Introduction.

1. Socio-economic development of Ukrainian lands. The growth of the expansion of Polish feudal lords.

2. Union of Brest. The struggle of the Ukrainian people against national and religious oppression.

3. Kozachchina in Ukraine.

List of used literature.

Introduction

Due to the development of new steppe spaces and the development of the filvark economy in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. significantly increased area of ​​cultivated land and agricultural productivity. The most developed was agricultural production in Volhynia, Galicia, Western Podolia. Three fields prevailed here, the fields were fertilized, a plow with an iron share was used. The main grain crop was rye, but wheat and barley also spread, although their productivity long time remained low. The main industrial crops, as before, were flax, hemp and hops. Animal husbandry increased. Cattle, pigs, sheep were bred, herd horse breeding spread in the steppe regions. In those days, hunting and fishing continued to play a significant role, especially in the southeast. Urbanism, gardening, beekeeping developed.

It should be noted that the majority of filvark farming was not limited to the cultivation of grain crops for export; their owners often had distilleries, breweries, mead, and sometimes ore, potash buds, saltpeter, zhups (salt). The serfs who worked in these industries were the most exploited part of the rural population.

In Ukraine, handicraft production is growing both in cities and in villages. It reached its greatest development in Galicia and Volhynia, although the filvark fisheries and the right of the feudal lords to trade without duty caused him some damage, narrowing the sales markets. The largest craft centers were Lviv, Lutsk, Ostrog, Kamenetz-Podolsk. The number of artisans increased, both those who united in workshops and those outside the workshop - "partachs".

1. Socio-economic development of Ukrainian lands. The growth of the expansion of Polish feudal lords

After the Union of Ljubljana, the Ukrainian lands of the Kingdom of Poland (“Crowns”) were included in this voivodship: Russian (Galicia), Belzkoe, Volyn, Podolsk, Bratslav, Kiev, Chernihiv. On the territory of Ukraine (with the exception of Galicia) the Lithuanian statutes of 1566 and 1588 had effect. Most Ukrainian cities were guided by the provisions of the Magdeburg law. Thus, Poland without " single shot"annexed Ukraine, established its own administrative order in it, turned it into its province and launched colonization.

After the union, a huge stream of Polish feudal lords moved to Ukraine, the leading role in which was played by the magnate. They occupied empty lands, crowded out local landowners. The Zholkiewski, Zamoiski, Kalinovski, Koniecpolski, Potocki, Sinyavski, Yazlovetski and many other clans captured huge spaces- hundreds of villages, dozens of towns and castles. They were unlimited rulers of their regions, as they held in their hands and the highest positions in the administration of voivodeships and counties. The small landowners were defenseless against their arbitrariness and either submitted and gave up their lands, or, saving their lives, flowed in. Complaints or attempts at litigation have not yielded positive results, since all judicial system was in the hands of the Polish feudal lords. Three-quarters of all peasant farms in Volyn in 1629 were concentrated in the hands of 37 Volyn magnates, their rights to the acquired, and often occupied lands, were confirmed by royal charters.

On the Left Bank, the Vyshnevetsky mansions with a center in Lubny stood out for their size. Cherkasy headman Prince O. Vishnevetsky in late XVI Art. seized most of the Left Bank and asked the king for confirmation on land from the borders with the Moscow principality to the Dnieper. He built here the cities of Lubny, Romny, Piryatin, Priluki, laid siege to hundreds of villages. And in the late 30s of the XVII century. The Vishnevetskys owned almost forty thousand peasant households.

Thus, many Polish, and after them Ukrainian magnates, got big land allotments, which immediately had to be populated, streamlined in order to make a profit. The magnates barbarously exploited the natural wealth of Ukraine, cutting down forests over the rivers of southern Ukraine for agriculture and mining from the potash tree. Forests were also exterminated in other regions of Ukraine.

Together with the magnates, the petty gentry moved to Ukraine, hoping for their own estates and wealth. Most often, they became managers, housekeepers of the master's estates, commanded detachments of the yard guards and, together with their patrons, sought out the local population. Jews, whom the magnates brought with them, were also tenants, housekeepers, intermediaries in trade. their numbers increased rapidly.

The peasantry in the occupied lands was under the unlimited power of the feudal lords. Not only the peasant property, but the peasant himself belonged to the feudal lord. This provided the necessary labor for the landlord economy.

During the second half of the XVI Art. The Polish and Lithuanian governments removed a number of laws prohibiting peasants from moving from place to place without the permission of the feudal lord. In 1573, unlimited corvée was introduced on estates "out of the will of the master." This meant that the peasant had to do all the work, as required by the feudal lord, and where he ordered. The "Lithuanian charter" of 1588 finally enserfed the peasants. The recalcitrant master had the right to shackle, throw him in jail, and put him on the burner. The peasants, who sat on the "kingdoms" - state-feudal lands, were also deprived of rights. Here, the peasant could not leave his allotment or arbitrarily develop new lands without the permission of the royal administration.

It should be noted that corvee (working rent) in different areas Ukraine had certain features. It gained the greatest development in Galicia and Volhynia, where the landowners' estates acquired a filvar character and were most closely connected with the foreign market. These lands were also the most densely populated. Here the filvarka system stimulated a significant increase in the exploitation of the peasantry. In Volhynia in the 20s years XVI 1st century corvee reached four or five days a week, and in the 40s - 6 days. At the same time to the north of the Kyiv province - two or three days. It was introduced with less intensity in the Bratslav region, where, as in the Kiev region, the filvark farm was only introduced. In Galicia and Volhynia, the dispossession of the peasantry also took place most intensively. Here, the feudal lords, for the support of the government, increased the filvark lands and cut the allotments. As a result, the number of landless and landless peasants reached 35-40%, with a half plot (half of a portage or field) - about 40%. Full allotment (drag from 16 to 21 hectares) had only 20% of peasant households (smoke). In the second half of the XVI century. in Galicia and Volhynia, there was mainly labor rent, and next to it - food and money rent.

The position of the peasantry worsened as a result of the transfer of their estates by the feudal lords. Tenants - merchants, gentry, Jewish usurers forced the serfs to work in the filvarka for five or six days a week. Peasants and philistines were also cruelly exacted by the government, withholding large taxes, especially during wars.

The peasant economy developed in a different way in the newly formed farms of the Dnieper region, Podillia and the Left Bank, formed by the magnates. By populating these lands with peasants from the interior provinces, the feudal lords gave them various benefits, in particular freedom from all duties for 20-40 years. The way to these regions was opened by the "outcasters" as early as the 15th - the first half of the 16th century. They were followed by magnates who, having built estates here, needed in large numbers working hands. fertile lands with freer living conditions caused a mass movement of the peasantry to the east, mainly from Volhynia, Podolia, Galicia, Kholmshchyna and Polissya, where serfdom, oppression of feudal lords and government officials became increasingly intolerable. Peasants willingly populated these little developed lands, although in new places they were threatened by Tatar raids. Benefits extended to those peasants who already lived here. These settlements, dismissed from duties for many years, got the name "settlement" among the people. As a result, for several decades after the Union of Ljubljana, a colossal process of economic development took place. Ukrainian peasants and Cossacks of the spaces of the middle and southern Kiev region and almost the entire territory of modern Poltava region and other regions of the steppe Ukraine. Taking advantage of the benefits, the settlers energetically began to develop black earth soils, introducing them into economic circulation. The government supported this process, having the hope that the new population would be more successful in organizing defense against Tatar raids.

However, over time, freedom and benefits began to be limited, and in this a negative role was played by the small gentry and the Jews, who appeared here more and more. Together with the magnates and government authorities, they begin to introduce serfdom, albeit on a small scale. In response, the population, armed, accustomed to incessant military clashes with the Tatars, moved further into the steppes, replenishing the Cossack lavas, raised an uprising.

Production was dominated by handicraft work, although the use of machines and mechanical devices gradually increased.

The first enterprises were created, where civilian workers from among the ruined artisans and peasants worked alongside the serfs. Gradually, the first manufactories grew out of handicraft production. These are foundries that cast cannons and church bells in Lev, Ostra, Cherkassy, ​​Belaya Tserkov; Guts, especially those who made artistic glass; zhupas, etc. For some crafts there was a monopoly of the state or the gentry - distillery, mill.

The unification of Ukrainian lands within Poland contributed to the spread of their economic ties, strengthening the formation of external and internal markets, the activation of commodity circulation. The old people expanded, new auctions appeared, fairs that played big role in the development of domestic trade. Some fairs (in Kyiv, Lvov, Kamyanka, Lutsk) were of all-Ukrainian significance. Merchants from neighboring countries also came here.

Foreign trade developed more and more intensively. The Polish port of Gdansk on the Baltic becomes the main center of the bread trade in Europe. For 65 years from 1583 to 1648, the export of grain through this port increased by 2.5 times. A significant part of it came from Ukraine. A lot was also exported by dry land - through Krakow and Lublin. The export of oxen and other livestock was extended. significant role in foreign trade, as before, the sale of processed wood played out - oak blocks for the construction of ships, mast wood, as well as tar and potash. Honey and wax were quite significant export components. Abroad, as before, a lot of Carpathian salt was exported.

Thus, most of industrial production was associated with the farms of the feudal lords, worked for the market, bringing significant profits that fell into the hands of the feudal lords, spent on expensive jewelry, luxury goods, wine, sugar, silk fabrics and almost did not invest in industry.

In the second half of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. in Ukraine, the number of cities and towns and the population in them is increasing, especially in southern and southeastern Ukraine, where they moved large groups peasants and philistines from the West and the North. In the 40s of the XVII century. in Ukraine there were about 1000 cities and small towns. Among the towns, small ones predominated, which often counted no more than 100 households. largest cities there were Lviv with 18 thousand inhabitants and Kyiv - 13-14 thousand. The large urban centers were Kamenets-Podolsky, Lutsk, Chernihiv, Nizhyn, Poltava and Przemysl.

2. Union of Brest. The struggle of the Ukrainian people against national and religious oppression

Leadership of secularists religious affairs often resulted in incompetent interference in the life of the church, violated church order. The brotherhoods began to remove priests without sufficient justification, the most solving complex church issues that required serious knowledge and even interpreted the holy letter without sufficient theological training. There were endless disputes between brotherhoods and bishops, which paralyzed church life in some regions and cities. This was one of the reasons that gave rise to the idea of ​​a church union among some of the spiritual hierarchs - the unification of the severely disciplined Catholic and Orthodox religions.

However, the main reason for the desire of the Orthodox hierarchs for the union was the selfish desire of the top Orthodox Church to equalize with the Catholic "Princes of the Church", to sit next to them in the Sejm, to depend only on the Pope. they were infuriated and the leadership of the Eastern patriarchs, who supported the brotherhoods, interfered greatly in inner life Orthodox bishops sent conflicting instructions and demanded significant material support.

The Polish king and the Pope were interested in holding a union, since in this way they spiritually subordinated the Ukrainian people, significantly increased their possessions and incomes. However, for the Ukrainian peasantry, philistinism, part of the middle and small gentry, the preservation of the religion of their parents was a symbol of the preservation of their independence. The Catholic Church was for them an instrument of foreign enslavement.

The defeat of the church reformation by the efforts of the authorities and the Jesuits strengthened catholic church in the early 90s of the 16th century, and this contributed to the implementation of the union. And in the implementation of this idea active role the Jesuits played out, they were also at the forefront of this movement.

It should be noted that the split of Christianity, which dates back to 1054 p., caused discontent among some of the believers. In this regard, the idea of ​​a church union was repeatedly expressed in the XIV-XV centuries. For many, it seemed fair to restore the unity of the church of Jesus Christ. However, the Polish king and the Pope did not gravitate toward unification, but toward joining and subjugating Orthodoxy. The union was supported by a significant part of the bishops of Ukraine - Lvov, Lutsk, Vladimir, Kholm and Turov, as well as Metropolitan of Kyiv Mikhail Rogoza.

In 1591, the bishops worked out the conditions for the unification of the churches and expressed their readiness for this.

In October 1596, the Polish king Sigismund III and Mikhail Rogoza, by proxy of Pope Clement VIII, convened a church council in Brest (Berest) to officially proclaim the union.

However, the cathedral split into two separate cathedrals - Uniate and Orthodox. On October 18, 1596, the apostate bishops signed the act of union, without coordinating this with the eastern patriarchs, to whom they were subordinate, and without receiving authority from them to do so. By this act, in Ukraine and Belarus, instead of the Orthodox Church, a Uniate (Greek Catholic) church was formed, subordinate to the Pope. The basic tenets of Catholicism were recognized, but the rites remained Orthodox.

The Uniate clergy, on a par with the Catholic ones, were exempted from taxes, the Ukrainian gentry received the right to hold positions in administrative apparatus, and the Uniates-philistines were equalized in rights with the Catholic bourgeoisie. Uniate bishops were promised seats in the Senate.

The Orthodox Council rejected the union and declared the apostate hierarchs deprived of power, placing a curse on them. Polish king Sigismund despite protests Orthodox Cathedral, recognized the Uniate Church as obligatory and outlawed the Orthodox Church. He enforced union through violence. In fact, there was a process of defeat of Orthodoxy, the faith of millions of Ukrainians, one of the most brilliant and profound religions in the world.

Despite threats to the government, the Orthodox came out to defend their faith. The Diet became the arena of struggle. However, debates on this issue at several Seimas did not produce results. Only unfavorable foreign policy situation for the Commonwealth at the beginning of the XVII century. forced her government to make concessions to the Orthodox, and by decrees of the Seimas in 1607, their persecution was stopped. The "Greek" faith retained its long-standing rights, and an amnesty was proclaimed to the clergy who did not accept the union.

However, the Catholic reaction continued the persecution, causing raging uprisings in Lutsk in 1620, in the city of Ostrog in 1638, etc. Brotherhoods played an important role in the struggle against the union, which widely launched cultural and educational activities, opened printing houses, schools, printed books, financially supported churches and monasteries.

At the end of the XVI - at the beginning of the XVII century. in religious struggle a new social force enters - the Cossacks, which gradually becomes the mainstay of the Orthodox Church and has a broad Ukrainian people. First, the Cossacks, like the Ukrainian gentry, wrote protests against the efforts of the Uniates to seize the property of the Orthodox Church. But this did not help much, and they move on to the defense of their church by force of arms. In particular, when the emissaries of the Uniate Metropolitan seize the rich Kyiv monasteries in Kiev, the Cossacks defend them with weapons in their hands. This stopped the Uniate-Catholic expansion in Kyiv, while in Leo the Uniates were imposing their power. Therefore, in the 20s of the XVII century. the center of Ukrainian religious and cultural life moves again to Kyiv, some prominent cultural figures from Galicia move here and occupy important church positions.

At the end of the XVI century. - at the beginning of the 17th century, when almost all Orthodox bishops and Metropolitan Rogoza converted to Uniatism, the Orthodox Church was left without a leadership (eparchy), which threatened its complete disorganization. Then hetman P. Sahaydachny, taking advantage of the arrival of the eastern patriarch Theophan, secretly organized the consecration of the new metropolitan - Job Boretsky and five bishops, thereby strengthening the position of the Orthodox Church, in essence, saving it from collapse. Metropolitan Job Boretsky goes to the Cossacks, speaks to them with a sermon and takes an oath from them to defend their faith "up to the throat."

On the eve and at the beginning of the Turkish war against Poland in 1621, the Cossacks agreed to defend Poland, but demanded from the Polish government to improve the position of the Orthodox. A Cossack delegation arrives in Warsaw, which included P. Sahaidachny. The king agreed to approve the new leadership of the Orthodox Church, promised to "calm down" religious affairs. However, he did not fulfill his promises, although the Cossacks, led by Hetman Sagaydachny, big sacrifices saved Poland from Turkish defeat.

In the 20s of the XVII century. Negotiations were held between the Cossacks and the Polish government to improve the position of the Orthodox Church, but they did not have significant results. The Ukrainian population remained divided into Orthodox and Uniates, who were at enmity with each other. Only the Poles benefited from this. It should be noted that the Ukrainian Uniate Church after the Berestey (Brest) Union found itself in a tragic situation: the Orthodox hated the Uniates for treason, and the Catholic (Polish) Church did not consider them to be full-fledged citizens, since the main thing for them was the question national origin. However, over time, everything has changed. The Uniate Church has become a fighter against Polonization, for national law and freedom of the Ukrainian people.

In 1633, Vladislav IV became the king of Poland, who, in order to use the Cossacks in wars in the interests of Poland, was predisposed to compromises, reconciliation with the Orthodox religion. The Metropolitan of the Orthodox Church is Petr Mogila, the son of the Moldavian master, a man with European education, who in 1633 served as archimandrite of the Kiev Caves Monastery. He was given to the Orthodox Church and even used his personal material resources in its favor. The new metropolitan concentrated large land wealth in the hands of the metropolis and, on this basis, launched a broad religious and educational activity, carrying out a number of reforms. First of all, he focused his efforts on strengthening discipline among the clergy, introduced a spiritual court-consistory, which considered the illegal actions of priests.

Kyiv shrines were renovated, in particular, the church of St. Sophia, St. Michael's Monastery, the Church of the Three Saints, the Savior, etc.

3. Cossacks in Ukraine

During the second half of the XVI century. due to the strengthening of heavy feudal and national-religious oppression in the western and northern lands of Ukraine, the number of fugitives - peasants and burghers - near the Dnieper and Pobuzhye increases significantly. The poor, destitute people, the so-called "rogues", as well as part of the petty gentry, who experienced oppression by big magnates and gentry, flock here. All of them poured into the lavas of the Cossacks, increasing and strengthening them. The Cossacks quickly increased territorially. Many Cossacks lived in villages, farms, towns of the Chernihiv region, Kiev region and other lands - in the "volost" - and were called "hair", policemen. And those who flowed further south, into the steppes, the Zadneprovsky rapids, were called "grassroots", "Zaporozhye".

Already in mid-sixteenth in. there is an unification of the Cossacks under the leadership of the most energetic and talented of them in military organization. certain role magnates, gentry and elders and governors played in this process border towns. important place in the process of forming a military-political Cossack organization belongs to Prince Dmitry Vishnevetsky - 60s of the 16th century. (popularly had the name of the Cossack Baida). He was a prominent historical figure distinguished diplomat and commander, whose activities left a noticeable need in the history of the struggle against the Turks and Tatars. Although he was a magnate and a large landowner, he helped the Cossacks in common struggle against the Turkish-Tatar danger.

Zaporizhzhya Sich was a purely military camp. There were only Cossacks here, and women and children were not allowed there. The Cossacks obeyed only their foreman, whom they themselves elected from their midst. There were two councils (two circles) in the Sich: one big one, in which all Cossacks had the right to take part; and had - with the participation of only foremen. The general Grand Council was considered the highest authority in the Sich. This division into a large and a small circle testifies that there was no complete equality in the solution of all issues in the Sich. The division into poor and wealthy Cossacks gradually intensified. Mostly wealthy Cossacks were elected to leadership positions.

Zaporizhzhya Sich had its own territory, which gradually increased, and later administratively divided into the so-called palanki (districts). It included large areas of the Right Bank and the Left Bank. The Zaporozhian Sich was also called the Basket. It was the center of military, administrative and judiciary throughout the Cossack territory - Zaporozhye. At the head of the basket was an elected ataman, who was elected Big Council. It also elected general foremen - a judge, a clerk, a convoy, an osaul and a cornet, who, if necessary, were re-elected and sentenced to death for guilt, and the sentence was carried out here. This testified to the high responsibility of leaders to the Cossacks. The Cossacks judged according to traditional law. There were no written codes or legal collections in them. This political and administrative order, over the course of three centuries of the existence of the Cossack statehood, changed somewhat, but basically remained until recent years her activities.

findings

In the process of growth feudal tenure, the approval of the filvark economic system (production and processing of agricultural products based on weekly corvée and clearly oriented to the market), there was a convergence between different categories peasantry, and its feudal dependence gradually outgrew and legally took shape in serf dependence.

The separation of the Cossacks into a separate social state was also facilitated by the socio-economic situation, when the Polish magnate and gentry enslaved the peasantry in the new regions of Ukraine. Fleeing from the master's yoke, many peasants flowed into the Sich, replenishing and strengthening it. At the end of the XVI century. The Cossacks finally formed, grew significantly and became a separate military socio-political state, which consisted of two closely related parts - the legalized registered, quantitatively small, and the mass, free Zaporozhye and city (hair). It continued at the end of the XVI - at the beginning of the XVII century. to resist the attacks of the Tatars and, along with this, was increasingly drawn into the struggle of a social and religious nature - with the Polish feudal-feudal and Catholic offensive.

It should be emphasized that the relations of the Cossacks with the Moscow state were complex. Having one religion, origin, language, whole in the fight against the Tatar-Turkish aggression, they often acted together. However, Muscovy tried to annex the Ukrainian lands, and Poland and Lithuania, repelling its offensive, used the Ukrainian Cossacks in their own interests. Therefore, at the end of the XVI - at the beginning of the XVII century. these relations were hostile. At the same time, in relations with the Don Cossacks, strong military twinning, common military operations against the Crimea and Turkey, and mutual assistance prevailed.

List of used literature

1. Aleksiev Y. History of Ukraine: Heading help / Yuriy Aleksiev, Andriy Vertegel, Viktor Danilenko,. - K.: Karavela, 2007. - 254 p.

2. Bіlotserkіvskiy V. History of Ukraine: Heading guide / Vasyl Bilotserkіvskiy,. - 3rd view., revised and additional .. - K .: Center for Educational Literature, 2007. - 535 p.

3. Boyko O. History of Ukraine: Heading help / Oleksandr Boyko,. - 3rd view., vipr., additional .. - K .: Akademvidav, 2004. - 687 p.

4. Gubarev V. History of Ukraine: Dovіdnik schoolboy i student / Viktor Gubarev,. - Donetsk: BAO, 2005. - 622 p.

5. History of Ukraine: Primer / M. O. Skripnik, L. F. Dombrovska, V. M. Krasovsky and others; Pid ed. M. O. Skripnik; Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, Odessa State. economy un-t. - K.: Center for Primary Literature, 2003. - 366 p.

6. Kormich L. History of Ukraine: Podruchnik / Lyudmila Kormich, Volodymyr Bagatsky; Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. - 2nd view., add. and revised .. - K .: Alerta, 2006. - 412 p.

7. Kotova N. History of Ukraine: Heading help / Natalia Kotova,. - Kharkiv: Odyssey, 2005. - 413 p.

8. Lanovik B. History of Ukraine: Heading help / Bogdan Lanovik, Mykola Lazarovich,. - 3rd view., revised and additional .. - K .: Knowledge-Press, 2006. - 598 p.

9. Oliynik M. History of Ukraine: A guidebook for students of remote and correspondence forms of education / Mykola Oliynik, Ivan Tkachuk,. - 3rd view, corrected and added. - Lviv: Novy Svit-2000, 2007. - 262 p.

10. Chutkiy A. History of Ukraine: A guide for students. higher navch. deposit / Andriy Chutkiy,; Interregional Academy of Personnel Management. - K.: MAUP, 2006. - 345 p.

As a matter of fact, it is no secret that the word "Ukraine" (oukraina, outskirts) means "borderland" in Russian. For the first time it is found in Russian chronicles in this sense, in relation to the Principality of Peryaslav, which really was the border between Russia and the steppe in 1187 in the Ipatiev Chronicle:
and weeping for a little bit A Perezlavtsi. bѣ bo lyubѧ druzhinou. and do not collect gold. name is not spared. but yes shet druzhin. be good prince. and strong on the rati. and the power of a strong show. and filled with all the virtues. ѡ him Oukraina a lot of poston

Regarding the Galician border
And ekha and Smolensk in a greyhound and who came to him About Ukraine Galich
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - SPb., 1908. - Stlb. 652-673.]

And with regard to the Volyn border
Danilou returned the show to the house. and ѣha with brother. and near Berestia. and Ougrovesk. and Vereshchin. and St҃olp Komov. and all Oukrainou .
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - SPb., 1908. - Stlb. 715-736.]

You should not assume that this term was applied exclusively to modern Ukrainian lands (which, of course, were Russian borderlands, just look at the map of Russia).
And according to this Andrey from Polochany and his own oUkraine drove without a trace and fought a few sat down.

In the summer of 6856 (1348) of the month of June, on Ivan's Day, the mayor of Pskov, Ilya, with the Pskovites, left for Oreshka town to help the Novgorodians against the Svean king Magnush. And at that time, the Germans destroyed the peace with the Pskovites and, having moved to Norov, fought the Pskov village. And packs for that, with another oUkraine having come, having fought Ostrovskaya and Izborskaya; and, having arrived near Pskov, burning Zavelichye and repairing a lot of evil and burning the volosts of Izborsk
Pskov I chronicle

AT this case, there is no doubt that for Russian chroniclers the meaning of the word "oukraina" is unambiguous - borderland.

In the same meaning, this word exists in the 17th century. The most famous map Ukraine - the borderlands of the Commonwealth - this is a map of Beauplan in 1648.

The name of the map is indicative: Delineatio generalis Camporum Desertorum vulgo Ukraina, i.e. Overall plan desert plains commonly called Ukraine

Naturally, over the years Mongol invasion, then the yoke, and then constant raids, this region, which was once the southern borderland of Russia on the border with the steppe, was depopulated. The center of this proper Polish Ukraine was approximately the Dnepropetrovsk region. Interestingly, on another map of the same time, compiled by the Blau brothers, these lands already belong to Russia, but are called Ocraina Dikoia (Wild Borderland).

What does NOT apply to Ukraine in the Beauplan map: Severshchina, Kiev region, Chernihiv region, Podolia (with Bratslav region), Pokuttya, and Russian Voivodeship (Galicia and Lodomeria). Those. the inhabitants of these regions are NOT Ukrainians.

Map 2. Ukraine between Poland and Russia

Poland, after suppression Cossack uprisings 1637 and 1638 received a ten-year period of calm. The Poles, it would seem, completely subjugated the Ukrainian Cossacks.

Poland flourished. Ukrainian lands, especially those on the left bank of the Dnieper, Severskaya land and Poltava, where the land holdings of Polish and Ukrainian magnates loyal to Poland grew rapidly, became the bread bins of the Commonwealth. Access to the Baltic made it possible to expand trade in Ukrainian wheat and cattle, as well as Belarusian timber, tar and potash. This led to the growth of cities such as Warsaw, Vilna, Lvov, Kamenetz and Kyiv. This decade was often called the era of the "golden world". Prosperity, however, was built on shaky foundations, as Polish rule over the Ukrainian people faced conflicts and contradictions of all kinds - political, national, economic, social and religious.

Analyzing Polish politics but the attitude towards Ukraine and the attitude of Ukrainians towards Polish rule, first of all, one should consider the differences in the status of different strata of Ukrainian society. By 1640, there were almost no Ukrainian magnates left, since almost all Ukrainian aristocratic families were converted to the Roman Catholic faith. Outstanding champion of Greek Orthodoxy in Western Russia, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky died in 1608. His descendants became Catholics. Prince Jeremiah Vishnevetsky converted to Catholicism in 1632. Among the few Greek Orthodox nobles who had at least some political weight, Adam Kisel is best known. But, although he was Russian. Kissel felt like a Pole politically.

An extremely large number of representatives of the petty Ukrainian nobility (gentry) remained Greek Orthodox in faith, but Russian in spirit, although they were loyal to the Polish king and were ready to serve Poland faithfully. In addition, in Ukraine there were a large number of small landowners who did not have the official status of the gentry, but who differed little from it economically and socially. It was from these two groups that the Polish government usually recruited officers and privates into the number of registered (registered) Cossacks.

The Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, organized around their Sich, sometimes accepted representatives of the Russian-Ukrainian nobility into their ranks, the majority were simple people, occasionally townspeople, but for the most part - peasants who fled from the lands of the magnates.

Thus, the Cossacks were connecting link both between the nobility and the townspeople, and between the nobility and the peasants. Most of the Ukrainian people at that time were peasants, whose position both in Ukraine and in Belarus was tantamount to slavery.

As regards religion, the compromise of 1632 greatly strengthened the status of the Greek Orthodox Church in Western Russia. Although the Orthodox did not actually receive all the rights and privileges stipulated in the conditions that were promised to them, the Russian clergy were satisfied with their position. The petty clergy, however, whose social level was closer to the peasantry, were subjected to harassment and insults from the Polish magnates and officials, and it was quite possible to expect that they would take the side of the Cossacks and peasants in any coming unrest.

Indeed, the situation for such unrest in Ukraine is ripe. Dissatisfaction grew both among the peasants and among the Cossacks. A look at the circumstances of the life of the peasants reveals a strange, as it may seem at first glance, situation: corvée was easier in the newly conquered border lands than in northern regions Ukraine and Belarus. Then why are these peasants from the left bank and the border regions of the right bank of the Dnieper in more inclined to rebellion than the rest, whose situation was much more difficult? The reasons were mainly purely psychological. The new settlers in most cases were more energetic and enterprising people than those who lived there permanently. In addition, the very environment in the border lands was different due to the presence of free people - the Cossacks. Any attempt on the part of the estate owners to burden their peasants caused more resentment among the new settlers than in those areas where dependence had existed for a long time. Moreover, in the new lands, on the border of the steppe zone, it was comparatively easier for the offended peasant to flee from his master and join the Cossacks "beyond the [Dnieper] rapids." Peasants from the left bank could even run to the Don Cossacks.

After the suppression of the uprising of 1638, several units of Polish soldiers were stationed in Ukrainian lands as a precaution against possible disturbances. The behavior of these soldiers irritated the population as well as the oppression of the masters. Always in need of money due to their profligate lifestyle, landowners often farmed out sources of income from their lands and various structures on their lands, such as water mills, distilleries, taverns and river ferries, to the Jews, who in Poland and Lithuania traditionally provided financial support to kings and nobles and have long been indispensable because of their business enterprise. As a result, for many Ukrainian peasants, Jews began to be identified with the despotic Polish regime. When the revolutionary explosion broke out, the Jews found themselves between two opposing forces (Ukrainians and Poles), their fate was tragic.

Dissatisfied with the fact that only peasants were under their rule, the magnates after 1638 tried to convert Cossacks “excluded from the register” (vyshchiks) into peasants. Registered Cossacks themselves were subject to strict discipline and were subject to harassment by both Polish and their own officers (foremen).

Despite all this, the foundation of Polish rule seemed solid enough. However, latent popular discontent manifested itself in a number of peasant riots in both Western and Eastern Ukraine in 1639 and in subsequent years. These were not yet symptoms of deep-seated indignation in Ukraine. Such riots failed to develop into a general unrest only because of the lack of interaction between the peasants in different areas, as well as between the Cossacks and the peasants.

In 1646, the king of Poland gave the Cossacks a reason for general excitement, although unintentionally. Vladislav IV was an ambitious man and he was annoyed by the rule of the Sejm. He searched suitable occasion elevate your royal powers and raise respect for the crown.

Vladislav's lovingly cherished project was the war against Turkey. In these plans, he was supported by Chancellor Jerzy Ossolinski, who was appointed in 1643. In 1645, under pressure from the Turks, Venice asked for help from some European countries including Poland. Without informing the Sejm about his plans, Vladislav agreed to support Venice in the war against the Turks, but demanded substantial subsidies. He intended to use this money to strengthen the Polish regular army and mobilize the Cossacks. In his military plans, he intended to first attack the vassals of the Turkish Sultan - the Crimean Tatars.

Vladislav had a high opinion of the Cossacks as a fighting force. They supported him even when he, being crown prince, waged war against Moscow in 1617-1618. and again during the capture of Smolensk in 1632-1634. In April 1646, at the invitation of the king, four delegates from the foremen of the registered Cossacks: three captains - Ivan Barabash, Ilya Karaimovich and Ivan Nesterenko But - and the Chigirinsky centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky - arrived in Warsaw and were received in top secret by the king and chancellor Ossolinsky. Since no minutes of their meeting have been preserved, the exact content of these negotiations is unknown, however, from available sources it can be assumed that Vladislav promised to increase the number of registered Cossacks from one thousand to significantly more big number(twelve, maybe even twenty thousand). It was alleged that the king gave Barabash a decree of similar content, certified by his own seal (and not the seal of the state).

The secret plans of Vladislav and Ossolinsky soon became known to the magnates and caused great indignation. At a meeting in 1646, the Sejm imposed a ban on any increase in the composition of the regular Polish army and began to threaten Ossolinsky with removal from office. Vladislav was forced to abandon this part of his project.

At the next meeting (1647), the Seim turned its attention to Vladislav's interest in the Cossacks and decided to put an end to his military preparations once and for all. They voted specifically so that the number of registered Cossacks could not be increased without the approval of the Sejm. Because of these decisions, the senior officers of the registered Cossacks - Barabash and Karaimovich - abandoned attempts to increase Cossack register today and decided to keep the whole thing a secret. However, it proved impossible for them to stop the spread of rumors and gossip among the ordinary Cossacks, especially because their colleague in the delegation to Vladislav, centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky, did not want to miss the opportunity to strengthen the Cossack army.

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Russia: the rise of a great power

On the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries Russia has established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from about 15.6 million to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more cast iron and iron than England.

Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century

The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development took place during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).

During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional enemies - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Crimean Khanate.

In 1648, a war broke out between Poland and Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.

Zaporizhzhya army was unique public education, which arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper. These lands, from the south bordering on the Crimean Khanate and constantly subjected to its raids, from the north - with Russia

They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. Peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here for decades, fleeing the arbitrariness of the landowners. They mixed with the local population, acquired a household, fought back Crimean Tatars, they themselves made raids on the Crimea, and sometimes on Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks, who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetmans, colonels, and captains chosen by them were approved in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - "beyond the rapids" (hence Zaporozhye), were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent of it. Their support was a fortified settlement - Zaporizhzhya Sich.

Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which continued with varying success until 1654. In 1653, the hetman of the Zaporozhian army, Bogdan Khmelnitsky (1595 - 1657), officially turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine "under the high royal hand." Zemsky Sobor in 1654 he decided to join Ukraine to Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of broad rights for the Ukrainian Cossacks, in particular, the election of all officials.

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia was the reason Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 It went badly for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed a truce with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, in which it saw a more dangerous adversary.

Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine escalated. The successor of B. Khmelnitsky, Hetman I. Vyhovsky, in 1658 terminated the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and the Crimea, they jointly launched military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for itself, the Russian government was forced to urgently conclude peace with Sweden at the cost of returning all the recaptured territories to Sweden. Exit problem Baltic Sea again remained unresolved.

The position of Russia, whose army suffered heavy losses, worsened the split of Ukraine into Right-Bank and Left-Bank. In 1667 Russia concluded a truce with Poland. Right-bank Ukraine remained under its rule.

The war in the south did not end there. In 1672, the armies of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate invaded Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia went on with varying degrees of success. Only in 1681 was a peace treaty signed, according to which Kyiv and the Left-bank Ukraine remained with Russia.