A. A group of cells that perform different functions
B. A group of cells that form tissues that perform various functions
B. A group of cells that form tissues and organs, performing only one certain function
D. Coordinated interaction of cells, tissues and organs that make up this organism
2. Population is:
A. Individuals of the same species
B. Individuals of the same species living in the same territory
B. All living organisms living in the same area
D. Individuals of the same species living in the same territory and partially or completely isolated from individuals of other similar groups
3. The shell of the earth inhabited by living organisms is:
A. Atmosphere
B. Lithosphere
B. Biosphere
G. Biocenosis
4. Systematics is based on:
A. Studying the diversity of living organisms
B. The study of the structure of living organisms
B. Distribution of living organisms into groups based on similarity and relatedness
D. The study of fossil species of living organisms
5. The founder of taxonomy is:
A. Carl Linnaeus
B. Charles Darwin
V. Aristotle
G. Theophrastus
6. Choose the correct sequence of systematic categories.
A. Species, family, genus, order, class, phylum, subtype, kingdom
B. Species, genus, family, order, class, subtype, type, subkingdom, kingdom
B. Genus, species, family, class, order, phylum, subtype, kingdom
D. Species, subspecies, genus, family, order, class, subtype, phylum, subkingdom, kingdom
7. Way of movement of bacteria:
A. With the help of flagella
B. "Reactive" - ejection of mucus
B. With wings
D. All statements are true
8. Bacterial spores are...
A. Sex cell
B. Form for reproduction
B. Bacteria's survival mold adverse conditions
D. Name of bacteria
9. To obtain energy, bacteria use:
BUT. organic compounds
B. inorganic compounds
b. sunlight
D. All statements are true
10. Mushrooms are studied by science:
A. Mycology
B. Ecology
B. Microbiology
D. Biology
11. Mushrooms breed:
A. Vegetatively
B. Spores
B. Seeds
G. Sexually
12. In fungi, spores develop in:
A. Gifakh
B. sporangia
B. Kidney
G. mycorrhiza
13. Mycorrhiza is:
A. Mushroom name
B. Mushroom root
B. Variety of mycelium
G. Spore
14. The survival of the fungus in adverse conditions is ensured by:
A. Stock nutrients deposited in the cells of the thickened parts of the mycelium
B. A spore is formed
B. Stored a large number of water
G. There is a slowdown in metabolic processes
15. The class of basidiomycetes includes:
A. Russula
B. Trutovik
B. Starship
G. Potato mushroom
16. What fungus infects cereal crops and can cause human poisoning when it gets into flour?
A. ergot
B. Penicillium
B. Phytophthora
G. yeast
17. Forms mold on food products:
A. Mukor
B. Penicillium
B. Ergot
G. Phytophthora
18. Lichens are organisms that feed on:
A. Heterotrophic
B. Autotrophic
B. Autoheterotrophic
G. Chemotrophic
19. In the body of a lichen algae are:
A. Along the lower cortical layer
B. In the core
B. Between the core and the lower cortex
D. Between the core and the upper cortical layer
plants to interbreed and give fertile offspring - this is the main feature of: 1) genus; 2) department; 3) class; 4) view. If only archegonia develop on the gametophyte, then it is called: 1) bisexual; 2) male; 3) female; 4) sporophyte. What is an adult plant in gymnosperms: 1) sporophyte; 2) gametophyte; 3) thallus; 4) archegonium. name structural components cells of green algae in which photosynthesis occurs: 1) vacuoles; 2) chloroplasts; 3) chromatophores; ; 4) nuclei. Name the green algae that has a red "eye" for light perception: 1) chlorella; 2) chlamydomonas; 3) spirogyra; 4) ulotrix. What can be said about the presence of flagella in chlamydomonas: 1) absent; 2) there are 2 flagella; 3) there are 4 flagella; 4) there are cilia. What is the name of the body of kelp: 1) body; 2) chromatophore; 3) thallus; 4) endosperm. Name the method of reproduction of Chlamydomonas, in which a zygote is formed: 1) asexual; 2) sexual. Which of the following is typical for cuckoo flax: 1) has roots; 2) perennial plant; 3) monoecious plant; 4) refers to angiosperms. Name the feature characteristic of sphagnum: 1) each leaf consists of two cells different types- green living and colorless dead; 2) well developed rhizoids; 3) large wide leaves; 4) disputes are not formed. What is formed from a sprouted spore in cuckoo flax: 1) zygote; 2) embryo; 3) protonema; 4) mature plant. What plants are classified as seed: 1) bryophytes; 2) lycopsform; 3) horsetail; 4) fern-like; 5) conifers. Name the stage of fern development from which the seedling is formed: 1) spore; 2) zygote; 3) embryo; 4) egg. Name a plant that develops spring spore-bearing and summer photosynthetic shoots: 1) male fern; 2) club moss; 3) field horsetail; 4) cuckoo flax. What is the name of the organ in which spermatozoa develop in a fern: 1) archegonium; 2) antheridium; 3) sporangium; 4) testis. Where does photosynthesis mainly occur in horsetail: 1) in the stems; 2) in leaves; 3) in the rhizome; 4) in spore-bearing spikelets. What is the peculiarity of the location of the needles of Scotch pine: 1) depart directly from young branches; 2) depart from small scaly brown leaves; 3) move away from shortened shoots; 4) depart in a large bundle. Where pine eggs and nutrient tissue - endosperm are formed: 1) on the scales of male cones; 2) in sporangia; 3) in ovules; 4) on the outgrowth. How many years do larch needles live: 1) less than 1 year; 2) 2-3 years; 3) 4-5 years; 4) 5-7 years. What is the meaning of pine needles: 1) increase the photosynthetic surface; 2) protect from being eaten by animals; 3) allow you to save water and easily endure drought; 4) do not obscure the nearest needles. Name the structure in Scots pine, the shell of which forms two bubbles filled with air: 1) ovule; 2) a speck of dust; 3) scales of female cones; 4) seed.
science studies surrounding nature, reality, reality, perceived by us with the help of the senses and comprehended by the intellect, the mind. Science is a system and a mechanism for obtaining objective knowledge about this environment. Objective - that is, one that does not depend on the forms, methods, structures of the cognitive process and is a result that directly reflects the real state of affairs. Science owes ancient philosophy and formation (discovery) greatest form logical knowledge- concepts.
Scientific knowledge is based on a number of principles that define, clarify, and detail the forms scientific knowledge and scientific attitude to the comprehension of reality. They capture some features of the scientific worldview, quite subtle, detailed, peculiar, which make science really very powerful, in an efficient way knowledge. There are several such principles that underlie the scientific understanding of reality, each of which plays a significant role in this process.
First, it is the principle of objectivity. An object is something that lies outside the cognizing person, outside his consciousness, existing on its own, having its own laws of development.
The principle of objectivity means nothing more than the recognition of the fact of existence independent of man and mankind, of his consciousness and intellect, outside world and the possibility of knowing it. And this knowledge is reasonable, rational should follow verified, reasoned methods of obtaining knowledge about the world around.
The second principle underlying scientific knowledge is the principle of causality. The principle of causality, or, scientifically speaking, the principle of determinism, means the assertion that all events in the world are interconnected causality. According to the principle of causality, there are no events that do not have a real cause that can be fixed in one way or another. There are also no events that do not entail any material, objective consequences. Every event generates a cascade, or, according to at least, one consequence.
Therefore, the principle of causality asserts the presence in the Universe of natural balanced ways of interaction between objects. Only on its basis can one approach the study of the surrounding reality from the standpoint of science, using the mechanisms of proof and experimental verification.
The principle of causality can be understood and interpreted in different ways, in particular, its interpretations in classical science associated primarily with classical mechanics Newton, and quantum physics, which is the brainchild of the 20th century, but with all the modifications, this principle remains one of the main principles in the scientific approach to understanding reality.
Next important principle- this is the principle of rationality, argumentation, evidence scientific statements. Any scientific statement makes sense and is accepted scientific community only when proven. Types of evidence can be different: from formalized mathematical proofs to straight experimental evidence or denials. But science does not accept unproven propositions, which are interpreted as very possible. In order for a certain statement to receive the status of scientificity, it must be proven, argued, rationalized, and experimentally verified.
This principle is directly related to the following principle, which is characteristic mainly of experimental natural science, but to some extent manifests itself in theoretical natural science and mathematics. This is the principle of reproducibility. Any fact obtained in a scientific study as intermediate or relatively complete should be able to be reproduced in an unlimited number of copies, either in an experimental study by other researchers, or in a theoretical proof of other theorists. If a scientific fact irreproducible, if it is unique, it cannot be brought under a pattern. And if so, then it does not fit into the causal structure of the surrounding reality and contradicts the very logic of scientific description.
The next principle underlying scientific knowledge is the principle of theoreticality. Science is not an endless pile of scattered ideas, but a collection of complex, closed, logically completed theoretical constructions. Each theory in a simplified form can be represented as a set of statements interconnected by intra-theoretical principles of causality or logical consequence. Fragmentary fact in itself has no meaning in science.
In order for scientific research to give a sufficiently holistic view of the subject of study, a detailed theoretical system must be built, called scientific theory. Any object of reality is a huge, in the limit of an infinite number of properties, qualities and relationships. Therefore, a detailed, logically closed theory is needed, which covers the most significant of these parameters in the form of an integral, detailed theoretical apparatus.
The next principle underlying scientific knowledge and related to the previous one is the principle of consistency. The general theory of systems is in the second half of the 20th century the basis scientific approach understanding of reality and interprets any phenomenon as an element complex system, that is, as a set of elements interconnected according to certain laws and principles. Moreover, this connection is such that the system as a whole is not arithmetic sum of its elements, as previously thought, before the advent of general theory systems.
The system is something more substantial and more complex. From the point of view of the general theory of systems, any object that is a system is not only a collection of elementary components, but also a collection the most complex connections between them.
And finally, the last principle underlying scientific knowledge, is the principle of criticality. It means that in science there are no and cannot be final, absolute truths approved for centuries and millennia.
Any of the provisions of science can and should be the jurisdiction of the analyzing ability of the mind, as well as continuous experimental verification. If in the course of these checks and rechecks a discrepancy is found between the previously approved truths real situation case, a statement that was previously true is reconsidered. There are no absolute authorities in science, while in previous forms of culture, the appeal to authority was one of the essential mechanisms realization of the ways of human life.
Authorities in science rise and fall under the pressure of new irrefutable evidence. Authorities remain, characterized only by their ingenious human qualities. New times are coming, and new truths contain the previous ones, either as special case, or as a form of passage to the limit.
And at the hour when the bread is ripe,
They will return - who can.
And who will return, will wait -
Will the Lord come to reap the field.
Who will be the mother, and who will be the father,
And who will take the crown
Thorny, prickly ... -
Ergot
It lies at the core of life.
(Irina Fedorova)
Having won most Europe, ergot and rye, along with Christianity, reached Russia.
In their patriarchal simplicity, our ancestors were content with very little: half-baked food, meat, roots and skins of wild or domestic animals satisfied their needs. Our ancestors did not know luxury for a long time, in the 11th century they still ate millet, buckwheat and milk, then they already learned how to cook dishes and so on, but even in the old days they were distinguished by hospitality.
Having experienced the benefits of civilian sedentary life, the Russians began to engage in agriculture to obtain grain, and at the same time they began to bake bread and prepare kvass.
With the beginning of the spread of rye (and, accordingly, epidemics of ergotism) and Christianity in Russia, everything is happening the same, although on a smaller scale, that had previously taken place in Europe: mass insanity and mental epidemics, demonic possession, the burning of witches and heretics, the spread of destructive Christian sects, which often reach the point of cannibalism. Only the names differed: if in Europe there were self-flagellation flagellants, dances of Witt or Guy and convulsioners, then in Russia there were hysterics, whips (christs) and their varieties - the sects of “shaking”, “molokan jumpers”, “horses”, eunuchs and etc.
In Russia, the disease of ergotism was first mentioned in the Trinity Chronicle in 1408. Naturally, at that time it was unknown that the culprit of the epidemics of ergotism was ergot. Therefore, as in Europe, demons were blamed for everything. Only in the 19th century did the danger of ergot become known, although not to the general public. In the "End of the World" published in 1895 in St. Petersburg by the famous French astronomer Flammarion, which describes the medieval epidemics of the "fireworm", not a word is said about the causes of the disaster:
The end of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh mark a truly strange and ominous age. From 980 to 1040, the formidable ghost of Death seemed to spread its gloomy wings over the unfortunate Earth. Famine and pestilence reigned throughout Europe. At first, some kind of "fire pit" raged, burning entire members of the body, which then completely fell off. The body of the sick seemed to be burned by fire, separated from the bones, as if scalded, and began to rot. Unfortunate sufferers lay along the roads leading to various holy places, besieged churches, stuffing themselves into them and infecting the air with an unbearable stench; here they finally died around sacred relics. This terrible pestilence carried away more than forty thousand victims in Aquitaine and devastated the entire south of France. Then came the famine years, from which one or another part of the Christian world suffered. In the course of seventy-three years, from 987 to 1060, there are forty-eight famines and epidemics.
But since by the end of the 18th century in Europe a connection was established between epidemics of ergotism and ergot, in Russia XIX centuries, doctors already knew the causes of "evil writhing":
“In the Middle Ages, ergot produced panic in the Middle Ages with its mysterious epidemics. populace. From the use of bread with a large admixture of uterine horns, a special suffering develops, known under the name of evil writhing (ergotismus), of which two forms were distinguished. With gastric disorders, a characteristic feeling of crawling and numbness of the fingers and toes, some subsequently developed dry gangrene of the extremities - ergotismus gangraenosus; in others, all kinds of convulsions came to the fore, especially painful contractures of the flexor muscles, and sometimes it came to psychosis - ergotismus convulsivus, an evil writhing. Death with an evil writhing occurs with the manifestations of general paralysis. The gangrenous form also received the name of Anton's fire, since in the Middle Ages they believed in its healing by the relics of St. Anthony. With this form, even the falling off of entire parts of the body is observed.
*2) Dogel I. Guide to pharmacology (recipe). - St. Petersburg: Edition of K.L. Ricker, 1889.- 324 p.
*6) Shapiro B. Pharmacology. - “T-vo A.S. Suvorin - New Time", 1911.- 284 p.3
Russia took over the torch from Europe, where by this time they were already beginning to forget about ergot, and brown bread had not been the main food for a long time. The last significant epidemic in Europe occurred in Lorraine and Burgundy in 1816 (Britannica, 1911), and since then, although local outbreaks of the disease, contrary to the opinion of the encyclopedia, will periodically flare up in some areas of Europe and even in New York, interest in research epidemics of ergotism practically disappear. Ergot, as before, is used in obstetrics, and in 1868 the British surgeon Edward Woakes (Edward Woakes) suggests using it as a remedy for migraine. From poison ergot gradually turns into medicine. In Russia, the epidemics of ergotism are not decreasing. But, at least at this time, they are already well documented by doctors. In this sense, Russia's experience is unique. But unfortunately, bottom line from the studies of doctors is not noticeable. “Ergot alkaloids are passed directly through the milk of a nursing mother. Thus, a century ago, Russia had the most high performance infant mortality in Europe,” says Matosyan. This is true, but the problem is that from ergot and the milk itself in parturient women disappears. And babies are dying of starvation. Doctors also took care of this issue, and as a result of their research, two dissertations appeared on the effect of ergot on milk, both from 1870, by doctors Pogrebinsky and Asotsky. In general, for the second half 19th century and the very beginning of the 20th century, several dozen dissertations, papers and scientific articles about ergot. For clarity, you can see the "Catalogue of Russian Books of the Library of the Imperial Yuryev University" of 1910. In this catalog alone, until 1908, there are more than ten dissertations on the topic:
Pelican E. Research on ergot (secale cornutum), on the methods of discovering it in flour and on precautionary measures to eliminate the harmful consequences of eating bread containing this impurity. SPb.1864.
Kadatsky, N. To the question of the effect of ergot on the animal organism. SPb. 1866.
Asotsky, N. On the influence of ergot on the amount and composition of milk. SPb. 1870.
Pogrebinsky, M. To the pharmacology of ergot, its effect on milk. SPb. 1870.
Kaplanovsky, R. To the question of the methods of opening ergot in rye flour. and bread. SPb. 1881.
Konorin, O. To the question of changes in the tissues of the animal organism in chronic. ergot poisoning. SPb. 1884.
Reformed H. Mental disorder in case of ergot poisoning (Disease "evil cramp"). M. 1893.
Avduevsky, A. Comparative evaluation of the most common methods for determining ergot in rye flour. SPb. 1894.
Vinogradov, N. About pathological and anatomical. changes in organs and tissues in people with chronic. ergot poisoning. Kaz. 1897.
Kolotinskniy, S. Chronic ergot poisoning and observed changes in the central nervous system in animals. SPb. 1902.
Orlov. K. X. To the study of eye changes in chronic ergot poisoning and its preparations. Kaz. 1903.
And it's not here yet famous works A.V. Pelya, R.S. Chetyrkina, V.A. Tikhomirov, as well as I.O. Kalenichenko, who apparently wrote the first dissertation in Russia on ergot "Tractatus de Spermoideae clavi: phytonomia, chemia, historia ususque therapeutics" in 1837.
But dissertations alone cannot overcome the disease if the people cannot refuse black bread. Or doesn't want to. The fact that potatoes succeeded in Europe - to displace rye - does not work out in Russia.
* * *It is better not to eat bread at all than to eat bread with ergot, from which you will probably die.
(Leo Tolstoy. About science and art)
To late XIX centuries, not only doctors in Russia are aware of the danger of ergot and what caused the medieval “mysterious epidemics” - at that time, even the authorities worried about the infection of rye with ergot. In the notes of our famous scientist D.I. Mendeleev "What kind of academy is needed in Russia?" there are such lines: “For example, the issue of grinding grain for the entire Russian army is being considered right now, because when buying flour, bread ergot often came across, and now we have to gather, one might say, all departments ... members to discuss a matter of extreme importance. Without special words it can be said that emergency persons must resolve issues of enormous economic and hygienic importance. This case, obviously, should belong to the Academy as a central institution. It should have the means to resolve such issues positively.”
It is only surprising that the same doctor Dogel refers to Western medieval experience, describing ergot poisoning. Maybe in Russia there were no epidemics of their own? Unfortunately, as we know, this is not the case. Although Christianity, unlike Europe, in this case did little to aggravate the situation. Neither witches in Russia were properly burned, nor cats were destroyed, nor crusades did not suit. However, this situation is quite typical for countries where both rye and Christianity arrived later than the 10th century. In Russia the situation was better themes that the Orthodox did not recognize Catholic demonology, and they could not defeat paganism to the end. Ergot itself, as such, had an even greater influence on Russia than on Europe. For the Russian people, for centuries, ergot was not a weed or a poison, but a synonym and personification of happiness and good luck. And even today, in various collections of "magical conspiracies" one can read a folk conspiracy for successful trade: "Be in my barn a treasure and harmony, and ergot in everything." But now no one understands the meaning of the word "ergot". And once it was used very widely, and by no means in the sense that we considered above.
It is visible in any standard description holidays on folk calendar. For example, January 3 is “Peter Polukorm. On the morning of January 3, they went to cut the bottom of the barrel, to push the grain ... Grain reserves do not endure the need. Entering the house on this day, they said: “Ergot in the kneader!” After all, ergot lives on the farm from order and sight.” Or Christmas, January 7 - “the threshers tried to scoop up porridge, also with a heap. Top. To keep ergot in the house. So that the pot would not be empty, the furnace hearth would not cool down, the master's bins would not be scanty. What kind of "ergot" is here in question?
Previously, the peasants believed that these large horns were an addition to bread, they were called spore bread. However, this was a big misconception - ergot is poisonous. The use of flour contaminated with ergot can cause a serious illness called ergotism (“anton fire”), which is accompanied by convulsions, gangrene (death of fingertips, ears), mental disorders. Acute poisoning possible with high doses of ergot.
Let's look at Dahl's dictionary, where all the above calendar phrases are:
* Ergot and sporina, arrogance, success, luck, profit, profit, use, growth.
* Ergot is more precious than wealth.
* When bread is baked, do not sweep the hut: you will sweep with ergot.
* Sporina (ergot) in the kvass! (Hello to the woman who kneads bread).
* Ergot in the kneader! (Answer: a hundred rubles in the purse!)
* From order and watchfulness, ergot lives on the farm.
* Without God's blessing, do not expect ergot in anything.
* Arguing and the poor will live, but not arguing (non-arguing) and destroying the rich. Spore against spore is not necessary: ten measures of rye per tithe, and poppy - a man's hat. Thicker, and faster. Whoever takes salt from a strange place for bread will not have ergot in his house.
* Ergot, south. app. ergot cf. and dispute, knotweed m. sporina, perm. dispute, psk. an ugly, sickly black grain in rye, with a grayish, sugary-tasting floury pulp; hooks, horns; ergot is harmful in food (although not as much as wheat horns), but the grain grows three times, and besides, sourdough rises well from it, which is why the name ergot.
* Korzhava novg. - Ergot in bread.
* Porinje cf. Vologda ergot, meaning health and body strength.
So, the problem turns out to be that rye, although it appeared in Russia later, brought with it something that even more took root in the Russian people than in Europe. Now in Russia "ergot is more valuable than wealth", ergot and happiness are synonyms. The consumption of ergot has become part of the national culture.
Ergot will help sooner than God, because from ergot "kneading well rises, which is why the name of ergot" (Dal), and "you cannot dissolve kneading with prayer." (ibid.)
Ergot in the pot!Spring ergot!(folk song in the Smolensk region)
Go home from the field
From delivery home
To us in Koscheno village,
It's a threshing floor in Petrovskovo!
And from the threshing floor ergot
Moved to the barn...
In such songs, we no longer see abstract “happiness-ergot”, but quite physical spring ergot. The one from which quite material dough will rise. After that, the peasants will taste bread from such a dough and “Farewell, sourdough, I went for a walk!” (the same Dahl). Kind folk omen there is a search in the field for "ergot" or "nutrient uterus". Since past centuries, it has already been forgotten what was considered the “mother of rye” in Russia, and everyone is trying to explain it in their own way. For someone it the largest number spikelets on a stalk: “During the harvest, the reapers tried to find the largest number of grains on one stalk. Such an ear is called a "vital uterus" or "ergot". They are cherished all year until a new sowing, sowing begins with these grains, with the hope of getting a big harvest from them. Others believe that there must have been twelve such spikelets, like the Christian apostles: “On the same day, they were looking for“ ergot ”in the field - the largest number of spikelets on one stem. If there are twelve of them, then this is a “vital uterus”, “ergot”. Such ears were kept for a year like the apple of an eye, saved for sowing: they were mixed with sowing grain or sown first in the field. They believed in a bountiful harvest, in a well-fed life. In the Smolensk region they sang: (see epigraph).
Still others believe that two “ergot grains” are enough to add to the grain consecrated in the church: “The grain was consecrated: in the church everywhere on the day of the “grain” Savior, on Easter, along with Easter cakes and eggs (Yenisei); in houses or in the village square during the rounds of the priest with Easter prayers. Grains were added to it, endowed, according to popular beliefs, with special power and capable of bringing a rich harvest: grains of a dozhin sheaf, as well as grains of “knotweed” / “ergot” (from the word “sporey”) - a stalk of wheat or rye with two or large quantity ears, which was also called in the Western Russian provinces "the wheat womb". AT Samara lips. “ergot” grains were sewn into an amulet, which the sower, going to sow, put on a pectoral cross.
And for a 19th-century priest, ergot is fused ears: “Finally, the search in the fields for“ ergot ”, that is, two ears of bread fused together, which, according to the peasants, will provide a wonderful harvest next year.”
It can be seen that the "vital uterus" or "ergot" is understood differently by everyone. To remove these discrepancies, you just need to remove the quotes from the word "ergot". Her - ergot - they were looking for. Without any symbolism. The very one, which, although “harmful in food”, but from it “grain grows three times”, and “sauerkraut rises” (Dal).
At first, Christian priests in some sermons denounced superstitious pagan customs, for example, driving a herd to stop the death of animals through “living fire”, “curling the beard of the prophet Elijah” and the very search in the fields for two fused spikelets of grain - “ergot”, providing a future harvest. But ergot itself had nothing to do with it - the priests did not like the very word "ergot", in which they (not without reason) saw a pagan meaning. And it was not even the name of a pagan spirit (among the many house spirits, in addition to the brownie, kutny god, grandfathers and haste - spirits that contribute to human affairs ergot were also present). The reason was more serious: the ancient Slavic worship of heavenly fire - the Sun, which creates ergot(fertility). The sun was represented as a rational and perfect being, which is either itself a deity, or performs God's will. Christians did not like "such concepts in the language as rain - "seven", the heat of the sun -" ergot "". However, soon the meaning of the word "ergot" had nothing to do with the sun. Ergot from the sky moved into the bins and into the kneaders.
The transition of the mythological image into the term R.G. Akhmetyanov explains it as a consequence of the fact that the fungal disease was represented by traces, marks left by the mother of rye. According to pagan beliefs, the patroness of the fields leaves marks of wealth and abundance on the ears. It is from here that the second meaning that exists in some other languages \u200b\u200bis ergot arose. M. Vasmer associates this word with old Russian words argue "wealth, abundance", disputed "increasing, arriving, abundant", and its transition to modern meaning calls a case of euphemism, i.e. when the disease is not directly called.
Vasmer, of course, is right about “wealth and abundance”, but it is hardly worth agreeing with the transition of the meaning as a euphemism for the disease, since there is no evidence that people have ever associated the problem of poisoning in Russia with ergot, the harmfulness of which will gradually become clearer only in the 19th century. century. Rather, a confusion of meanings could occur with the Dutch or German sporen - spurs, with which ergot was often associated because of its kind of protruding "horns"; in French and today ergot means spur (cock, etc.) and ergot. And even more likely, the “mother of rye” was originally called that precisely because of the old meaning of “harvest abundance”. Speaking of illnesses, here we can speculate about the etymology of the Russian expression "to throw off the hooves." Its origin is unknown to linguists; in Ozhegov's dictionary it is considered colloquial. But we know that the hooves of animals fell off from ergot is by no means illusory. During epidemics, livestock died, dropping their hooves in a completely physical sense. So you can quite realistically imagine the dialogue of the peasants of past centuries: - And what happened to your cattle, Kuzma? - Yes, she died all over, she threw back her hooves ...
But the physical harm of ergot is far from the whole problem. Much worse is that the Russian people, just like the Germans and French before, "hooked" on ergot. Russian folklore: songs, fairy tales, the so-called "spiritual poems", proverbs and sayings show well what the peasant considered important in his life: in the household, in everyday life, in the family. Ritual songs arose in ancient times: calendar (New Year, spring, Kupala, stubble, etc.) and family-household (maternity, wedding, funeral). Every genre has its own characteristics. poetic content, as well as in art form. Through many calendar songs there is a spell of a rich harvest and health. And all this is usually associated with ergot. This can be seen in songs, and in fairy tales, and in folklore, and in "spiritual poetry."
Shrovetide song- God bless you
On the field - growth,
On the threshing floor - ground,
On the table - thick,
In the bins - ergot
Koleda (Christmas time and the feast of the Nativity of Christ until Epiphany, Christmas Eve; carol - a song during caroling)
There are still growths in the field,
On the threshing floor, some bait,
Ergot on the table
Christmas - gate,
Koleda, Koleda!
Afanasiev retells a village story-tale, typical of that time, a kind of reminiscence of Job: “One day Ilya and Nikolai were walking. - “Wait! - said Elijah the prophet, - I will take all the ergot from the bread: no matter how many sheaves a peasant puts, he will not thresh out more than a quarter at a time. - "That's bad!" - thinks Nikola-pleaser ... ". As a result, the most revered in Russia Saint Nicholas (he is now decanonized by Catholics Santa Claus) Ilya the prophet nevertheless deceived and outwitted, and the peasant remained at the harvest (that is, with ergot): “The sun warmed up, and the rye ripened - as if the golden one stands in the field. The peasant pressed the sheaves a lot ... the peasant field began to recover; new fresh shoots went from the old roots ... I filled all the bins, all the crates with rye ... "
Over time, ergot gets, for example, even into the coat of arms of the city of Nizhnedevitsk. “In the upper part of the shield is the coat of arms of Voronezh. At the bottom is a rye epic, on which there are many ears, called ergot in a green field, which means a great abundance of bread.
As a birth aid, ergot in the mystical mythologized consciousness of a simple Russian person could help not only people. Her healing and sacred power was even projected onto the rivers:
“Spring this year turned out to be unfaithful and cold. Even in last days May the ice on Baikal did not break. “Mother is suffering from childbirth,” the townspeople said, looking from the shore at the swollen, but powerless to throw off the ice, the Angara, and in order to help the river, according to a superstitious custom, they threw bread loaves with ergot baked in them into the coastal polynyas. The ice was also strong on the Lena, as visitors from Yakutsk reported.
Spiritual verses about the Last JudgmentWe ate Sunday lunch
I, Christ, have been angered;
They took away the milking cow from the cows,
They took ergot out of the sourdough, -
There is no salvation for this darling.
In general, according to the people, without "ergot in a bowl" even the soul cannot be saved. "Happiness and good luck" - ergot - was filled with sacred meaning.
Now it becomes clear what the culturologist A. Troshin, a researcher of social destruction, was talking about at the seminar, and what was the cause of mass psychopathy and the huge spread of various Christian sects:
There is another very important fact. Russian society based on drug addiction. Ergot culture was widespread. There are three active ingredients. One of them is an adrenaline antagonist, leading to hysteroid menopause in women. With ergot, work "argued", ergot was considered the main advantage of bread. This could not be fought. N.N. Reformed describes cases of one hundred percent defeat of the inhabitants by ergot. There were seven forms of psychopathy associated with ergot poisoning. No one healthy person did not have. That is, there are many factors that cause psychopathy, including lesions nervous system caused by ergot. It happened that in two or three years the village died out completely. Men migrated, leaving their families, women and children starved to death or became destitute. But whores are constantly present in Russian society.
According to a specialist in psychopathy P.I. Jacobius, the only one who tried to write anthropological history Russia, every year more than half of the population was covered by one form or another of mass psychopathy. And when we try to explain the incredible prevalence of sectarianism in Russia, it is quite easy to prove that sectarianism was the result of mass psychopathy.
mass character mental epidemics in Russia began to increase sharply in the 17th century. The time of the split in Orthodoxy was marked by mass self-immolations (burnings) among schismatics. Only in the Poshekhonsky district of the Moscow province, ten years after the council of 1666, in the parish of the Church of St. Friday, protesting against new faith, burned themselves 1920 people. Orthodox Church there was no need to create an inquisition to burn heretics - Russian heretics switched to self-service. It should be noted, however, that now there are several well-documented works showing that many "self-immolations" of Old Believers and schismatics were in fact burning which were carried out by the Orthodox-state Inquisition (see, for example, Evgeny Anisimov. Rack and Knut, 1999). However, in our context, it does not of great importance, whether some fanatics burned themselves, or other fanatics burned these - in any case, there was one reason - the planting of Christianity in Russia, and rye with ergot in the fields.
In connection with the frequent cases of “burning out” among schismatics, the government began to take measures to search for them. The schismatics were forced to leave their homes and leave for the northern and Siberian regions. The current situation was one of the reasons for the spread of mental epidemics of self-destruction from the center of Russia to its outskirts. As a result of mental contagions of this kind, tens of thousands of people died. The matter was not limited to "Garami", and, especially in Siberian regions In Russia, an analogue of self-immolation was self-destruction of the type of mental epidemics by “starving and drowning”, as well as self- and mutual damage - as manifestations of assemblage. Numerous Christian sects sprang up. More and more psychopathic sects will appear over the centuries until the 20th century. Here, for example, malevanshchina is a typical analogue of European dancers and convulsions as presented by Bekhterev:
Malevanny considers himself to be Jesus Christ, the Savior of the world, while the Gospel Christ, in his opinion, was not historical personality, and all the legends about the Gospel Christ are only prophecies about him - Malevanny .... Already in 1890, Malevanny's hands began to tremble during prayer and raising his hands, and then trembling and convulsions spread to other parts of the body .... Malevanny explained this by entering the Holy Spirit into him, since, according to him, he was not at all involved in these movements, which took place against his will. The trembling and trembling of Malevanny, which was often rhythmic, produced a great influence on the ingenuous surrounding Malevanny of his admirers. During common prayers, at the time when Malevanny began to tremble (“shake”, according to the local expression), some of those present, especially women, also had shudders and convulsions. From that time on, tremors became an almost inevitable feature of prayer meetings that took place in the presence of Malevanny, partly without him.
The mentally ill Malevanny, according to the Malevanians, is the true God and Savior of the world, who will establish new order the structure of the universe, due to which Malevanny became the object of worship. At the same time, deceptions of feelings and convulsive movements are a sharp painful feature of the Malevans.
According to prof. I. A. Sikorsky, “the extent to which the Malevanians are subject to hallucinations can be called exceptional.” ... According to prof. I. A. Sikorsky, “the Malevanians themselves attach importance to convulsive manifestations, considering them to be an undoubted action of the Divine principle in man.”
All the same “deceptions of the senses”, “convulsive manifestations”, “exceptional dimensions of hallucinations”. Bekhterev wrote: “Is not our modern hysteria among the Russian people also a reflection of medieval demonopathic painful forms? In this regard, the authors who have studied the manifestations of hysterics, not without reason, compare or even identify this state with the demonomania of the Middle Ages or demonic possession. I believe, not even a reflection, but absolutely the same, only bearing the imprints of a certain society in which it developed.
Sciences that study nature
To study living organisms: their structure, life processes (nutrition, respiration, reproduction, metabolism and energy), adaptation to environmental conditions, such methods of scientific research as observation, description, experiment are used.
studying artificial systems: their structure, the substances of which they are composed, the force, the energy that is necessary for the operation of these systems - use such research methods as observation, measurement, experiment.
To study the structure and composition of ecosystems, the interaction of their components, the processes of energy supply, adaptation to environmental conditions, the influence of human activity on these systems, the following research methods are used, such as observation, experiment, modeling.
Yes, studying various systems, apply the same research methods, use the same concepts - components, energy, substances, etc.
In the course of natural science, artificial systems created by human hands, living systems, natural groupings and natural phenomena were studied.
science studying various phenomena nature and the laws by which they occur is physics. Without knowledge about force, work, energy, it is impossible to create mechanisms and machines.
Biology studies living beings and their life processes. The components of living and non-living systems form the largest ecosystem of our planet - the biosphere, which is the subject of study of such sciences as geography and biology.
Changes are constantly taking place with substances in nature: complex (organic) ones are formed from simple ones, or vice versa. Chemistry studies the composition and transformations of substances.
The structure of the planet itself, oceans, continents, various forms surfaces and causes leading to changes in relief are studied by geography.
The relationship that arises between the components of the biosphere, the influence of organisms on each other, the impact of human activity on the environment is studied by ecology. Ecology is the science of the relationships between organisms in communities.
It is impossible to study life on the planet in isolation from the study of the Universe, since it is the emergence of life that is due to the peculiarities of the position of the Earth in solar system. It is a branch of the science of astronomy.
Name of science Subject of study
1. physics various natural phenomena
2. biology Live nature in all its diversity
3. chemistry of matter and their transformations
4. geography - the totality of all the shells of the Earth
5. ecology connections between organisms, between ecosystems and environment between man and nature
6. astronomy space bodies and their interaction
Nature is one. Various sciences study individual issues to understand its laws more deeply. Many examples of the interaction of sciences in the study of nature can be cited. But it is important to understand that despite the world through the eyes of an astronomer, physicist, chemist, biologist, geographer, we see different facets of the same big whole - nature.
