§ 1. The subject of syntax. The term "syntax" is used to denote both the object of study and the section of the science of language. The syntax of a language is its syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that illuminates the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units. "Syntax" - the Greek word (syn1akh1z), literally means "drawing up", "construction", "build". Indeed, syntax as a science of the syntactic structure of a language allows one to show the system of syntactic units, the connections and relationships between them, from what and how they are composed, how, by what means the components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.
The fundamental concepts of syntax are the concepts of a system of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic links (and means of communication), and grammatical (syntactic) semantics.
§ 2. The system of syntactic units. Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic links and relations. As part of syntactic units inflected words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. Yes, in the proposal By morning, frost will stick on_ pine branches_(Kedrin) 7 words, but 5 word forms, since the preposition is an element of the word form and is part of the members of the sentence. In this sentence, the number of word forms and members of the sentence coincides, but such a ratio is not always observed. In a sentence Strong evening dew must have fallen on the grass(L. Tolstoy) 7 word forms, but 5 members of the sentence.
Word forms are studied both in morphology and in syntax. In syntax, word forms are considered as building elements of syntactic units.
Phrases are built from word forms: warm rain, half of the night, start to drizzle etc.
Simple sentences are built from word forms and phrases: Warm rain began to drizzle from midnight(Paustovsky).
Complex sentences are built from simple sentences, differing in the degree of semantic and grammatical cohesion. Yes, from the suggestions The wind blew from land and The water was calm on the shore you can form a complex non-union, compound and complex sentences: The wind blew from land - near the shore the water was calm; The wind blew from the land, and the water was calm near the shore; If the wind was blowing from land, the water was calm near the shore.(Other options are also possible. complex sentences.)
A complex syntactic whole is built from simple and complex sentences" For example: Our people have always loved, known and appreciated the forest. No wonder so many fairy tales and songs are written about our dense forests. In the forests - our future, the fate of our crops, our deep rivers, our health and, to a certain extent, our culture. Therefore, the forest must be protected, as we protect human life, how we protect our culture and all the achievements of our extraordinary era.(Paustovsky). In this complex syntactic whole, simple and complex sentences are united by a common micro-theme. The means of expressing interphrase connections and relationships are intonation (in oral speech), word order, pronominal adverb, and therefore the repetition of word forms forest and ours. So, the main syntactic units are a phrase, a sentence (simple and complex), a complex syntactic whole. Such a hierarchy of syntactic units reflects a view of them "from below". Syntactic units can also be considered in a different sequence (“from above”): divide a complex syntactic whole into simple and complex sentences, complex sentences into simple (predicative parts), predicative parts into combinations of words (including phrases), and in combinations of words and sentences to highlight word forms (members of the sentence).
These two approaches to highlighting syntactic units reflect different levels a system of syntax in which units are more than low level are included in units of a higher level and, conversely, units of a higher level are divided into units of a lower level. Syntactic units of a lower level in constructions of a higher level act as elements (components!) that enter into syntactic links and relations with each other. For linguistic and methodological purposes, the first approach is more legitimate (from less complex structures to more complex ones), although the second approach is more “syntactic”, since it allows you to show how syntactic units function in speech, how they change, combining with each other, entering into those or other connections and relationships. So, simple sentences as part of complex ones lose their semantic and intonational independence, the order of the components may change in speech, such combinations of words may appear that cannot be built outside the sentence, etc. These include predicative combinations (combinations of subject and predicate) , rows of homogeneous members of the sentence, etc. For example, in the sentence And, trees sounded, rang, air and meadows (Yashin) there is not a single phrase in a strict terminological meaning, but there is only a predicative combination and composed rows of word forms in the position of the subject and predicate.
The difference between the approaches "from below" and "from above" is especially evident when comparing word forms and sentence members. Word forms are the minimum elements of syntactic units, from which phrases and sentences are formed. The members of the sentence are the structural and semantic components of the sentence. They exist only as part of the sentence and are isolated from it. As part of a sentence, word forms act as members of a sentence or are part of them.
Looking "from below" and "from above" at the same syntactic phenomenon makes it possible to see its different sides, therefore, when describing individual syntactic units, both approaches will be taken into account or the one that will allow showing more significant features of syntactic units.
Methodological note. At school, students practically get acquainted with all the indicated syntactic units, only, instead of a complex syntactic whole, a “text” is introduced, which is defined as “several sentences related in meaning and grammatically”
§ 3. Syntactic connections and relations. Syntactic links and relationships between elements (components) of syntactic units are the main feature of syntactic constructions2 Syntactic link is an expression of the relationship of elements in syntactic units.
The main types of syntactic communication are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, while subordinating - syntactically unequal: one acts as the main one, the other as a dependent one. A coordinative connection connects homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, a subordinating connection connects word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.
The syntactic links of the elements of syntactic units express syntactic (semantic) relations, which reflect the relations between objects and phenomena of reality. Reality is reflected in the language through generalization in logical and psychological categories: judgments, concepts and representations. Language performs the function of communication only because thought is formed and expressed in it.
Syntax in the language system begins where there are syntactic relations between elements.
Syntactic relations are divided into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of the sentence: subject and predicate. Non-predicative relations, in turn, are divided into coordinating and subordinating (attributive (defining), objective and adverbial). They can occur between the components of all syntactic units.
Under the influence of syntactic relations, elements can change some of their properties. Thus, a word form in space has the lexical and grammatical meaning of a place. In the phrase flights in space (cf .: space flights) between word forms flights and in space there are attributive relations that complicate the lexical and grammatical meaning of the word form in space.
§ 4. Means of syntactic connection and construction of syntactic units. To build syntactic units, word forms, function words, typed lexical elements, intonation, word order, etc. are used. They also serve to design syntactic links and relationships.
Word forms as minimal elements of syntactic constructions with their lexico-grammatical properties serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions, and endings and prepositions are elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning.
The main function of the ending is to express syntactic links and relationships between word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings in the design is especially important. subordination: subject to approval and management.
Note. Of the other morphemes for syntax, prefixes (prefixes) are important in some cases, especially those that are part of verb forms. Often they determine the associative (valent) properties of verb forms and correlate in their role with prepositions: enter a room, walk to a forest, take a break from work, drive off a mountain, etc. The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement and reinforce service role endings. In a sentence On the cold gray marble the yellow leaves lie(Kedrin) 6 word forms (the preposition na is part of the word form on marble, despite the fact that it is separated from the noun by adjectives). Connections and relationships between word forms in this sentence (and the phrases that this sentence has) are formed using endings and the preposition on.
The role of derivative prepositions in the expression of syntactic connections and relations is especially clearly manifested, since they, while maintaining live word-formation connections with significant words, concretize and clarify the semantics of those word forms that they are part of. Wed: near the house - near the house, in front of the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house, etc.
Important means of constructing syntactic units are other auxiliary words - conjunctions and particles. Conjunctions, connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after etc. express the meaning of time, because, since, for and others - the meaning of the cause, so- the meaning of the consequence.
Less bright signalers of grammatical meanings are coordinating conjunctions, but they also express semantic relationships between the composed components. These shades are perceived with varying degrees of clarity by speakers for whom Russian is their native language.
The category of unions is constantly replenished. Their functions are assumed by some significant parts of speech, modal words, particles. Unions are often accompanied by semantic concretizers, clarifying, differentiating the expressed meanings: and yet, and yet, and therefore, etc. Cf .: Not only people, but also ideas can cause tides of hatred(Paustovsky) - Both people and ideas can evoke... The increase in the range of allied means is due to the desire to clarify the shades of the semantics of statements. Particles and their combinations can form inseparable sentences (Yes. No. But how! So what! Of course! etc.), arrange syntactic meanings sentences, sentence members, act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight semantic center statements, etc.
Particles are not included in the members of the sentence if they form the grammatical meaning of the entire sentence. For example: Is it possible that room conditions will remain in the cabin at thousand-degree temperatures?(Stepanov). In other cases, particles, like prepositions, are part of the members of the sentence: Curly bushes of lilac in some places seemed to have been sprinkled on top with something white and purple.(L. Tolstoy). An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by lexical means languages, which are called typed. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative (who, what, which, where, where, etc.), demonstrative (this, that, such, etc. in various forms; there, there, therefore, and below); lexico-semantic groupings of words of others significant parts speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as synonymous or antonymous connections, etc.).
Typed lexical means also take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. So, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of registration interrogative sentences, lexico-grammatical group impersonal verbs (shine, frost etc.) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; thematic group verbs with the meaning of speech ( speak, say etc.) - a component of sentences with direct speech, etc.
For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. In Russian, the order of the components of syntactic units has two types: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). At direct order each component of syntactic constructions takes certain place, when free - components can change their place.
One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is n-to n and c and I, constituent elements which is the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting the informative center in the sentence.
Intonation is included in the number essential features sentences, since it is one of the indicators of completeness, the integrity of the sentence in oral speech; intonation forms the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relationships between members of a sentence, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the speech meaning of a sentence: it can a positive evaluation turn into negative, etc. The intonational characteristic of syntactic units in writing(in language fiction) is often given with the help of lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the mode of action, with verbs of speech: reproachfully, reproachfully... angrily, joyfully... quickly, slowly...; quietly, loudly ... with an emphasis on ... etc.
Several means are usually involved in the construction of syntactic constructions.
§ 5. Grammatical meanings of syntactic units. In the morphology of the "parts of speech", lexical and grammatical (categorical, general grammatical) meanings are distinguished. The same is true in syntax. All syntactic units and their components have lexical (speech, individual) and grammatical (linguistic, syntactic, categorical, etc.) values.
Let's consider in general view difference between lexical and grammatical semantics on the example of some phrases and sentences.
Let's take two sets of phrases: a warm day, a magnificent palace, an ironic smile; sing songs, shed tears, take tests. Each of these phrases has its own lexical meaning, determined by the lexical meanings of the words included in these phrases. In addition, the first group of phrases differs from the second grammatical meaning due to the different structure of these phrases. So, the first row has a common grammatical meaning - “an object and its sign” (defining relations), the general grammatical meaning of the second row is “action and the object on which the action passes” ( object relations) These general meanings are called the grammatical meanings of phrases. The question of the semantics of sentences is currently the subject of heated debate, however, some provisions have already entered the practice of university and school teaching, since syntactic units cannot be studied without attention to semantics.
In offers Students listen to lectures; Pupils learn lessons; Collective farmers harvest- grammatical meaning - a message about the subject and its action (predicative sign)
In offers Do students listen to lectures? Are students learning? Do collective farmers harvest crops?- grammatical meaning - the question of the subject and its action.
In offers Students, listen to lectures! Students, learn your lessons! Collective farmers, harvest!- grammatical meaning - motivation to action.
These general meanings of sentences can be supplemented with the grammatical meaning of phrases: listen to lectures, learn lessons, harvest("action passing to the object")
Compare the following series of proposals: Students listen to lectures; Students work with a book; Our best students work hard; Students work in the evenings; Students work in the library etc. All these sentences have a common grammatical meaning - "a message about the subject and its action." The difference is determined not only by different speech, but also by different typical meanings of phrases: object, attributive, adverbial.
Thus, grammatical (linguistic, syntactic) semantics is general meaning syntactic units of the same structure. Lexical semantics is the speech, concrete, individual meaning of a particular syntactic unit, associated with the lexical meanings of words and word forms.
Note. In school and university practice of teaching the Russian language, the concepts of "language" and "speech" are not clearly opposed, but they are not identified either. They are considered as two sides of one phenomenon, interconnected and complementary. In accordance with this, the term "linguistic semantics" is often used as a generic name for the meanings of all units of a language, and for various levels language systems - specific designations. For units of morphology and syntax (sections of grammar) general term is the term "grammatical semantics", which can be differentiated: "morphological semantics" for parts of speech (categorical meaning), "syntactic semantics" - for units of syntax.
As a generic name individual values units of speech in the syntax, the term "lexical meaning" ("lexical semantics") is used, although it is not entirely accurate, since " speech sense”(“speech semantics”) of syntactic units does not arise from a simple sum of lexical meanings of combined components, but is complicated by additional semantic shades that are introduced into the semantics of syntactic units by links and relationships between components, the entire text as a whole, etc.
The syntactic and lexical semantics of syntactic units and their components differ from each other by varying degrees of abstraction: syntactic semantics - the highest level generalizations of lexical semantics. Syntactic and lexical semantics can be represented as different poles, between which lies the zone transitional phenomena representing different levels of abstraction. In this zone of grammatical and lexical interaction, structural-semantic types of sentences, phrases, etc. are formed. The syntactic semantics of the varieties of these sentences, phrases, etc. is called typical semantics. Thus, the general grammatical meaning of an impersonal sentence It's cold in the room is a message, and its typical value is the state of the environment; the general grammatical meaning of the subject is the meaning of the subject of speech (thought), and its typical meanings are the doer (producer of the action) and the carrier of the sign. Wed: The wind is howling and the wind was strong. The general meaning of the circumstances is specified by the typical values of the circumstances of the place, time, cause, purpose, etc. Methodological note. The school textbook considers the grammatical meanings of both phrases (p. 22-23) and sentences (p. 31) (2 Hereinafter, with reference to school textbook see: Barkhudarov S. G., Kryuchkov S. E. Maksimov L. Yu., Cheshko L. A. Russian language: Textbook for grades 7-8. - 12th ed., revised - M ., 1985.) The grammatical meanings of phrases are associated with their structure, and sentences - with the meanings of the moods of the verb-predicate.
§ 6. Syntax in the language system. AT modern research language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. Phonology is considered the lowest tier (level), syntax is considered the highest. The multi-level nature of the “language building” can be called multi-storey: syntactic units are located on the upper floor, sounds (phonemes) are located on the lower floor, the middle floors are occupied by the remaining units in accordance with their functions in language and speech.
Completing the "building of the language", syntactic units cannot exist without support on other floors: without the lower floors, the building will crumble. From above, from the floor of the syntactic level, the relationship and interdependence of individual tiers is better seen, so the syntax allows you to show organic connections between vocabulary, morphology, syntax, etc.
See more: Babaitseva V. V. Semantics simple sentence: Sentence as a multidimensional unit of language. - M. 1983.
L. A. Belovolskaya
1. The subject of syntax.
2. The system of syntactic units.
3. Syntactic connections and relations.
4. Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units.
5. Grammatical meaning of syntactic units.
6. Aspects of the study of syntactic units (logical aspect, structural aspect, communicative aspect, structural-semantic aspect).
1. Grammar of the Russian language. M., 1954, 1960 - Vol. 2, parts 1 and 2.
2. Russian grammar. M., 1980, v. 2.
3. Modern Russian language / Under. edited by V.A. Beloshapkova. M., 1981.
4. Modern Russian language in three parts / V.V. Babaitseva, L.Yu. Maksimov. M, 1987.
5. Modern Russian language / Ed. N.M. Shansky. M., 1981.
6. Chesnokova L.D. Connections of words in modern Russian. M., 1980.
7. Raspopov I.P. The structure of a simple sentence in the modern Russian language. M., 1970.
8. Valgina N.S. Syntax of the modern Russian language. M., 1978.
9. Lekant P.A. The syntax of a simple sentence in modern Russian. M., 1974.
10. Modern Russian language / R.N. Popov, D.P. Valkova, L.Ya. Malovitsky, A.K. Fedorov. M., 1978.
11. Modern Russian language / Ed. D.E. Rosenthal. Part 2. Syntax. M., 1979.
12. Kovtunova I.I. Modern Russian language. Word order and actual division of the sentence. M., 1976.
1. The term "syntax" is used to denote both the object of study and the section of the science of language.
The syntax of a language is its syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units.
Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that illuminates the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units (4, p. 5).
The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.
Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intra-word opposition; the meanings of verbal forms arising in combination with other verbal forms, the meanings determined by the laws of word compatibility and the construction of a sentence of sentences are the subject of syntax (8, p. 7).
Syntax as a science of the syntactic structure of a language allows you to build and show a system of syntactic units, connections and relationships between them, from what and how they are composed, by what means the components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.
The fundamental concepts of syntax are the concept of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic links (and means of communication) and grammatical (syntactic) semantics (4, p. 5).
2. Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic links and relations.
As part of syntactic units, modified words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. However, word forms are studied both in morphology and syntax, but they look different.
Wed: By morning, frost will stick to pine branches (Kedrin).
The sentence contains 7 words, 5 word forms, 5 members of the sentence.
Strong evening dew was supposed to lie on the grass (A. Tolstoy).
The sentence contains 8 words, 7 word forms, 5 members of the sentence.
Thus, word forms are structural elements of syntactic units: phrases, simple sentences, complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes, which are the main syntactic units (4, p. 6).
The question of the composition of syntactic units (how many and what they are) has not yet been unambiguously resolved in linguistics, however, in most university textbooks (see the list of references), all the above syntactic units are considered.
3. "Syntactic connections and relations between elements (components) of syntactic units are the main feature of syntactic constructions" (Chesnokova L.D., p. 6).
A syntactic link is an expression of the relationship of elements in a syntactic unit, that is, it serves to express syntactic relations between words, secondly, it creates the syntactic structure of a sentence and a phrase, and thirdly, it creates conditions for the realization of the lexical meaning of a word.
The main types (types) of syntactic communication are composition and subordination (4, p. 6).
Composition and subordination are structural, proper linguistic relations, designed to structurally shape objective relationship.
Subordination conveys the relationship between the facts of the objective world in the form of such a combination of two words, in which one acts as the main thing, the second - as dependent.
The composition conveys the relationship between the facts of the objective world in the form of such a combination of words in which all words act as equal in relation to each other.
On the basis of the main types of communication in the linguistic literature, the following are distinguished: 1) explanatory communication; 2) bidirectional communication; 3) determinant relationship.
Let's consider them in more detail.
The explanatory link is typical only for word forms in the composition of the sentence. I.P. Raspopov in "The Structure of a Simple Sentence" (7, pp. 40-41) calls this connection an application, in "Grammar-80" it is noted that the explanatory connection is characterized as a kind of composing connection (§ 2084).
An explanatory connection is a connection of word forms, in which the second component is, as it were, “superimposed” on the first and, due to this, is likened to it in syntactic relations with other components of the sentence. The explanatory connection reveals the actual explanatory syntactic relations expressing different names the same phenomenon. An explanatory link can be seen in cases that are usually treated as a separation of applications (in broad sense with the inclusion of not only adjectival, but also adjectival, adverbial components), it is characteristic of the sentence (I.P. Chirkina, part 4, p. 25).
Wed: She went out into the street in an old, very shabby dress. To the left, by the road, stood a lone tree.
A bidirectional connection is characteristic only for a sentence, it is a simultaneous connection of a dependent word form with two other word forms that are core to it, expresses attributive and adverbial, attributive and object syntactic relations. (See: Grammar-80, § 2003, Chesnokova L.D., pp. 66-72, Raspopov I.P., pp. 37-40).
Example: Burying his face in a towel, he wept bitterly, as he wept in this room, when his little father (Fedin) unfairly and cruelly punished him.
The word form of the little one expresses at the same time an attributive attitude to the word form of him (what is he?) and a tense adverbial to the word form punished (when?).
Has the war made you superstitious? (Simonov).
The superstitious word form simultaneously expresses attributive and object syntactic relations.
Determinant connection - the connection of the free attachment of a word form to the sentence as a whole, expresses object and adverbial syntactic relations (see the works of Shvedova N.Yu., Malashchenko V.P. and others).
Examples: A writer must be a thinker, an artist and a critic at the same time. It is not enough for a great writer to know his native language.
The selected units are the object determinant.
The room smelled fresh from the balcony. A warm wind blew through the open windows - an example of a circumstantial determinant.
Since syntactic links serve to express syntactic relations, the latter should be defined.
“Syntactic relations,” writes L.D. Chesnokova, “there are those semantic relations that are qualified in school syntax as the grammatical meanings of a phrase, these are the relations that determine the specifics of the syntactic structure of the sentence, make up the meaning of the members of the sentence, the meaning subordinate clauses, the meaning of compound and unionless proposals etc.
Relations between objects and phenomena of the real world are concretized and appear in the language as relations between an object and an object, between a sign and an object, between a sign and a sign, between an action and an object, between an action and a sign, between an action and an action" (6, p. 9 ).
Structural, specifically linguistic, relations are called upon to formalize in a certain way, to represent objective relations in the language (ibid.).
The division of syntactic relations into predicative and non-predicative should be recognized as the main one. Predicative syntactic relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of the sentence: subject and predicate.
Non-predicative syntactic relations are divided into coordinating and subordinating (attributive, object, adverbial). They can occur between the components of all syntactic units.
(For details, see the referenced literature).
4. To build syntactic units, word forms, auxiliary words, typed lexical elements, intonation, word order, etc. are used. All these means also serve to formalize syntactic links and express syntactic relations.
Word forms are minimal syntactic constructions that serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions, and the elements of word forms are endings and prepositions.
Unions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. Less bright signaling of grammatical meanings are composing conjunctions, but they also reveal the semantic relationships between the composed components.
Particles and their combinations can form inseparable sentences, shape the syntactic meanings of sentences, members of a sentence, highlight the semantic center of an utterance, etc. Particles are not included in the members of the sentence if they form the grammatical meaning of the entire sentence:
Is it possible that room conditions will remain in the cabin at thousand-degree temperatures?
In other cases, particles, like prepositions, are part of the members of the sentence.
V.V. VINOGRADOV
Questions of studying phrases.
Basic questions of sentence syntax
Unlike his predecessors, who tried to find "one hero as a subject of study" 1, 221 of the syntax of A.M. Peshkovsky - a phrase, A.A. Shakhmatov - proposal., V.V. Vinogradov considers both the sentence and the phrase to be the main categories of this grammar department, since there is a qualitative difference between them in several parameters (see Table).
In his opinion, "when a sentence becomes the only subject of syntactic research, ... many questions of studying the laws and rules of word compatibility fall out of the field of grammar" 1, 221.
Vinogradov sets the task of clarifying the internal grammatical nature of both word combinations and sentences; for which he considers it necessary to clearly distinguish between morphology and syntax, as well as to identify transitional and mixed zones of their interaction.
The subject of morphology is the study of the rules for the formation of word forms, the study of words as systems of forms and these forms themselves in their inner unity and in their differences, "depending on belonging ... words ... to different morphological and partly word-forming categories" 1, 222.
The subject of syntax "is the study of the rules and methods of combining words into phrases and sentences, as well as the study of the types of phrases and sentences, their linguistic structure, functions and conditions of use, the laws of their development" 1, 221.
The phrase is understood by Vinogradov as a grammatical unity, which, arising from a combination of words according to laws or rules given language, expresses in the composition of the sentence a single, albeit dissected meaning. The phrase consists of at least two full-valued words and is building material for an offer. It is included in the system of communicative means of the language only as part of a sentence. Outside the sentence, the phrase refers to the area of nominative means of language 2, 231.
The phrase is organized around one significant word (the dominant word, the core of the phrase). The morphological structure of this word determines the constructive properties of the phrase. Since the phrase has a system of forms, “there is a variety of syntactic functions of the same phrase if its dominant word is inflected 2, 232.
Vinogradov notes that according to the grammatically dominant main word, phrases are divided into:
1) nominal (substantive and adjectival);
2) verbal;
3) adverbial (adverbial).
This distinction is very important, since there are syntactic connections typical of separate parts of speech 1, 223; 2, 234.
Phrase grammar grapes
Qualitative difference between a phrase and a sentence
|
phrase |
Sentence |
|
|
nominative means of language (naming) |
communicative means of language (message unit) |
|
|
is not an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
is an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
|
|
non-predicative compound of words (predicative relations are not characteristic) |
predicative compound of words (predicative relations are typical) |
|
|
not typical syntactic categories person, tense and modality |
syntactic categories of person, tense and modality are typical |
|
|
has no intonation of the message |
has the intonation of the message (constant characteristic feature of the proposal) |
|
|
has a system of forms |
||
|
element of the structure of a common simple sentence (building material for a sentence) |
a simple sentence is an element of the structure of a complex sentence |
Vinogradov also identifies another criterion for dividing phrases into groups - according to semantic classes and word-formation nests. According to this criterion, phrases are combined into groups according to the common stem and the connection of word-formation relations of the main words, as well as according to the general semantic quality (close to the city, close to the city, proximity to the city) 1, 224; 2, 234.
The connections of words in a phrase can be determined not only grammatically, but also semantically. Such links, in contrast to free syntactic links, Vinogradov calls "semantically non-free", and the categories of phrases formed on their basis - "groups of semantically related phrases". Their study requires the establishment and differentiation in the language system semantic categories words with the same forms of syntactic compatibility (dream about traveling, dreams about traveling, worrying about children, worrying about children - ch. and noun with the meaning of thought, speech, feeling). 1, 224; 2, 234.
The third circle of word combination formation covers different parts of speech and various categories of words. These are phrases with a “weakly controlled” noun attached to the main word by means of a preposition. For them, a two-way and rather free prepositional connection is typical. "And here huge role plays a grouping of words according to semantic, and partly according to word-formation groups ”These are phrases with a second adverbial or adverbial-determinative member: sink to the waist, wet to the waist, water to the waist; go to Moscow, way to Moscow, road to Moscow, journey to Moscow; stop by the river, house by the river 1, 224 - 225; 2, 234.
The analysis of the linkages of homogeneous members (the so-called coordinating phrases) Vinogradov includes in the doctrine of the proposal.
Vinogradov marked two circles important issues concerning phrases that have so far remained outside the academic syntax:
1. Methods for constructing complex phrases are not disclosed, there is no grouping of the main types of complex combinations.
2. The rules for the formation of phrases should be supplemented by the rules for the use and use of different types of phrases in the sentence structure.
Vinogradov distinguishes between simple and complex sentences.
A simple sentence is sometimes a very complex structure. It has a variety of forms, different types, and can also be complicated by isolated and homogeneous members.
Vinogradov confirms that the distinction between simple sentences in the Russian language into two-part and one-part sentences "has become firmly established in scientific syntax» . But the question of one-part sentences, in his opinion, "requires further in-depth study." Vinogradov reveals the inconsistency of A.A. Shakhmatova in the description of one-part sentences. He believes that Shakhmatov's thesis about the combination psychological subject and a predicate in one main member of the sentence separates researchers from the concrete historical language material and denies the reflection in speech of objective reality
. “... it would be inappropriate to strive to find "subjects" and "predicates" ... in all types of one-part sentences. However, in some of their forms, one can find morphological correspondences to one of the main members of a two-part ... sentence.
The difference between simple and complex sentences is structural. “A simple sentence is organized by single concentration forms of expression of the categories of time, modality and person; in a complex sentence can be somewhat organically bound friend with other constructive centers of this kind.
Complex Vinogradov calls such a sentence, which is a single intonation and semantic whole, but consists of parts (two or more), more or less the same type with simple sentences in its formal grammatical structure. Parts of a complex sentence external structure homogeneous with simple sentences, but "as part of the whole, they do not have semantic and intonational completeness, ... and, therefore, do not form separate sentences" .
Vinogradov believes that the principles for describing and delimiting the types of complex sentences have not yet been established, “inherited from a long tradition” dividing them into compound and complex sentences is very schematic and conditional. He considers cases of "mutual subordination", based on the works of V.A. Bogoroditsky and A.M. Peshkovsky (although - but, despite the fact that - nevertheless, only just - like, barely - like, etc.). This also includes many types of non-union proposals.
Vinogradov shows that "the concepts of subordination and composition are in dialectical connection and interaction."
Thus, according to Vinogradov, “one should not get carried away with mechanical spacing” different types complex sentences “under the headings of composition and subordination”, but you need to strive for a complete and comprehensive description structural features all major types. In this case, it is necessary to take into account intonation, word order, the presence or absence of correlative words with the union, syntactic functions typified lexical elements, different ways of morphological expression of a syntactic connection.
Literature
1. Vinogradov V.V. Basic principles of Russian syntax // Izbr. tr. Studies in Russian grammar. - M .: Nauka, 1975. - S. 221-230.
2. Vinogradov V.V. Questions of studying word combinations // Ibid. - S. 231-253.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Basic questions of sentence syntax // Ibid. - pp. 254-294.
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Modern characteristic widespread offer. A sentence is a unit of syntax. The structure of a common sentence. Communication in the offer. The history of the study of a common proposal. Difficulties in learning the Russian language.
Syntax is a word of Greek origin, translated “together”, “at the same time”, “construction, arrangement”. Thus, this is the doctrine of juxtaposition, the construction of language forms in the form linked text.
Grammar = syntax (phrase, sentence) + morphology (word).
The word is a lexical and morphological unit. a phrase and a sentence are more complex syntactical structures that have the ability to unlimited complication.
Morphology is the study of paradigm in language (inflection). Syntax is the doctrine of syntagmatics ( compatibility), laws of association of different forms.
^ Syntactic paradigmatics - a set of syntactic units united by interchangeability or interchangeability relations. (I am sick / I am in pain).
Basic concepts of syntax:
syntactic position. There is only one definite syntactical position for the definite form in the sentence. (Sasha saw Katya, incompatibility).
Syntactic relations are relations of coordination (correlation). Subject and predicate - there is no main thing, they coordinate.
Composition relations (equality).
Relations of subordination (dependence).
Hierarchy as a type of relationship, inclusion relationship, one level is included in another, more complex. + relationships of subordination (relations of one-man command), the vertex node and the dependent node.
Syntax dependency
^ 4 aspects of syntax.
1) Formal-structural(refers to the plan of expression). Categories of syntactic form (simple/complex, types of clauses, etc.).
2) ^ Semantic aspect . From a content point of view, in the syntactic structure, a surface structure (form structure) and a deep structure (subtextual meaning, author's intentions) are distinguished. From the point of view of semantic syntax, the sentence performs a nominative function, which is also a name. Proposition - constitutes the structure and meaning of the situation. In each sentence, 2 types of nominative meaning proposition(that part of the meaning that conveys the state of affairs in the world, the objective content of the sentence) and mode(that part of the meaning that shows the attitude of the speaker to the reported, the subjective beginning). Mode: explicated (verbalized) + non-explicited (non-verbalized).
^ Types of explicit modes : 1) perceptual (sensory perception); 2) mental (intellectual, mode of believing, doubts, knowledge, ignorance, assessment societies). 3) emative (emotions); 4) volitional (expression of will) 5) verbal-thinking action.
^ Elements of the semantic structure of the sentence: agent-producer of action; predicate - what is reported about the subject of speech; object - an element of action, situation, what the action is aimed at; instrumental - instrument of action; mediative - with the help of which, means; destination; the counterparty is a participant in a symmetrical relationship.
3) ^ Communicative aspect . The actual articulation of speech is implied, the theme-rhematic articulation.
4) Pragmatic aspect. The subject of the characteristic is the communicative goal, for which we pronounce. The foundation- speech act theory, the idea of John Austin, Searle monograph - 2 Speech acts", Arutyunova, Zvegintsev. The subject of analysis is a sentence in a pronunciation situation. The means of constructing an utterance are analyzed - the locutionary aspect (the language of the unit). The goal of analysis is the illocutionary aspect, the result is the perlocutionary aspect.
^ Typology of illocutionary meanings : question, answer, informing, warning, criticism, threat, assurance.
Speech acts: 1. Direct (rough, evaluative, categorical). 2. indirect.
2 Phrase
Syntactic Union significant words
- subordinating connection of these famous words
- nominative function (this is not a communicative unit)
phrase - gram unity formed by combining two or more words belonging to the famous parts of speech and serving as the designation of a single undivided concept or idea.
Red pencil - double sentence = e Red pencil - phrase
In the first case, word order conveys such a characteristic as predicativity. In the second case, the sign is not related to real time, its manifestation and location.
In the first case - specific subject in specific time (here and now).
The lack of predicativity deprives the phrase of communicativeness.
The phrase and the word (word form) bring together the trace of the holy:
1. not a communicative unit, enters into speech only as part of a sentence
2. has no predicative meanings, intonation of the message
3. acts as a nominative means of language
4. has a system of forms, and the initial form, which is set according to the initial form of the main word
differences:
more complex structure phrase
includes at least 2 famous words (main or pivotal and dependent), formed on the basis of subordinating connections
the phrase is included in the sentence by means of its main word, which in the sentence can be a dependent word of another phrase
unlike words, they give a detailed name of objects and phenomena, while limiting their circle by indicating one or another distinguishes saints
op-e mean and tale: "The earth is round"
writing essay, i.e. homogeneous rows: "Cheerful, cheerful"
a paired combination of words that forms a composite nomination: father and mother (parents), day and night (day)
op-e el-tov, between which semi-predicative relations arise (noun-mean + participial / gerund turn): “The house towering outside the window blocks the sun” = the house rises outside the window.
Connecting structure: “I had to make sure of this, and soon"- the connecting part of the information, which is additional to the main content of the sentence. (attachment relationship)
Chess - parallel point view: the word-word does not exist as a self-unit; any combination of words - a phrase; the term collocation has a broader meaning.
Should we distinguish between a sentence and a phrase as syntactic units?
In writings Shcherby, Shakhmatova the need to distinguish between them is outlined.
At Fartunatova they are considered in the same row: complete (sentences) and unfinished phrases.
Trubetskoy says that there are predicative (prepositional) and non-predicative (phrasal) syntaxemes.
Peshkovsky also includes single-word constructions as phrases.
^ Classification of phrases according to the nature of syntactic relations:
attributive- relations in which an object, a phenomenon is determined from the side of its external or internal quality, sv-va, belonging.
Attribute-qualitative value ( hard work, porcelain teapot)
Attributive-quantitative (second number, two friends)
Attributive-subjective (singing of the artist, clanging of wheels)
Attributive-possessive (fox tail, my house, grandfather's house)
Attributive-objective (defence of the fatherland, the price of bread)
Attributive-temporal (a trip in winter, a habit from childhood)
Otributively-targeted (drawing table, cough suppressant)
Object- the relationship between the action, state or sign called in the word and the object to which the action is directed or associated.
object of direct action application (build a house, dig garden beds)
The object of desire, search, achievement, removal (to crave happiness, wish good luck, be afraid of meeting)
Object of coverage (eat berries, drink water)
Object of speech perception (talking to a friend)
Object of emotional relationship (enjoy music, enjoy spring)
Object-tool (write with a pen, dig with a paw)
Destination object (write to mother, give to child)
circumstantial- rel-I, in which the action, state or sign is determined by its quality or the conditions for its manifestation
qualitative circumstantial value (look closely, look with regret)
measures and quantities (weigh per kilogram, cost one hundred rubles)
spatial (rest in the village, turn right)
temporary (study from childhood, sit until dark)
causal (cry for joy, say rashly)
targeted (to do it in spite of, to say in justification)
conditions (implement if funds are available, flee in case of flood)
concessive (to walk despite the rain, to clear up contrary to the prediction)
replenishing rel-I (to be known as an eccentric)
the dependent word is expressed as a noun in R.p.
R.p. with the meaning of the subject (birdsong (= bird song), thunderclap)
R.p. chatsi of the whole (mountain top (=mountain peak), chair leg)
R.p. supplies (student notebook = student notebook)
R.p. definitive (man of feat = heroic man)
R.p. in an object function, i.e. the object to which the action is directed (reading a book)
Relative of the subject to the head (factory director)
R.p. content (purpose of travel)
Complementary relationships (replenishing) -
ratios, measures, quantities (a basket of flowers, a kilogram of flour)
dependent word vyr-but existent in Tv.p .:
defining relations
the value of the accompanying feature (hair with gray hair - gray hair)
object relations
etc. compatibility (cat with kittens)
etc. spreads a verbal noun (dispute with a neighbor)
Connection:
Mandatory - the absence of a dependent word creates structural and semantic incompleteness
Optional - the dependent component is optional
Coordination- the species will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by likening the form of the dependent word to the form of the core word in gender, number and case.
Word order is the preposition of the dependent word.
Substantive connection (core word - noun \ substantiated word (tasty second)
Approval:
Complete (in gender, number and case) - beautiful girls
Incomplete (not all gram forms are likened): our doctor \ appendix.
Control- the view will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by joining the main word of the existent in the cos case with or without a preposition (to build a house capable of a feat, a walk in the forest, secretly from parents)
Distinguish management:
verb: to make jam
Substantive: playing with fire
Adjective: visible from above
Pronominal: someone in white, someone you know
Numerical: two houses, five days
Adverb: long before dawn, up the path
Impersonal-predicative: sorry for a friend
Comparative: long before dawn, above the head
Word order - postposition of the head of the word
Control:
Strong - a necessary connection between the case form of the name and the dictionary or gram form of the verb (to move down the mountain, angry at everyone, alone with yourself):
cases with transverbs or direct control (V.p. without preposition)
R.p. parts (drink milk, read a book)
R.p. denial (not loving a friend)
the preposition repeats the prefix of the verb (to reach the forest, get down from the tree)
numerative (three boys)
Weak - the connection is not necessary, with the cat heading the case is not mandatory and the lexical or grammar of the control words is not predicted (come for things, harm to health, invitation to dinner)
adjoining- the view will subordinate the connections, with the cat as dependent components are invariable words and word forms, for example:
adverb: turn right
infinitive: ask to come
adverb: to walk breathlessly
comparative: work better
indeclinable adj: flared skirt
As part of the adjunction, phrases are distinguished:
verb: sleep soundly
substantive: sideways hat
adjective: friendly caring
primatively: twice two, third from left
with impersonal predicative words: it's a pity, you need it desperately
Distinguish adjoining:
strong: he weighed a lot - obligatory distribution
weak: he reacted very joyfully - no obligation to spread
concurrency (application)- appositive combinations, consisting of two entities that have the same case form. (winter sorceress, old hunter, Russula mushroom, female cosmonaut, Gorki village, boy-woman, unfortunate hotonik, a girl named Katya).
nominal:
substantive (warm day, the roof of the house, an old man with glasses, a date alone, a desire to please)
adjectives (red with embarrassment, very inquisitive, well-known, white spotted)
with a numeral as the main word (two students, two friends, the first on the list)
with a pronoun as the main word (one of the students, someone else, any of the listeners)
verbal (read a book, read aloud, want to travel, speak smiling)
adverbial (adverbial): very cheerful, far from relatives
with sks as the main word (hurt my hand, I'm sad)
Simple phrase includes two components, between which one type of syntactic relationship.
^ Compound phrase consists of three or more components, between which there are two or more types of syntactic links. free phrases - each component retains its independence due to sufficient informativeness (each member functions independently): work in the garden, wait for an answer.
Not free- the completeness of the lexical meaning of one of the components is weakened or it is informatively insufficient (close cohesion of the components and the functioning of such a phrase as one member of the sentence): five tables are considered allies, start building, master speak
^ Syntactically indecomposable combinations of words :
1) quantitative-nominal combinations: head word - Rod.p., main word - (I.p., R.p. with the preposition to, from, about, over / from Nar in the middle degree more, less):
Five years on the shoulders of soldiers
Few weeks disasters are passing by
More than half of the people screamed at once
One hundred trees growing on the estate
We are from the bones looked at each other
Each of us stand on the very edge of the platform
pronoun in I.p. + pronoun \ number \ adj in I.p.
All this will seem to you a masterpiece of nature.
In his movement was something feverish.
3 Sentence.
The sentence is the main unit of syntax, since it is in the sentence that the most essential functions of the language are found: cognitive or expressive (language as a tool, tool of thinking) and communicative (language as a means of communication).
Modern definition goes back to the structural-semantic direction, the founder of Vinogradov.
Sentence – a unit that denotes a specific situation.
Sentence– a means of expressing theme-rhematic relations.
Sentence – one form of expression.
Sentence- this is an integral unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing, communicating thoughts (Vinogradov)
For a number of reasons, a simple sentence is opposed by units of a lower syntactic level.
Word and sentence.
Functionally, a sentence is always more words in his syntactic form. Nominative proposal ^ Wind. in the context of Tyutchev's poem (1) Wind. Everything is buzzing and swaying around, The leaves are spinning at the feet ... performs a different function than the word wind in its dictionary meaning (the movement of an air stream in a horizontal direction), realizing the nominative function in the phrases western, gusty, sea wind. Form them. case in the sentence not only names the phenomenon, but also reports on its observability: it acts as an independent, undefined. Wed with offer (2) The wind sleeps and everything goes numb. Just to sleep..., in which the state of the wind is characterized by the word sleeping in the present tense. Together with the intonation of the completed message, the word form wind in example (1) conveys an existential meaning, i.e. has a modal-temporal meaning of real reference (observability) to the moment of speech, which turns it into a sentence, into a communicative unit, as in example (2)
Word and phrase.
A sentence is also different from a phrase. Compare the use of the phrase Starlight Night F. Tyutchev: (3) Quiet, starry night, The moon tremblingly shines, Sweet lips of beauty In a quiet, (4) starry night.
Example (3) is similar to a one-word sentence ^ wind, because denotes a certain situation, and in example (4) the phrase falls into the predicate-dependent sweet position, it as a whole, like the word, performs the function of nomination. In the phrase, attributive relations are realized (what night?), which are expressed by the connection of full agreement. Sentence The night is starry is a message about real fact in present time. Here, other than in the phrase, relations are realized: the name of the phenomenon + its characteristic, i.e. conjugation of two concepts between which relations of mutual dependence (predicative) predetermined by syntactic positions are established.
Statement and suggestion.
statement- any linear segment of speech that performs a communicative function (dialogue from Pushkin "Eugene Onegin").
Formed as separate sentences, interjectional utterances are not divided into sentence members: Really? Is it?
In the modern consideration of the proposal, the ratio sentence - statement. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the statement and the sentence are phenomena of the same order, but not identical. MM. Bakhtin believed that statement- this is a sentence addressed to someone, associated with previous and subsequent texts that determine the speaker's intention, overgrown with extra-textual meanings. That's why They call. is both a sentence and an utterance, and a sentence Boy reading a book contains two sentences: the boy is reading, the boy is reading a book.
Unlike a sentence (as a unit of language and speech), an utterance belongs entirely to the sphere of speech: it belongs to a certain sender, is aimed at a certain recipient, was produced at a certain point in time, committed with purpose, correlates with a certain fragment of reality (situation), performs a certain communicative function and turns out to be appropriate (meaningful) in this particular speech environment.
Sentence, a unit of grammar, usually corresponding to a complete statement and capable of acting as a separate message (text of minimum length). A sentence consists of words that act in morphological forms and in a linear order, which are provided by the grammar of the language.
Aspects of logical, psychological, formal-grammatical definition of a sentence.
Boolean(Buslaev): sentence - judgment, expressed in words, can express a question, an emotion. Sentences different in composition and structure can express the same judgments (I'm having fun. I'm having fun).
Psychological(Potebnya, Ovsyannikov-Kulikovsky): A sentence is a word, or such an ordered combination of words, which is associated with a special movement of thought, known as
predicates. The main feature of the sentence is predicability (verb in personal form). But! Ex. - impersonal and infinitive.
Logical and psychological direction(Chess): A sentence - a message expressed by a combination of ideas - a predicative connection.
^ Formal grammatical direction (Fortunatov, Peshkovsky): A sentence is a complete phrase.
Suggestion signs.
Sentence- this is such a statement, which is based on an abstract grammatical pattern (a certain scheme, model). This grammatical pattern has a typical grammatical meaning. All sentences built according to this model have this meaning. This value is called predicativity.
Predicativity- the relation of the content of the sentence to reality, expressed in the forms of time, modality and person.
Time
Temporal definiteness: associated with the verb in the form indicative mood, participle in the passive form
Temporal uncertainty
The indirect form of expressing time is the infinitive.
To the main meaning of temporal certainty and uncertainty, various temporal shades or connotations are added to the sentence (from time to time - phraseology, regular repetition).
The offer has intonation(completion; intonation of the message, question, motivation ..) Therefore, intonation is one of the constant characteristic features of the sentence.
It is a means of highlighting the semantic center.
The proposal is built according to an abstract model, a scheme. ^
Block diagrams
underlie different offers- the main members of the sentences are singled out and on this basis the structure of the sentence is determined as two-part or one-part, the characteristic of the distribution of the main members by secondary ones, the allocation of syntactic completeness / incompleteness of the structure, the characteristics of the types of complication.
4. MODALITY.
component of predication. Modality expresses the attitude of the speaker to what is reported in the sentence.
Definition of the content of the category of modality:
Broad Viewpoint:
opposition of statements according to the communicative purpose
contrasting high on the basis of affirmation / denial
gradation of modal values in the range "real-surreal"
subjective-modal meaning
^ Objective modality - a mandatory feature of any statement.
- real(indicative)
- surreal(subjective, modal verb, short adj. with modal meaning: “need to start”, “need to start”).
Meaning real modality characterized by temporal certainty. Meaning unreal modality- uncertainty.
In a sentence, lexico-grammatical forms of predicate expression can be used in a figurative sense - transposition(value transfer grammatical form).
Everyone lower their collars
a) real modality - the forms will express inkl-I:
Current time (it works)
Past time (he worked)
Weekday (it will work)
Subjunctive mood (conditional) - would (it would work)
Desirable inclination - would it work
Meaning of Motivation (Nakl will command) - let it work!
Must - he must / must work
The full paradigm is seven-membered. Consists of the predicate change forms in terms of changing the forms of the temporal value.
In this system of form changes, a commonality is preserved in dictum(proposition, invariant). The opposition/difference between them forms mode.
The value of objective modality is a mandatory feature of the statement. This value is optional, maybe. enclosed in a "modal shell" - subjective modeling.
^
Semantic volume of subjective modality:
1) evaluation value
A) intellectual (rational, logical)
B) emotional (irrational)
C) aesthetic (beautiful - ugly)
D) ethical (true - not true)
2) expression (expressiveness) - expressive-expressive components (“Shaky heart scales”)
^
Means of expressing subjective modality
1) introductory words and components
2) modal particles: What an event! –surprise, Is it possible to go for a walk - an assumption
3) interjections (oh, oh, alas)
4) word order (he will listen to you)
5) special syntactic constructions (she take yes and say no to wait)
^
Modality of affirmation/negation
On the basis of the affirmation, the negations of the sentence are opposed on the basis of the connection between the subject of speech and its predicative feature is affirmed or denied:
The day was cool - will approve the proposal
It was not him - denied
Negative suggestions:
generally negative(negation refers to the predicate): "Father did not come"
private negative(negation refers to some other component of the sentence): "He didn't give me a letter, but a little note" (the object is denied)
Means of expressing negative modality:
negative word NO
negative particles NOT, NOR
negative pronouns NOBODY, NOTHING
modal-predicative words with a negative meaning (impossible, impossible)
Some sentences with a negative particle do NOT acquire an affirmative meaning. This happens when:
double negation gives a statement as part of a compound verb skaz: “The breadth of her interests could not help but amaze me”
It is impossible + not - double negation: "it is impossible not to notice that ..."
Who / what / how + not in exclamatory sentences: “Who in the former Tanya, poor Tanya, would not have recognized the princess now” (anyone would have recognized)
Sentences with combinations of whoever, wherever, whatever - amplifying, not negative function: “Whoever you are, my sad neighbor, I love you as a friend of my youth” (= anyone, everyone)
In the subordinate part of the SPP: "wherever you turn, children are everywhere"
Proposals in the form of affirmative may contain expressive negation (I will feed the dog!) Discrepancy between the plan of expression and the plan of content.
Predicativity- a specific relationship between the subject of speech / subject and its modally temporal feature. In this understanding of predicativity, modality is part of it.
By communicative orientation statements stand out declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences.
By the presence or absence of emotional coloring - exclamatory and non-exclamatory. The exclamation of a sentence is characterized by an exclamation of intonation, the presence in their composition of interjections, pronouns and adverbs (what, such, how, so, what for), acquiring the properties of emotionally intensifying particles.
According to the nature of the communicative orientation, the questions of the proposal can be divided into:
proper interrogative- the speaker aims to get some information from the interlocutor.
Improper interrogative not intended to receive information:
Interrogative-impellative- contain a wish, request, advice, etc. (Perhaps you should go to the hut, Savely? You will read something to us, won't you?)
Interrogative-rhetorical- sentences containing affirmation or negation (Well, who among us is not happy with spring?)
^ Incentive Offers - the speaker expresses a request, advice, order, warning, wish, etc., i.e. induces the interlocutor to some action.
Incentive sentences always have the meaning of an unreal modality. Simple interrogative and declarative sentences are opposed to incentive sentences as sentences that have the meaning of both real modality (more often) and irreal (less often).
Means of expression: forms will command the inclination of the head, induce particles (let, yes, come on ...)
5. Word order and actual division of the sentence.
Depending on the communicative goal pursued by the speaker, the same lexical composition sentences can take on different meanings:
1) due to word order
2) at the expense actual articulation
^
Communicative/actual articulation
- division into a given (original) topic and a new (known) rheme.
