why is it good if north-east?
– because in the yard now you can’t see the zgi.
(V. Kataev)
Russian character! Go and describe him... Tell me about heroic deeds? But there are so many of them that you get confused which one to prefer(A. Tolstoy).
The last example is a monologue, but it is conducted like a dialogue. In this way, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence could also penetrate monologue speech. The sentence is rarely used in isolation in monologue speech. More often it is included in the connection with other proposals. Unions at the beginning of sentences and express relations to neighboring sentences:
Alexander Fedorovich was an old Donetsk miner, a wonderful carpenter. As a young man, a native of the Tambov province, he began to go to the mines to earn money. AND in deep bowels Donetsk land, in the most terrible screes and crawlers, a lot of workings were fixed by his wonderful hatchet, which in his hands played and sang, and pecked like a golden cockerel(Fadeev).
They picked her up on the road. At first they thought that the girl was lying dead, and Grisha swerved the steering wheel so as not to crush her bare feet. But she lifted her head, the wind tousled her hair like scorched grass(A. Tolstoy).
These are the most important unions and their role in the Russian language. A more detailed disclosure of the semantic relations expressed by individual unions can be given, as indicated above, on the specific material of the syntax of a simple and complex sentence.
1 Other than unions how than And to, which see below.
