Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich

(born in 1849) - physiologist, son of a priest of the Ryazan province. He graduated from the course of sciences at the Medical and Surgical Acad. in 1879, in 1884 he was appointed assistant professor of physiology and in the same year received a business trip for 2 years abroad with scientific purpose; in 1890 he was appointed an extraordinary professor at the Tomsk Univ. in the Department of Pharmacology, but in the same year moved to the Imp. military medical acad. extraordinary professor, and since 1897 ordinary professor of the academy.

Outstanding scientific works of prof. P. can be divided into 3 groups: 1) work related to the innervation of the heart; 2) work related to the Ekkov operation; 3) work on the secretory activity of the glands of the digestive tract. When evaluating his scientific activity, one must take into account the totality of scientific results achieved by his laboratory, in which his students worked with the participation of himself. In the 1st group of works concerning the innervation of the heart, prof. P. experimentally showed that during the work of his heart, in addition to the already known inhibitory and accelerating nerves, it is also regulated by an amplifying nerve, and at the same time he gives facts that give the right to think about the existence of more weakening nerves. In the 2nd group of works, P., having actually carried out the operation conceived earlier by Dr. Eck, the operation of connecting the portal vein with the inferior vena cava and thus arranging a bypass of the liver with blood rushing from the digestive tract, pointed out the importance of the liver as a purifier of harmful products rushing with blood from the digestive canal, and together with prof. Nensky, he also pointed out the purpose of the liver in the processing of carbamic ammonia; thanks to this operation, in all likelihood, it will be possible to find out a lot more important issues, one way or another related to the activity of the liver. Finally, the 3rd group of works, and the most extensive, clarifies the regulation of the separation of the glands of the gastrointestinal canal, which became possible only after the execution of a number of operations conceived and carried out by P. its ends are separated at the corners of the wound, which made it possible to accurately determine the full significance of appetite and observe the secretion of pure gastric juice (from the gastric fistula) due to mental influence (appetite). Equally important is his operation to form a double stomach with preserved innervation; the latter made it possible to follow the separation of gastric juice and to elucidate the whole mechanism of this separation during normal digestion in the other stomach. Then he owns a method for the formation of a permanent fistula of the pancreatic duct: namely, by sewing it on with a piece of mucous membrane, he obtained a fistula that remains indefinitely. Using these operations as well as others, he found out that the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal canal, like the skin, has a specific excitability - it seems to understand that it is given bread, meat, water, etc. and in response to this or that juice and this or that composition already sends this food. With one food, more gastric juice is secreted and with a greater or lesser content of acid or enzyme, with another, an increased activity of the pancreas appears, with a third liver, with a fourth, we can observe a brake on one gland, and together with an increased activity of another, etc. Pointing to this specific excitability of the mucous membrane, he pointed out at the same time the nerve pathways along which the brain sends impulses for this activity - he pointed out the importance of the vagus and sympathetic nerve for the sections of the stomach and pancreas. From the works we will mention: from the 1st group - "Amplifying the nerve of the heart" ("Weekly Clinical Newspaper", 1888); 2nd group: "Ekkovsky fistula of the veins of the inferior vena cava and portal and its consequences for the body" ("Archive biological sciences Imp. Institute of Experimental Medicine "(1892 vol., I); from the 3rd" Lecture on the work of the main digestive glands "(1897; here are all the related works of P. himself and his students). He also owns the study:" Centrifugal nerves of the heart" (St. Petersburg, 1883).

(Brockhaus)

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich

Rus. scientist-physiologist, creator of materialistic. the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans, acad. (since 1907, corresponding member since 1901). P. developed new principles of physiological. studies that provide knowledge of the activity of the organism as a single whole, which is in unity and constant interaction with its environment. studying supreme manifestation life - the higher nervous activity of animals and humans, P. laid the foundations of materialistic psychology.

P. was born in Ryazan in the family of a priest. After graduating from the Ryazan Theological School, he entered the Ryazan Theological Seminary in 1864. The years of study at the seminary coincided with the rapid development of natural science in Russia. The ideas of the great Russian thinkers, revolutionary democrats A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, and N. A. Dobrolyubov, as well as the works of the publicist and educator D. I. Pisarev, and others and especially the work of the "father of Russian physiology" I. M. Sechenov - "Reflexes of the brain" (1863). Carried away by the natural sciences, P. in 1870 entered St. Petersburg. un-t. Being engaged in the natural department of physics and mathematics. fact, II. worked in the laboratory under the guidance of the famous physiologist I. F. Zion, where he performed several scientific studies; for work "About the nerves managing work in a pancreas" (together with M. M. Afanasyev) council un-that awarded it in 1875 with a gold medal. At the end of the university (1875) II. enrolled in the third year of medical surgery. Academy and at the same time worked (1876-78) in the laboratory of prof. physiology of K. N. Ustimovich. During the course at the academy, he carried out a number of experimental works, for the totality of which he was awarded a gold medal (1880). In 1879 he graduated from Mediko-khirurgich. academy (reorganized in 1881 into the Military Medical Academy) and was left with it for improvement. Back in 1879, P., at the invitation of S. P. Botkin, began working in the physiological. laboratories at his clinic (later in charge of this laboratory); P. worked in it for approx. 10 years, actually supervising all pharmacological. and physiological. research.

In 1883 P. defended his thesis. for the degree of Doctor of Medicine and the following year received the title of Privatdozent Military Medical. academy; since 1890 was prof. in the same place in the department of pharmacology, and from 1895 - in the department of physiology, where he worked until 1925. Since 1891, he was simultaneously in charge of the physiological department. department Ying-that experimental medicine, organized with his active participation. Working 45 years within the walls of this in-that, P. carried out the main researches on physiology of digestion and developed the doctrine about conditioned reflexes. In 1913 for researches of higher nervous activity on the initiative of P. in Ying-those of experimental medicine the special building was built, in Krom soundproof cameras for studying of conditioned reflexes (so-called silence tower) were for the first time equipped.

P.'s creativity reached its peak after the Great October Revolution. socialist. revolution. Communist the party and the Soviet government always provided P. unwavering support, surrounding him with attention and care. In 1921, under the signature of V. I. Lenin, a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars was issued on the creation of conditions for P.'s scientific work. station in the village Koltushi (now the village of Pavlovo) near Leningrad, which became, in the words of P., "the capital of conditioned reflexes."

Proceedings P. received recognition from scientists around the world. During his lifetime he was given honorary titles numerous domestic and foreign scientific institutions, academies, high fur boots and various about-in. In 1935, at the 15th International Congress of Physiologists (Leningrad - Moscow), he was crowned with the honorary title of "Elder Physiologists of the World."

IP Pavlov died at the age of 87 in Leningrad. Buried at Volkovo Cemetery.

During the first period of scientific activity (1874-88), P. was mainly engaged in the study of physiology of cardio-vascular system. By this time, his diss. "Centrifugal nerves of the heart" (1883), in a cut for the first time on the heart of a warm-blooded animal, the existence of special nerve fibers that strengthen and weaken the activity of the heart was shown. On the basis of his research, P. suggested that the reinforcing nerve discovered by him exerts its effect on the heart by changing the metabolism in the heart muscle. Developing these ideas, P. later created the doctrine of trophic. functions of the nervous system ("On trophic innervation", 1922).

A number of works P. relating to this period, devoted to the study of the nervous mechanisms of regulation of blood pressure. In the experiments, exceptional in terms of thoroughness and accuracy, he found that any change in blood pressure reflexively causes such changes in the cardiovascular system, to-rye lead to the return of blood pressure to its original level. P. believed that such a reflex self-regulation of the cardiovascular system is possible only due to the presence of specific receptors in the walls of blood vessels. sensitivity to fluctuations in blood pressure and other stimuli (physical or chemical). Further research P. and his colleagues proved that the principle of reflex self-regulation is a universal principle of functioning not only of the cardiovascular, but also of all other systems of the body.

Already in works on the physiology of blood circulation, high skill and innovative approach P. in the experiment. Having set himself the task of studying the effect of liquid and dry food intake on the dog's blood pressure, P. boldly departs from traditional acute experiments on anesthetized animals and is looking for new methods of research. He accustoms the dog to experience and through long training achieves that without anesthesia it is possible to dissect a thin arterial branch on the dog's paw and for many hours to re-register blood pressure after various influences. Methodical the approach to solving the problem in this (one of the first) work is very important, because in it one can see, as it were, the birth of a remarkable method of chronic experience developed by P. during his research on the physiology of digestion. Another major experimental achievement was P.'s creation of a new way of studying the activity of the heart with the help of the so-called. cardiopulmonary drug (1886); only a few years later, in a very close form, a similar cardiopulmonary drug was described by the English. physiologist E. Starling, whose name this drug is incorrectly named.

Along with work in the field of physiology of cardiovascular system P. during the first period of the activity was engaged in studying of nek-ry questions of digestion physiology. But the systematic he began to conduct research in this area only in 1891 in the laboratory of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. The guiding idea in these works, as well as in studies on blood circulation, was the idea of ​​nervism, perceived by P. from Botkin and Sechenov, by which he understood " physiological direction"aspiring to extend the influence of the nervous system to the greatest possible number of activities of the organism" (IP Pavlov, Polnoye sobr. soch., vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1951, p. 197). However, the study of the regulatory function of the nervous system (in the process of digestion) in a healthy normal animal could not be carried out with methodical. possibilities, to-rymi the physiology of that time had.

Creation of new methods, new techniques of "physiological thinking" P. devoted a number of years. He developed special operations on the organs of the digestive tract and put into practice the method of chronic. experiment, which made it possible to study the activity of the digestive apparatus on a healthy animal. In 1879 P. for the first time in the history of physiology imposed chronic. fistula of the pancreatic duct. Later they were offered the operation chronic. bile duct fistulas. Under the guidance of P. in 1895, D. L. Glinsky developed a technique for imposing a simple and convenient fistula of the ducts of the salivary glands, which subsequently had exceptional value in the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. One of the most remarkable achievements of physiological The experiment was created by P. in 1894, a method for monitoring the activity of the gastric glands by separating part of it from the stomach in the form of an isolated (solitary) ventricle, which completely preserves the nervous connections with the central nervous system (the small ventricle according to Pavlov). In 1889, P., together with E. O. Shumova-Simanovskaya, developed the operation of esophagotomy in combination with gastrostomy on dogs. On esophagotomized animals with a gastric fistula, an experiment was made with imaginary feeding - the most outstanding experiment in physiology of the 19th century. Subsequently, this operation was used by P. in order to obtain pure gastric juice for therapeutic use.

Possessing all these methods, P. actually re-created the physiology of digestion; for the first time, with the utmost clarity, he showed the leading role of the nervous system in the regulation of the activity of the entire digestive process. P. studied the dynamics of the secretory process of the gastric, pancreatic and salivary glands and the functioning of the liver when using various nutrients and proved their ability to adapt to the nature of the secretory agents used.

In 1897 P. publ. famous work - "Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands", which has become a desktop guide for physiologists around the world. For this work he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904.

Like Botkin, he sought to combine the interests of physiology and medicine. This was expressed, in particular, in the substantiation and development of the principle of experimental therapy by him. P. was engaged in the search for scientifically based methods of treatment of experimentally created pathological. states. In direct connection with the work on experimental therapy are his research pharmacological. problems. P. considered pharmacology as theoretical. honey. discipline, ways of development a cut are closely connected with experimental therapy.

The study of the connections of the organism with its environment, carried out with the help of the nervous system, the study of the patterns that determine the normal behavior of the organism in its natural relations with the environment, led to P.'s transition to the study of the functions of the cerebral hemispheres. The immediate reason for this was his observations of the so-called. mental secretion of saliva in animals, which occurs at the sight or smell of food, under the action of various stimuli associated with food intake, etc. Considering the essence of this phenomenon, P. managed, based on Sechenov’s statements about reflex nature all manifestations of brain activity, to understand that the phenomenon of mental. secretion enables the physiologist to objectively study the so-called. mental activity.

"After persistent reflection on the subject, after a difficult mental struggle I finally decided, - wrote Pavlov, - and before the so-called mental excitement, to remain in the role of a pure physiologist, that is, an objective external observer and experimenter who deals exclusively with external phenomena and their relationships "(Complete collection of works, vol. 3, book 1, 2nd ed., 1951, p. 14. P. called the unconditioned reflex the constant connection of an external agent with the organism's response to it, while the temporary connection, formed during an individual life, was called a conditioned reflex .

With the introduction of the method of conditioned reflexes, it was no longer necessary to speculate about the internal state of the animal under the action of various stimuli. All the activities of the organism, previously studied only with the help of subjective methods, became available for objective study; the opportunity to learn empirically the relationship of the organism with the external environment. The conditioned reflex itself became for physiology, according to P., a "central phenomenon", using the Crimea it turned out to be possible to more fully and accurately study both normal and pathological. activity of the cerebral hemispheres. For the first time, P. reported on conditioned reflexes in 1903 in the report "Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology in Animals" at the 14th International Medical Institute. congress in Madrid.

For many years, P., together with numerous employees and students developed the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Step by step, the finest mechanisms were revealed cortical activity, the relationship between the cerebral cortex and the underlying parts of the nervous system was clarified, the patterns of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cortex were studied. It was found that these processes are closely and inextricably linked with each other, capable of widely irradiating, concentrating and mutually acting on each other. On the complex interaction These two processes are based, according to P., all the analyzer and synthesizing activity of the cerebral cortex. These ideas were created physiological. the basis for studying the activity of the sense organs, which before P. was built to a large extent on subjective method research.

Deep insight into the dynamics of cortical processes allowed P. to show that the phenomena of sleep and hypnosis are based on the process of internal inhibition, which radiated widely through the cerebral cortex and descended to subcortical formations. Long-term study of the characteristics of the conditioned reflex activity of various animals allowed P. to classify the types of the nervous system. An important section of P.'s research and his students was the study of pathological. deviations in the activity of the higher nervous system, occurring both as a result of various operational effects on the cerebral hemispheres, and as a result of functional changes, the so-called. breakdowns, collisions, leading to the development of "experimental neuroses". Based on the study of experimentally reproducible neurotic. states II. outlined new ways of their treatment, gave physiological. justification for therapy. bromine and caffeine.

AT last years life P.'s attention was drawn to the study of the higher nervous activity of man. Studying the qualitative differences in the higher nervous activity of man in comparison with animals, he put forward the doctrine of two signal systems of reality: the first - common to man and animals, and the second - peculiar only to man. The second signal system, being inextricably linked with the first, provides a person with the formation of words - "pronounced, audible and visible." The word is a signal of signals for a person and allows for distraction and the formation of concepts. With the help of the second signal system, higher human abstract thinking is carried out. The totality of the research allowed P. to come to the conclusion that the cerebral cortex in higher animals and humans is "the manager and distributor of all the activities of the body", "keeps under control all the phenomena occurring in the body", and thus provides the most subtle and perfect balance of a living organism in the external environment.

In the works "Twenty years of experience in the objective study of the higher nervous activity (behavior) of animals. Conditioned reflexes" (1923) and "Lectures on the work of the cerebral hemispheres" (1927) P. summed up many years of research and gave a complete systematic. exposition of the doctrine of higher nervous activity.

P.'s teaching fully confirms the main. positions of the dialectic. materialism that matter is a source of sensations, that consciousness, thinking is a product of matter that has reached in its development high level perfection, namely the product of the brain. P. for the first time clearly showed that all the processes of vital activity of animals and humans are inextricably linked and interdependent, in motion and development, that they are subject to strict objective laws. P. constantly stressed the need for knowledge of these laws in order to learn how to manage them.

With an unshakable faith in the forces of science and practice, the tireless and passionate activity of P., his uncompromising struggle against idealism and metaphysics, is connected. P.'s doctrine of higher nervous activity has a large theoretical. and practical meaning. It expands the natural science basis of dialectic. materialism, confirms the correctness of the provisions of the Leninist theory of reflection and serves as a sharp weapon in the ideological. struggle against any and all manifestations of idealism.

P. was a great son of his people. Love for the fatherland, pride in his homeland permeated all his thoughts and actions. “Whatever I do,” he wrote, “I constantly think that I serve it as much as my strength allows me, first of all, my fatherland, our Russian science. And this is both a strong motivation and deep satisfaction” 1, 2nd ed., 1951, p. 12). Noting the concern of the Soviet government to encourage scientific research, P. at the reception by the government of the delegation of the 15th International Congress of Physiologists in Moscow in 1935 said "... we, the leaders of scientific institutions, are directly in anxiety and concern about whether we will able to justify all the means that the government provides us." P. also spoke of a high sense of responsibility to the Motherland in his famous letter to the youth, written by him shortly before his death (see Polnoe sobr. soch., 2nd ed., vol. 1, 1951, pp. 22-23).

Numerous students and followers of P. successfully develop his teachings. At the joint session of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the Academy of Medical Sciences. Sciences of the USSR (1950), devoted to the problem of physiological. P.'s teachings were scheduled further ways development of this doctrine.

P.'s name is appropriated to a number of scientific institutions and educational institutions (Ying t of physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1st Len. medical in-t, Ryazan. medical in-t, etc.). The Academy of Sciences of the USSR established: in 1934 - the Pavlov Prize, awarded for the best scientific work in the field of physiology, and in 1949 - a gold medal named after him, for a set of works on the development of P.

Cit.: Complete collected works, vols. 1-6, 2nd ed., M., 1951-52; Selected Works, ed. E. A. Asratyan, M., 1951.

Lit .: Ukhtomsky A. A., Great physiologist [Obituary], "Nature", 1936, No. 3; Bykov K. M., I. P. Pavlov - the elder of the physiologists of the world, L., 1948; his own, Life and work of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Report ... M.-L., 1949; Asratyan E. A., I. P. Pavlov. Life and scientific work, M.-L., 1949; Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. , Intro. article by E. Sh. Airapetyants and K. M. Bykov, M.-L., 1949 (Academician of Sciences of the USSR. Materials for the Biobibliography of Scientists of the USSR. Series of Biological Sciences. Physiology, issue 3); Babsky E. B., I. P. Pavlov. 1849-1936; M., 1949; Biryukov D. A., Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Life and activity, M., 1949; Anokhin P.K., Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Life, activity and scientific school, M.-L., 1949; Koshtoyants X. S., A story about the works of I. P. Pavlov in the field of physiology of digestion, 4th ed., M.-L., 1950; Bibliography of the works of I. P. Pavlov and literature about him, ed. E. Sh. Airapetyantsa, M.-L., 1954.

P a Vlov, Ivan Petrovich

Genus. 1849, mind. 1936. Innovative physiologist, creator of the materialistic doctrine of higher nervous activity. Author of the method of conditioned reflexes. He was the first to establish and prove the connection between mental activity and physiological processes in the cerebral cortex. He made an invaluable contribution to the development of physiology, medicine, psychology and pedagogy. Author of fundamental classical works on the physiology of blood circulation and digestion. He introduced a chronic experiment into the practice of research, thereby making it possible to study the activity of a practically healthy organism. Nobel Prize winner (1904). Since 1907 he was a full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917), Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1925).

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Soviet physiologist, creator of the materialistic doctrine of higher nervous activity and modern ideas about the process of digestion; founder of the largest Soviet physiological school; ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

In 1860-1869 Pavlov studied at the Ryazan Theological School, then at the Seminary.

Impressed by I. M. Sechenov's book "Reflexes of the Brain", he obtained permission from his father to take exams at St. Petersburg University and in 1870 entered the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.

In 1875, Pavlov was awarded a gold medal for his work "On the nerves that control the work in the pancreas."

Having received the degree of candidate of natural sciences, he entered the third year of the Medical and Surgical Academy and graduated with honors. In 1883 he defended his dissertation "Centrifugal nerves of the heart" (one of the nerve branches going to the heart, now reinforcing Pavlov's nerve).

Becoming a professor in 1888, Pavlov received his own laboratory. This allowed him to do research without interference. nervous regulation in the secretion of gastric juice. In 1891, Pavlov headed the physiological department at the new Institute of Experimental Medicine.

In 1895 he made a report on the activity of the dog's salivary glands. "Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands" were soon translated into German, French and English and published in Europe. Work brought Pavlov great fame.

For the first time, the concept of "conditioned reflex" was introduced by the scientist in a report at the Congress of Naturalists and Physicians of the countries Northern Europe in Helsingfors (now Helsinki) in 1901. In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion and blood circulation.

In 1907 Ivan Petrovich became an academician. He began to investigate the role of various parts of the brain in conditioned reflex activity. In 1910, his work "Natural Science and the Brain" saw the light of day.

The revolutionary upheavals of 1917 Pavlov experienced very hard. In the ensuing devastation, his strength was spent on preserving the work of his whole life. In 1920, the physiologist sent a letter to the Council of People's Commissars "On the free leaving of Russia due to the impossibility of conducting scientific work and the rejection of the social experiment being carried out in the country." The Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution signed by V. I. Lenin - "in the shortest possible time to create the most favorable conditions for ensuring the scientific work of Academician Pavlov and his employees."

In 1923, after the publication of the famous work "Twenty Years' Experience in the Objective Study of the Higher Nervous Activity (Behavior) of Animals," Pavlov undertook a long trip abroad. He visited scientific centers England, France and USA.

In 1925, the Physiological Laboratory founded by him in the village of Koltushi at the Institute of Experimental Medicine of the USSR Academy of Sciences was transformed into the Institute of Physiology. Pavlov remained its director until the end of his life.

In the winter of 1936, returning from Koltushi, the scientist fell ill with inflammation of the bronchi.
He died on February 27 in Leningrad.

Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in Ryazan, a city located about 160 km from Moscow.

His mother, Varvara Ivanovna, came from a family of a priest; father, Pyotr Dmitrievich, was a priest who first served in a poor parish, but thanks to his pastoral zeal, over time became rector of one of the best churches in Ryazan. From early childhood, Pavlov took over from his father perseverance in achieving goals and a constant desire for self-improvement. At the request of his parents, Pavlov attended initial course seminary, and in 1860 he entered the Ryazan theological school. There he was able to continue the study of the subjects that interested him most, in particular the natural sciences; he enthusiastically participated in various discussions, where his passion and perseverance were manifested, which made Pavlov a formidable opponent.

Pavlov's passion for physiology arose after he read the Russian translation of a book by the English critic George Henry Levy. His passionate desire to study science, especially biology, was reinforced by reading the popular books of D. Pisarev, a publicist and critic, a revolutionary democrat whose work failed Pavlov. to the theory of Charles Darwin.

At the end of the 1880s. The Russian government changed its prescription, allowing students of theological seminaries to continue their education in secular educational institutions. Carried away by the natural sciences, Pavlov in 1870 entered St. Petersburg University in the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. His interest in physiology increased after he read I. Sechenov's book "Reflexes of the Brain", but he managed to master this subject only after he was trained in the laboratory of I. Zion, who studied the role of depressor nerves. Zion found out the influence of nerves on the activity of internal organs, and it was at his suggestion that Pavlov began his first scientific study - the study of the secretory innervation of the pancreas; for this work, P. and M. Afanasiev were awarded the gold medal of the university.

After receiving the title of Candidate of Natural Sciences in 1875, Pavlov entered the third year of the Medico-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg (later reorganized into the Military Medical Academy), where he hoped to become an assistant to Zion, who shortly before that was appointed ordinary professor of the Department of Physiology. However, Zion left Russia after government officials blocked the appointment after learning of his Jewish heritage. Refusing to work with Zion's successor, Pavlov became an assistant at the Veterinary Institute, where he continued to study digestion and circulation for two years. In the summer of 1877 he worked in the city of Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland), with Rudolf Heidenhain, a specialist in digestion. The following year, at the invitation of S. Botkin, Pavlov began working in the physiological laboratory at his clinic in Breslau, not yet having a medical degree, which P. received in 1879. In Botkin's laboratory, Pavlov actually supervised all pharmacological and physiological research.

After a long struggle with the administration of the Military Medical Academy (with which relations became strained after his reaction to Zion's dismissal), P., in 1883, defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medicine, devoted to describing the nerves that control the functions of the heart. He was appointed Privatdozent at the Academy, but was forced to refuse this appointment due to extra work in Leipzig with Heidenhain and Karl Ludwig, two of the most eminent physiologists of the day. Two years later, Pavlov returned to Russia.

Many of Pavlov's studies in the 1880s concerned the circulatory system, in particular the regulation of heart function and blood pressure. Pavlov's creativity reached its peak by 1879, when he began research on the physiology of digestion, which lasted more than 20 years. By 1890, Pavlov's works were recognized by scientists around the world. Since 1891, he was in charge of the physiological department of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, organized with his active participation; at the same time, he remained the head of physiological research at the Military Medical Academy, where he worked from 1895 to 1925. Being left-handed from birth, like his father, Pavlov constantly trained his right hand and, as a result, was so good with both hands that, according to the recollections of colleagues , “assisting him during operations was a very difficult task: it was never known which hand he would use in the next moment. He stitched with his right and left hand at such a speed that two people could hardly manage to feed him needles with suture material.

In his research, Pavlov used the methods of the mechanistic and holistic schools of biology and philosophy, which were considered incompatible. As a representative of mechanism, Pavlov believed that a complex system, such as the circulatory or digestive system, can be understood by examining each of their parts in turn; as a representative of the "philosophy of wholeness" he felt that these parts should be studied in an intact, living and healthy animal. For this reason, he opposed the traditional methods of vivisection, in which living laboratory animals were operated on without anesthesia to observe the functioning of their individual organs.

Considering that an animal dying on the operating table and in pain cannot respond adequately to a healthy one, Pavlov acted on it surgically in such a way as to observe the activity of internal organs without disturbing their functions and the state of the animal. In some cases, he created conditions under which the digestive glands secreted their secrets into fistulas located outside the animal; in other cases, he separated parts from the stomach in the form of an isolated ventricle, completely retaining connections with the central nervous system. Pavlov's skill in this difficult surgery was unsurpassed. Moreover, he insisted on maintaining the same level of care, anesthesia and cleanliness as in human operations. “After bringing the organism of an animal into line with our task,” he said, “we must find a modus vivendi for it in order to ensure it an absolutely normal and long life. Only under these conditions can the results obtained by us be considered convincing and reflecting the normal course of these phenomena. Using these methods, Pavlov and his colleagues showed that each section of the digestive system—the salivary and duodenal glands, stomach, pancreas, and liver—adds certain substances to food in various combinations that break it down into absorbable units of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. After highlighting several digestive enzymes Pavlov began studying their regulation and interaction.

In 1904, Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his work on the physiology of digestion, which has led to a clearer understanding of the vital aspects of this subject." In a speech at the K.A. G. Merner from the Karolinska Institute highly appreciated Pavlov's contribution to the physiology and chemistry of the digestive system. “Thanks to the work of P., we were able to advance in the study of this problem further than in all previous years,” Merner said. - Now we have a comprehensive understanding of the influence of one section of the digestive system on another, i.e. about how the individual links of the digestive mechanism are adapted to work together.

Throughout his scientific life, Pavlov retained an interest in the influence of the nervous system on the activity of internal organs. At the beginning of the XX century. his experiments on the digestive system led to the study of conditioned reflexes. Pavlov and his colleagues found that when food enters a dog's mouth, saliva is reflexively produced. When the dog simply sees food, salivation also automatically begins, but in this case the reflex is much less constant and depends on additional factors such as hunger or overeating. Summarizing the differences between reflexes, Pavlov noted that "the new reflex is constantly changing and therefore is conditional." Thus, the sight or smell of food alone acts as a signal for the production of saliva. “Any phenomenon in the external world can be turned into a temporary signal of the object, stimulating salivary glands, - Pavlov wrote, - if the stimulation of the oral mucosa by this object is re-associated ... with the impact of a certain external phenomenon on other sensitive surfaces of the body.

Struck by the power of conditioned reflexes, which shed light on psychology and physiology, after 1902 Pavlov concentrated his scientific interests on the study of higher nervous activity. Devoted to his work and highly organized in all aspects of his work, be it operations, lecturing, or conducting experiments, Pavlov took a break during the summer months; at this time he was enthusiastically engaged in gardening and reading historical literature. As one of his colleagues recalled, "he was always ready for joy and drew it from hundreds of sources." The position of the greatest Russian scientist protected Pavlov from the political conflicts that abounded in the revolutionary events in Russia at the beginning of the century; so, after the establishment of Soviet power, a special decree was issued signed by V.I. Lenin on the creation of conditions that ensure the work of Pavlov. This was all the more remarkable since most scientists were at that time under the supervision of state bodies, which often interfered in their scientific work.

In 1881, Pavlov married Serafima Vasilievna Karchevskaya, a teacher; they had four sons and a daughter. Known for his tenacity and perseverance in achieving his goal, Pavlov was considered by some of his colleagues and students to be a pedant. At the same time, he was highly respected in scientific world and his personal enthusiasm and cordiality won him numerous friends.

Pavlov died in 1936 in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) from pneumonia. Buried at Volkovo Cemetery.

In 1915, Pavlov was awarded the French Legion of Honor, in the same year he received the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London. Pavlov was a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a foreign member of the Royal Society of London and an honorary member of the London Physiological Society.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 26 (14), 1849 in the ancient Russian city of Ryazan. His father, Pyotr Dmitrievich Pavlov, a native of a peasant family, was at that time a young priest of one of the seedy parishes. Truthful and independent, he often did not get along with his superiors and did not live well. Peter Dmitrievich was a strong-willed, cheerful person, possessed good health, loved to work in the garden and garden. For many years, gardening and horticulture have been a significant support for the Pavlov family. High moral qualities, seminary education, which was considered significant for the inhabitants of the provincial towns of those times, earned him a reputation as a very enlightened person.

Ivan Petrovich's mother, Varvara Ivanovna, also came from a spiritual family. In her youth, she was healthy, cheerful and cheerful, but frequent childbirth (she gave birth to 10 children) and the experiences associated with the untimely death of some of them undermined her health. 1 Varvara Ivanovna received no education; however, her natural intelligence and diligence made her a skilled educator of her children.

Ivan Petrovich remembered his parents with a feeling of tender love and deep gratitude. The words that end his autobiography are noteworthy: "And under everything - the everlasting thanks to my father and mother, who taught me to a simple, very undemanding life and made it possible to get a higher education."

Ivan was the firstborn in the Pavlov family. Childhood years, even very early ones, left an indelible mark on his soul. Later, I. P. Pavlov recalled: “... I seem to remember my first visit to that house, where then all my childhood passed, up to and including adolescence. The strange thing is that I made this visit in the arms of a nanny, i.e. ... was probably a one-year-old or so child .... Another fact speaks for the fact that I began to remember myself very early. When one of my maternal uncles was carried past this house to the cemetery, I was again carried out in my arms to say goodbye with him, and this memory remains very vivid with me too.

Ivan grew up healthy and fervent. He willingly played with his younger brothers and sisters, from an early age he helped his father in the garden and the garden, when building a house (he learned a little carpentry and turning), and his mother in household chores. His younger sister L.P. Andreeva recalls this period of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s life: “His first teacher was his father .... Ivan Petrovich always remembered his father with gratitude, who managed to instill in children the habits of work, order, accuracy and accuracy in "Business time, fun - an hour," he liked to say .... As a child, Ivan Petrovich had to do other work. Our mother supported tenants. Often she did everything herself and was a great worker. Children idolized her and vied with each other. to help her with something: to chop wood, heat the stove, bring water - all this had to be done by Ivan Petrovich "

Ivan Petrovich learned to read and write for about eight years, but he entered school belatedly, only in 1860. The fact is that somehow, while laying out apples to dry on a high platform, eight-year-old Ivan fell on a stone floor, badly hurt himself and was ill for a long time. As a rule, the period of Pavlov's life between this incident and entering school falls out of the field of view of his domestic and foreign biographers. Meanwhile, this period is very interesting in many respects. The fall from a considerable height had serious consequences for the boy's health. He lost his appetite, began to sleep poorly, lost weight and turned pale. Parents feared even for the condition of his lungs. Ivan was treated with home remedies and without noticeable success. At this time, the godfather of Ivan, the abbot of the Trinity Monastery, located near Ryazan, came to visit the Pavlovs. He took the boy to him. Clean air, enhanced nutrition, regular gymnastics had a beneficial effect on the boy's physical condition. He quickly returned to health and strength. The boy's guardian turned out to be a kind, intelligent and highly educated person for those times. He read a lot, led a Spartan lifestyle, was demanding of himself and others.

These human qualities strong influence on Ivan, a boy, impressionable, with a good soul. The first book that Ivan received as a gift from his guardian was the fables of I. A. Krylov. He later learned it by heart and retained his love for the famous fabulist for his entire long life. According to Serafima Vasilievna, this book always lay on IP Pavlov's desk. Ivan returned to Ryazan in the autumn of 1860 as a healthy, strong, cheerful boy and entered the Ryazan Theological School immediately in the second grade. Having successfully graduated from college in 1864, he was admitted to the local theological seminary the same year. (Children of priests received certain benefits in theological educational institutions.)

And here Ivan Pavlov became one of the best students. L.P. Andreeva recalls that already during the years of teaching at the seminary, Pavlov gave private lessons, using the reputation of a good tutor. He was very fond of teaching and was happy when he could help others in acquiring knowledge. The years of Pavlov's teaching were marked by the rapid development of advanced social thought in Russia. Remarkable Russian thinkers mid-nineteenth in. N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, D. I. Pisarev waged a selfless struggle against reaction in social life and science, advocated the awakening of the consciousness of the masses, for freedom, for progressive change in life. Much attention - they paid to the propaganda of the ideas of materialistic natural science, in particular biology. The influence of this brilliant galaxy of revolutionary democrats on the youth was enormous. And it is not surprising that their lofty ideas captivated Pavlov's open, ardent soul.

He enthusiastically read their articles in Russkoye Slovo, Sovremennik, and other progressive journals. He was especially fascinated by articles on natural science, which noted the importance of the natural sciences in social progress. "Under the influence of the literature of the sixties, especially Pisarev," Pavlov later wrote, "our mental interests turned towards natural science, and many of us, including myself, decided to study the natural sciences at the university." Scientific interests Pavlova were formed mainly under the influence of I. M. Sechenov, a faithful colleague of the glorious galaxy of advanced thinkers of the sixties, and especially his monograph "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), in which, in a lively, fascinating form, with journalistic fervour, he spoke about the reflex origin and the nature of the phenomena of mental life

More than half a century later, speaking about the motives that prompted him to take the path of an objective study of brain activity, Pavlov wrote: "... the main impetus to my decision, although not conscious then, was a long time ago, back in youth the tested influence of the talented pamphlet of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, under the title "Reflexes of the Brain". Pavlov also got acquainted with great interest with the translation of the popular book by the English scientist George Lewis, The Physiology of Everyday Life. In it, an attempt was made to explain phenomena specific to life, including the psyche, with the help of physical laws.

After graduating from the sixth grade of the theological seminary in 1869, the young Pavlov resolutely abandoned his spiritual career and began to prepare for the entrance exams to the university. In 1870, she moved to St. Petersburg, dreaming of entering the natural department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of the University. However, due to the fact that the seminarians were limited in the choice of university specialties (mainly due to the poor teaching of mathematics and physics in seminaries), he first entered the Faculty of Law. After 17 days, by special permission of the rector of the university, Pavlov was transferred to the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, f Pavlov's financial situation as a student was extremely difficult. This is evidenced, in particular, by some archival documents those years. So, on September 15, 1870, Pavlov filed the following petition addressed to the rector: "Due to the lack material resources I cannot pay the due fee for the right to listen to lectures, which is why I ask Your Excellency to release Me from it. The certificate of my poverty is attached, among other documents, to the application of August 14 for admission to the screening exam.

Judging by the documents, Pavlov studied very successfully and attracted the attention of professors, from the first year to the end of his studies at the university. This, no doubt, caused the fact that in the second year of study at the University he was assigned an ordinary scholarship (180 rubles a year), in the third year he already received the so-called imperial scholarship (300 rubles a year). During the years of study, Pavlov rented a small cheap room, ate mainly in third-rate taverns. A year later, his younger brother Dmitry came to St. Petersburg, who also entered the university, but chemical faculty. The brothers began to live together. Soon Dmitry, more adapted to everyday affairs, took over all the household chores. The Pavlovs made many acquaintances, mostly among compatriot students. Young people often gathered at someone's apartment, arranged discussions on issues that were of concern to the youth of that time. Summer student holidays the brothers spent in Ryazan with their parents, working, as in childhood, in the garden and playing their favorite game - towns. It was in the game that the characteristic features of the future scientist were clearly manifested - a hot temperament, an indomitable will to win, endurance, passion and endurance.

Studying at the University.

Pavlov was passionate about studying at the university: This was largely facilitated by the excellent teaching staff of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at that time. Thus, among the professors of the natural department of the faculty were outstanding chemists D. I. Mendeleev and A. M. Butlerov, famous botanists A. N. Beketov and I. P. Borodin, famous physiologists F. V. Ovsyannikov and I. F. Zion and etc.1 "It was a time of brilliant state of the faculty," Pavlov wrote in his "Autobiography." We had a number of professors with great scientific authority and outstanding lecturer talent."

Gradually, Pavlov was more and more attracted to physiology, and in his third year he decided to devote himself to this developing science This final choice was largely made under the influence of Professor I.F. Zion, who taught a course in physiology. I.F. Zion, a student of the famous German physiologist K. Ludwig, was not only a talented scientist and a skilled experimenter, but also a brilliant lecturer. Later, Pavlov recalled: “I chose animal physiology as the main specialty and chemistry as an additional specialty. Ilya Fadeevich Zion made a huge impression on all of us physiologists. We were directly amazed by his masterfully simple presentation of the most complex physiological issues and his truly artistic ability to set up experiments. a teacher is not forgotten all his life."

Young Pavlov did not immediately understand the complex and contradictory personality of Zion. This capable scientist had an extremely reactionary outlook. Despite the fact that Zion was recommended to the Department of Physiology of the Medical and Surgical Academy by I. M. Sechenov, he was very negative about the progressive views of the "father of Russian physiology", in particular his outstanding work Brain Reflexes. Being the head of the Department of Physiology at the Medical-Surgical Academy, he, with his personal qualities - vanity, selfishness, careerism, love of money, arrogant attitude towards colleagues, as well as unseemly general behavior provoked sharp opposition from the progressive professors of the academy. Students openly showed him their indignation.

As a result of all this, in 1875 Zion was forced to leave the academy, and then Russia. It is noteworthy that, being a deep old man, IP Pavlov warmly and admiringly recalled his beloved teacher in the presence of the author of these lines and his other employees. With great regret and annoyance, he spoke about the degradation of Zion, who, having settled in Paris, completely departed from science and began to engage in reactionary journalism with some dubious financial transactions.

Start of research activity.

Research activities Pavlova started early. In 1873, as a fourth-year student, he, under the guidance of F.V. Ovsyannikov, investigated the nerves in the lungs of a frog. In the same year, together with a classmate V. N. Veliky, Pavlov completed his first scientific work. Under the guidance of I.F. Zion, they studied the influence of the laryngeal nerves on blood circulation. On October 29, 1874, the results of the research were reported at a meeting of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists. Pavlov began to regularly attend meetings of this society, communicate with Sechenov, Ovsyannikov, Tarkhanov and other physiologists, and participate in the discussion of the reports made at them.

Soon students I. P. Pavlov and M. M. Afanasiev did interesting scientific work on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas. This work, which was also supervised by Professor Zion, was awarded a gold medal by the university council. Obviously, the new research took up a lot of the students' time. Pavlov did not pass his final exams on time and was forced to remain in his last year for another year, losing his scholarship and having only a one-time allowance of 50 rubles. In 1875, Pavlov brilliantly graduated from the university, receiving the degree of candidate of natural sciences. He was then in his 26th year. With bright hopes, the young scientist set out on the road of independent life. ... At first, everything went well for IP Pavlov.

I. F. Zion, who had taken the post of head of the department of physiology at the Medical-Surgical Academy, left by Sechenov, invited the young scientist as his assistant. At the same time, Pavlov entered the third year of the academy "not with the aim of becoming a doctor, but so that later, having a doctorate in medicine, he would be entitled to occupy the department of physiology. However, justice requires adding that this plan was then a dream, because about his own professorship thought of something extraordinary, incredible. Soon Zion was forced to leave the academy. Pavlov, who highly valued his teacher as a great physiologist, and had a feeling of gratitude and gratitude for him, was not able at that time to correctly assess the reason for Tsion's departure from the academy.

Pavlov considered it necessary to refuse the post of assistant at the department of physiology, offered to him by the new head of the department, Professor I.F. Tarkhanov, and thus lost not only a great place for scientific work, but also earnings. According to some of Pavlov's students of the older generation (V.V. Savich, B.P. Babkin), a certain dislike of Pavlov towards Tarkhanov, due to some unseemly act of the latter, played a certain role in this decision. Be that as it may, Pavlov's integrity and honesty found their vivid expression in this fact. Ivan Petrovich realized his misconception about I.F. Tsion much later.

After some time, Pavlov became an assistant to Professor K. N. Ustimovich at the Department of Physiology of the Veterinary Department of the Medico-Surgical Academy. At the same time, he continued his studies at medical department academy.

K. N. Ustimovich was a student of K. Ludwig and at one time received a solid physiological education. At the academy, he organized a good laboratory that dealt with the physiology of blood circulation and the excretory function of the kidneys. During his work in the laboratory (1876-1878) Pavlov independently performed a number of valuable works on the physiology of blood circulation. In these studies, for the first time, the beginnings of his ingenious scientific method of studying the functions of the body in their natural dynamics in an unanesthetized whole organism appeared. As a result of numerous experiments, Pavlov achieved the measurement of blood pressure in dogs without putting them to sleep with anesthesia and without tying them to an experimental table. He developed and implemented his original method of chronic ureteral fistula - implanting the end of the latter into the outer covering of the abdomen. During his work in the laboratory, Pavlov managed to save a small amount of money. In the summer of 1877, on the recommendation of Ustimovich, he visited Breslavl, where he got acquainted with the works of the famous physiologist Professor R. Heidenhain. A trip abroad expanded Pavlov's scientific horizons and marked the beginning of the young scientist's friendship with Heidenhain.

Study of the physiology of blood circulation.

Pavlov's research on the physiology of blood circulation, carried out in the laboratory of Ustimovich, attracted the attention of physiologists and doctors. The young scientist became famous in scientific circles. In December 1878, the famous Russian clinician Professor S.P. Botkin, on the recommendation of Dr. I.I. Stolnikov, invited Pavlov to work in his clinic. Formally, Pavlov was offered to take the position of a laboratory assistant in the physiological laboratory at the clinic, but in reality he was supposed to become its head. Pavlov willingly accepted this proposal, not only because it came from a famous scientist. Shortly before this, the veterinary department of the Medico-Surgical Academy was closed, and Pavlov lost his job and the opportunity to conduct experiments.

Scientific work took Pavlov a lot of time and energy. It is noteworthy that due to intensive scientific work, Pavlov also passed the final exams at the academy with a year's delay - in December 1879, he received a diploma as a doctor.

Pavlov believed that animal experimentation is necessary in resolving many complex and unclear issues of clinical medicine. In particular, he sought to elucidate the properties and mechanism of therapeutic action of new or already used medicinal preparations of plant or other origin. Many of those working at his clinic and at the Institute for the Improvement of Physicians, on his instructions, but mainly under the direction of Pavlov, investigated just such a series of questions under experimental conditions on animals. Botkin, as a scientist and clinician, was an outstanding representative of a progressive and fairly widespread scientific trend in those days, known as "nervism" and recognizing the decisive role of the nervous system in regulating the functions of a healthy and diseased organism.

Pavlov worked in this physiological laboratory of his until 1890 (since 1886 he was already officially considered its head). The laboratory was located in a small, dilapidated wooden house, completely unsuitable for scientific work, built either for a janitor or a bathhouse. The necessary equipment was lacking, there was not enough money to buy experimental animals and for other research needs. And yet Pavlov developed a vigorous activity in the laboratory. He planned and carried out experiments on animals on his own, which helped to reveal the original talent of the young scientist and was a prerequisite for the development of his creative initiative. Over the years of work in the laboratory, Pavlov's colossal ability to work, indomitable will and inexhaustible energy were fully manifested.

He achieved outstanding results in the field of studying the physiology of blood circulation and digestion, in developing some topical issues of pharmacology, in improving his outstanding experimental skills, and in acquiring the skills of an organizer and leader of a team of scientists. Despite financial difficulties, Pavlov considered this period of his life to be unusually meaningful and fruitful, and he always remembered it with special warmth and love. In "Autobiography" he wrote about this period: "The first thing is complete independence and then the opportunity to completely surrender to laboratory work." The young scientist felt the moral and material support of S.P. Botkin throughout his work in the laboratory. And Botkin's ideas about the role of the nervous system in the normal and pathological activities of the body, as well as his belief in the need for the utmost convergence of clinical medicine with experimental physiology, greatly contributed to the formation scientific views Pavlova. “S. P. Botkin,” Pavlov wrote many years later, “was the best personification of the legitimate and fruitful union of medicine and physiology, those two kinds of sciences of human activity that, before our eyes, are erecting the edifice of the science of human body and promise in the future to provide a person with his best happiness - health and life.

Among the scientific works performed by Pavlov in this laboratory, the study on the centrifugal nerves of the heart should be considered the most outstanding. The essence of this work will be discussed further. Here we give one statement by Pavlov about this work, which also very clearly reflects his attitude towards S.P. Botkin: “The idea of ​​research and its implementation belong only to me,” Pavlov wrote. experimental data of nervism, which, in my opinion, is an important merit of Sergei Petrovich to physiology.

This original study became the subject of Pavlov's doctoral dissertation. In 1883 he brilliantly defended it and was awarded a gold medal. Soon the young scientist gave two test lectures at the conference of professors of the academy and he was awarded the title of doctor. A year later, at the suggestion of S.P. Botkin, Pavlov was sent on a two-year foreign scientific mission. “Dr. Pavlov,” Botkin emphasized in his note, “after leaving at the academy, devoted himself specifically to the study of physiology, which he mainly studied at the university, taking a course in the natural sciences. Standing close to his work, I can testify with particular satisfaction that they are all distinguished by originality, both in thought and in methods, and their results, in all fairness, can stand alongside the best discoveries recently in the field of physiology, why, in my opinion, in the person of Dr. Pavlov we have a serious and witty scientist, whom the academy should help on the scientific path he has chosen "".

In early June 1884, collegiate assessor IP Pavlov, together with Serafima Vasilievna, went to Germany to work in the laboratories of R. Heidenhain (in Breslau) and K. Ludwig (in Leipzig). For two years Pavlov worked in the laboratories of these two outstanding physiologists. During this seemingly short period, he significantly expanded and deepened his knowledge not only on the physiology of blood circulation and digestion that interested him, but also in other areas of physiological science. overseas trip enriched Pavlov with new ideas, honed and improved his outstanding skill as an experimenter. He established personal contacts with prominent figures of foreign science, discussed with them all sorts of topical physiological problems. Until a very old age, Pavlov recalled with great warmth about R. Heidenhain and K. Ludwig, about his work in their laboratories. “A trip abroad,” he wrote in his Autobiography, “was dear to me mainly because it introduced me to the type of scientific workers, what Heidenhain and Ludwig are, all their life, all the joys and sorrows of it, put in science and in nothing else ".

Returning to his homeland with a solid scientific background, Pavlov new force and enthusiastically continued research in a wretched laboratory at the Botkin clinic. But it so happened that Pavlov could lose the opportunity to work in this laboratory. Here is what Professor N. Ya. Chistovich wrote about this episode, who at one time worked in the laboratory led by Pavlov at the Botkin clinic: “Returning from a business trip abroad, Ivan Petrovich had grace year leaving at the academy. A year has passed, but Ivan Petrovich failed to settle down at the academy. S. P. Botkin did not have a vacancy at the department, but Professor V. A. Monassein had one, and it was necessary to go to Monassein and ask him about this place. We all urged Ivan Petrovich to take this step, but he stubbornly refused, finding it embarrassing. Finally, we persuaded him, and he went, but, before reaching Monassein's office, he turned home. Then we took more energetic measures, persuaded him to go again and sent the minister Timothy to look after him so that he would not turn off the road again. in the laboratory at the Botkin clinic.

There was a lot of work. Pavlov not only developed new methods and models of physiological experiments, which were set up in the laboratory both by himself and by young doctors led by him, operated on experimental animals and nursed them, but he himself invented and manufactured new equipment. V. V. Kudrevetsky, who worked at that time with Pavlov, recalls that Ivan Petrovich made a thermostat out of tin cans, attached it to an iron tripod and heated it with a small kerosene lamp. The laboratory staff were infected by the manager's enthusiasm, his devotion to science, readiness for self-sacrifice) in the name of his beloved work. And it is not surprising that as a result, even in such unsuitable conditions for research, amazing scientific results were obtained.

Upon his return from abroad, Pavlov began to lecture on physiology at the Military Medical Academy (as the Military Surgery Academy was renamed in 1881), as well as to the doctors of the clinical military hospital. This period includes the development of a new original technique for the manufacture of the so-called cardiopulmonary drug (isolation of the heart and lungs from the general circulation for the experimental study of many special scientific and practical issues physiology of blood circulation, as well as pharmacology). Pavlov laid a solid foundation for his future research on the physiology of digestion: he discovered the nerves that regulate the secretory activity of the pancreas, and carried out his truly classic experiment with imaginary feeding.

Pavlov regularly reported on the results of his research on the pages of domestic and foreign scientific journals, at a meeting of the physiological section of the Society of Naturalists of St. Petersburg and at the congresses of this society. Soon his name became widely known in Russia and abroad.

The joy brought by creative successes and their high appreciation was constantly poisoned by the difficult material conditions of existence. Ivan Petrovich's helplessness in everyday affairs and material deprivation became especially acute after his marriage in 1881. Little is known about the details of this period of Pavlov's life. The "Autobiography" briefly speaks of the hardships of those years: "Up to the professorship in 1890, already married and having a son in monetary terms always had to be very tight "".

At the end of the 70s in St. Petersburg, Pavlov met Serafima Vasilievna Karchevskaya, a student of Pedagogical Courses. Ivan Petrovich and Serafima Vasilievna were united by a common spiritual interest, closeness of views on many issues of life that were relevant at that time, loyalty to the ideals of serving the people, the struggle for social progress, with which the advanced Russian fiction and journalistic literature of those times was saturated. They fell in love with each other.

In her youth, Serafima Vasilievna, judging by the photographs of that period, was very beautiful. Traces of her former beauty remained on her face even in extreme old age. Ivan Petrovich also had a very pleasant appearance. This is evidenced not only by photographs, but also by the memories of Serafima Vasilievna. “Ivan Petrovich was of good height, well built, dexterous, agile, very strong, loved to talk and spoke passionately, figuratively and cheerfully. The conversation showed that hidden spiritual power that supported him in his work all his life and to the charm of which all his employees involuntarily obeyed and friends. He had blond curls, a long blond beard, a ruddy face, clear blue eyes, red lips with a completely childish smile and wonderful teeth. I especially liked the intelligent eyes and curls that framed a large open forehead. " Love at first completely swallowed Ivan Petrovich. According to his brother, Dmitry Petrovich, for some time the young scientist was more busy writing letters to his girlfriend than doing laboratory work.

After some time, the young people, intoxicated with happiness, decided to get married, despite the fact that Pavlov's parents were against it, as they intended to marry their first child to the daughter of a wealthy Petersburg official, a girl with a very rich dowry. For the wedding, they went to Rostov-on-Don to the sister of Serafima Vasilievna with the intention of having a wedding in her house. All expenses for the wedding were borne by the relatives of the bride. “It turned out,” recalled Serafima Vasilyevna, “that Ivan Petrovich not only did not bring money for the wedding, but also did not take care of the money for Return trip Petersburg". Upon returning to St. Petersburg, the newlyweds were forced to live for some time with Dmitry Petrovich, who worked as an assistant to the famous Russian chemist D. I. Mendeleev and had a government apartment. Serafima Vasilyevna recalled: "When we returned to St. We didn't have any money at all. And if it weren’t for Dmitry Petrovich’s apartment, then there would be literally nowhere to lay one’s head.” From the memoirs it is clear that the newlyweds at that time did not have enough money to “buy furniture, kitchen, dining and tea utensils, and linen for Ivan Petrovich, so like he didn't even have a summer shirt."

One episode from this period of the life of a young couple is curious, about which Ivan Petrovich bitterly told his students of the older generation and which is mentioned in biographical sketch Pavlov, written by V. V. Savich. This episode is as comical as it is sad. When Ivan Petrovich and his wife lived in the apartment of Dmitry Petrovich's brother, the brothers often dived in the presence of guests. Ivan Petrovich ridiculed the unattractiveness of a bachelor's life, and Dmitry Petrovich - the hardships of family ties. Once, during such a playful skirmish, Dmitry Petrovich shouted to the dog: "Bring the shoe with which Ivan Petrovich's wife beats." The dog obediently ran into the next room and soon solemnly returned back with a shoe in his teeth, causing an outburst of laughter and thunderous applause from the guests present. The defeat of Ivan Petrovich in a comic verbal battle was obvious, and resentment towards his brother remained. long years.

In the year of defending his doctoral dissertation, Ivan Petrovich had his first child, who was named Mirchik. In the summer, the wife and child had to be sent to the dacha, but Pavlov found it beyond his means to rent a dacha near St. Petersburg. I had to go south, to a remote village, to my wife's sister. There was not enough money even for a railway ticket; I had to turn to the father of Serafima Vasilievna.

In the village, Mirchik fell ill and died, leaving his parents in bitter sorrow. During this difficult period of his life, Pavlov was forced to resort to side work, and at one time he taught at a school for paramedics. And, nevertheless, Pavlov was completely devoted to his beloved work. Often, Ivan Petrovich spent his meager earnings on the purchase of experimental animals and other needs of research work in his laboratory. Professor N. Ya. Chistovich, who worked at that time under the guidance of Pavlov, later wrote: “Remembering this time, I think each of us feels a feeling of lively gratitude to our teacher not only for his talented leadership, but, most importantly, for that exceptional example, which we saw in him personally, an example of a man who was completely devoted to science and lived only by science, despite the most difficult material conditions, literally the need that he had to endure with his heroic "better half", Serafima Vasilievna, who knew how to support him in the most difficult minutes of life. May Ivan Petrovich forgive me if I tell you some episodes from this bygone time. At one time Ivan Petrovich had to endure complete lack of money, he was forced to be separated from his family and lived alone in the apartment of his friend N. P. Simanovsky. We, pupils of Ivan Petrovich, learned about his difficult financial situation and decided to help him: they invited him to read us a series of l lectures on the innervation of the heart, and, having pooled the money, handed it over to him as if for expenses at the rate. And we didn’t succeed: he bought animals for the entire amount for this course, but left nothing for himself.”

It is known that between Ivan Petrovich and his wife, on the basis of material difficulties and deprivations, sometimes there were unpleasant conversations. Ivan Petrovich told Babkin and his other students of the older generation, for example, that during the period of intensive preparation of his doctoral dissertation, the family became especially hard financially (Pavlov received about 50 rubles a month). Serafima Vasilievna repeatedly begged him to expedite the defense of his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences, rightly reproached him for always helping his students in the laboratory and completely abandoned his own scientific affairs. But Pavlov was inexorable; he sought to obtain more new, significant and reliable scientific facts for his doctoral dissertation and did not think about speeding up its defense.

However, over time, with gradual improvement financial situation Pavlov's family in connection with the increase in official rank and the awarding him with prizes to them. Adam Chojnacki by the University of Warsaw (1888), such incidents became rare and disappeared altogether. And there is every reason to assert that the married life of Ivan Petrovich turned out to be extremely happy. Serafima Vasilievna, a smart woman with a kind heart, gentle nature and lofty ideals, was for Ivan Petrovich not only a true friend in his long life, but a loving and devoted wife. She took upon herself the whole burden of family worries and for many years meekly endured all the troubles and failures that accompanied Ivan Petrovich at that time. With her faithful love, she undoubtedly contributed a lot to Pavlov's amazing success in science. “I was looking for only a good person in my life comrades,” wrote I. P. Pavlov, “and found him in my wife Sarah Vasilyevna, nee Karchevskaya, who patiently endured the hardships of our pre-professorial life, always guarded my scientific aspirations and turned out to be just as devoted for life our family, as I am a lab."

As a result of almost twelve years of work as the head of the physiological laboratory at the Botkin Clinic, work in difficult conditions, but inspired, intense, purposeful and exceptionally fruitful, selfless, associated with acute material need and deprivation in his personal life, Pavlov became a prominent figure in the field of physiology only at home, but also abroad. A radical improvement in the living and working conditions of a talented scientist has become an urgent need not only to satisfy his growing personal interests, but also for the sake of the development of domestic and world science.

However, as already noted, in the conditions of tsarist Russia, it was not easy for a democratic-minded, simple, honest, unsophisticated, impractical and even shy person like Pavlov to achieve such changes. At the same time, Pavlov’s life was greatly complicated by some prominent physiologists, who were unfriendly to him, mainly because, while still a young physiologist, he sometimes dared to publicly enter into a sharp scientific discussion with them on certain issues and often emerged victorious. Yes, prof. I. R. Tarkhanov in 1885 gave a sharp negative feedback his very valuable work on blood circulation, presented to the Russian Academy of Sciences for the Prize. Metropolitan Macarius, and the prize was not awarded to Pavlov. As we will see below, a few years later, for the same reasons, a similar unseemly role in Pavlov's life was also played by his university teacher prof. F. V. Ovsyannikov.

Pavlov had no confidence in tomorrow. He could only hope for occasional favorable circumstances. After all, he once found himself without a job due to the lack of vacancies at the Botkin department! And this despite the fact that Pavlov was then already a doctor of medicine, who visited foreign laboratories, a scientist recognized at home and abroad. What would have happened to Pavlov if Professor V.L. Monassein had not given him then a place at his department?

True, Pavlov was promoted on the scale of military ranks (for his length of service in May 1887 he was promoted to court advisers), his lectures given to students and doctors of the academy were exceptionally successful, Warsaw University awarded the scientist the Prize. Adam Heinetsky, his scientific authority grew every day. And yet, for a number of years, Pavlov searched for a new job for a long time and without success. Back in October 1887, he addressed the Minister of Education with a letter in which he expressed his desire to take the chair of some experimental medical science - physiology, pharmacology or general pathology - at one of the universities of Russia. In particular, he wrote: “For my competence in experimental work, I hope professors Sechenov, Botkin and Pashutin will not refuse to say their word; thus, the most suitable department for me is the department of physiology. But if for some reason it turned out to be for me closed, I think I could, without fear of being reproached for frivolity, take up pharmacology or general pathology, as well as purely experimental sciences ... .

Meanwhile, time and energy are not spent as productively as they should be, because working alone and in a foreign laboratory is far from being the same as working with students in your own laboratory. And therefore, I would consider myself happy if the Siberian University sheltered me within its walls. I hope that, for my part, I would not remain in his debt. "A month later, he sent a letter of similar content to the organizer Siberian University in Tomsk, former professor of the Military Medical Academy V. M. Florinsky. But, despite the support of a prominent and authoritative scientist V. V. Pashutin, these appeals remained unanswered for almost three years. In April 1889, Pavlov participated in the competition for the position of head. Department of Physiology of St. Petersburg University, vacant after the departure of I. M. Sechenov. But competition commission voted down his candidacy, electing N. E. Vvedensky, a student of Sechenov, to this place. Pavlov took this failure hard. Soon he was forced to drink the bitter cup of resentment a second time. With a great delay, he was elected to the post of professor of physiology at Tomsk University. However, the tsarist minister of education, Delyanov, did not approve his candidacy, giving this place to the little-known scientist Veliky, for whom some other minister and professor of St.

Such an outrageous event provoked a protest from the advanced scientific and medical community. The Vrach newspaper, for example, published an article stating: “The Great Doctor of Zoology has been appointed to the Department of Physiology in Tomsk ... We cannot but express sincere regret that the appointment of a private teacher of physiology at the Academy For some reason, Pavlov did not take place [...] Pavlov, who has long been rightfully considered one of the best physiologists in Russia, presented in this case especially favorable conditions; he is not only a doctor of medicine, but also a candidate of natural sciences, and, moreover, for many years he constantly worked and helped others work in the clinic of S. II. Botkin. We know that Pavlov's non-appointment surprised, by the way, such a knowledgeable judge in this case as I. M. Sechenov. "

Award of the Nobel Prize.

However, fortune soon smiled on Ivan Petrovich. On April 23, 1890, he was elected to the post of professor of pharmacology at Tomsk, and after that at Warsaw universities. But Ivan Petrovich did not move to either Tomsk or Warsaw, since on April 24, 1890 he was elected professor of pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy itself (the former Military Surgical Academy). The scientist occupied this position for five years, before moving to the department of physiology of the same academy, which became vacant after the departure of Professor I.R. Tarkhanov. Ivan Petrovich unchangingly headed this department for three decades, successfully combining a brilliant pedagogical activity with an interesting, albeit limited in scope, research work, first on the physiology of the digestive system, and later on the physiology of conditioned reflexes.

An important event in the life and scientific activity of Pavlov was the beginning of work at the newly established Institute of Experimental Medicine. In 1891, the patron of this institute, Prince of Oldenburg, invited Pavlov to organize and lead the Department of Physiology. The scientist headed this department until the end of his life. Here, Pavlov's classical works on the physiology of the main digestive glands, which brought him worldwide fame and were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904 (this was the first prize awarded for research in the field of medicine), as well as a significant part of his works on conditioned reflexes, immortalized the name of Pavlov and glorified domestic science.

In 1901 I. N. Pavlov was elected a corresponding member, and in 1907 a full member of the Academy of Sciences. It is impossible not to note one feature of Pavlov's pre-revolutionary life path: almost all of his achievements in science received official recognition government agencies much later than their recognition by the advanced scientific community of the country and abroad. At a time when the tsarist minister did not approve the election of Pavlov as a professor of physiology at Tomsk University, I. M. Sechenov, K. Ludwig, R. Heidenhain and others already considered him an outstanding physiologist, Pavlov became a professor only at the age of 46, and an academician only three years after he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Within a short period of time, he was elected a member of the academies of several countries and an honorary doctorate of many universities.

The election of Pavlov as a professor at the Military Medical Academy, work at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, election to the Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Prize significantly improved the financial situation of his family. Shortly after these events, the Pavlovs moved into a large apartment. The windows overlooked a sunny square, in the high large rooms there was a lot of air and light.

But the conditions of Ivan Petrovich's scientific work and the attitude of influential tsarist officials towards it remained unfavorable in many respects. Pavlov was especially keenly aware of the need for permanent employees. In the department of physiology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, which served as the main base of his research work, he had only two full-time researcher, in the wretched laboratory of the Academy of Sciences - one, and even that Pavlov paid from personal funds, at the Department of Physiology of the Military Medical Academy, their number was also very limited. The Minister of War and the leaders of the academy, especially Professor V.V. Pashutin, were then extremely hostile to Pavlov. They were irritated by his democratism, constant resistance to the arbitrariness of tsarist officials in relation to progressive professors, students and students of the academy. Pavlov constantly carried the charter of the academy in his pocket in order to use it in his struggle if necessary.

All sorts of intrigues against Pavlov, the great physiologist of the Russian land, as the whole world considered him, according to K. A. Timiryazev, did not stop until the establishment of Soviet power. Although Pavlov's world authority forced the official authorities to treat him with hypocritical courtesy, the defense of dissertations by Ivan Petrovich's employees often failed, his students were hardly confirmed in ranks and positions. It was not easy for Pavlov to leave his most talented students at the department after graduating from the academy and to secure scientific trips for them to foreign laboratories. Pavlov himself was also not approved for a long time in the rank of an ordinary professor, he, one of all the heads of the theoretical departments of the academy, was not given a state-owned apartment / The enemies of the scientist constantly set noble hypocrites on him, yelling about the sinfulness of scientific experiments on animals, they also voted his candidacy for re-election to the post of chairman of the Society of Russian Doctors, despite the great work done by Pavlov in this society, etc.

With its authority, outstanding scientific achievements, fiery patriotism, democratic views I. P. Pavlov attracted young science enthusiasts like a magnet. In his laboratories, research was carried out, many students of the Military Medical Academy, specialists seconded to the Institute of Experimental Medicine, as well as doctors from different parts of the country and from abroad got acquainted with the methods of operations developed by the scientist, experimental methods, etc. Among them were American scientists F. Benedict and I. Kellogg, English - W. Thompson and E. Cathcart, German - V. Gross, O. Kongheim and G. Nicolai, Japanese R. Satake, X. Ishikawa, Belgian Van de Pyut , Swiss neurologist M. Minkovsky, Bulgarian doctor L. Pochinkov and others.

Many domestic and foreign specialists worked under the guidance of a talented physiologist without monetary compensation. True, such employees changed quite often, and this greatly prevented Pavlov from systematically conducting scientific research on a large scale. Nevertheless, enthusiastic volunteers helped a lot in implementing the ideas of the scientist.

As noted above, the position of scientific institutions led by Pavlov was also difficult. Not surprisingly, the scientist has repeatedly addressed the public and educational societies with a call for private support, his laboratories. Such assistance was sometimes provided. For example, thanks to a subsidy from the Moscow philanthropist K. Ledentsov, it was possible to begin construction of the famous "tower of silence" of a special laboratory for studying conditioned reflex activity in dogs. Only after the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the attitude towards Pavlov and his activities changed radically.

Pavlov and Soviet power.

Already in the first years of Soviet power, when our country was experiencing famine and devastation, V. I. Lenin issued a special decree testifying to the exceptionally warm, caring attitude Bolshevik Party and Soviet Government to IP Pavlov and his work. The decision noted "The exceptional scientific merits of Academician I.P. Pavlov, which have great value for workers around the world"; a special commission headed by L. M. Gorky was instructed "in the shortest possible time to create the most favorable conditions for ensuring the scientific work of Academician Pavlov and his staff"; the relevant state organizations were asked to "print the scientific work prepared by Academician Pavlov in a luxurious edition", "to provide Pavlov and his wife with a special ration". AT short term the best conditions were created for the scientific research of the great scientist. The construction of the "tower of silence" was completed at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of I.P. Pavlov, the physiological laboratory of the Academy of Sciences was reorganized into the Physiological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now named after Pavlov), and on the occasion of his 80th world scientific institution of this kind, nicknamed "the capital of conditioned reflexes."

Pavlov's long-standing dream of an organic connection between theory and practice was also realized: clinics for nervous and mental diseases were formed at his institutes. All led by him scientific institutions were equipped with the latest equipment. The number of permanent scientific and scientific-technical employees has increased tenfold. In addition to the usual, large budget funds, the scientist was given significant amounts every month to spend at his own discretion. The regular publication of scientific works of Pavlov's laboratory began.

Pavlov could not even dream of such care under the tsarist regime. The attention of the Soviet government was dear to the heart of the great scientist, he repeatedly emphasized this with a feeling of great gratitude even in the years when he himself was still reserved about new social orders in our country. Very revealing is his letter of 1923 to one of his students, B.P. Babkin. Pavlov wrote, in particular, that his work had acquired a large scale, that he had a lot of employees and that he could not accept everyone in his laboratory. The ideal opportunities created by the Soviet government for expanding Pavlov's research amazed many foreign scientists and public figures who visited the Soviet Union and visited the scientific institutions of the great physiologist.

Thus, John Barcroft, a famous English scientist, wrote in the journal Nature: “Perhaps the most striking fact of the last years of Pavlov’s life is the enormous prestige that he enjoyed in his homeland. All such primitive statements that Pavlov owed his exalted position to the fact that the materialistic direction of his work on conditioned reflexes served as a support for atheism , seem unfair both to Pavlov himself and to Soviet power.As culture discards the supernatural, it begins to more and more regard man as the highest subject of human knowledge, and nature as his mental activity and its fruits as subjects of the highest phase of the science of man. Such research is treated with the greatest attention in the Soviet Union.The astonishing collections of Scythian and Iranian art in the Hermitage in Leningrad would never have been so cherished if they were not monuments of development. human thought. Thanks to the accidents of fate, it happened that the life of the person who did more than anyone else for the experimental analysis of mental activity coincided in time and place with the culture that exalted human mind" ". The American scientist W. Capiop recalled: "In last time I saw Pavlov in Leningrad and Moscow at meetings of the congress in 1935. He was then 86 years old, and he still retained much of his former mobility and vital energy. Unforgettable is the day spent with him in the vicinity of Leningrad, in the huge new buildings of the institute, built by the Soviet government to continue Pavlov's experimental work. During our conversation, Pavlov sighed and expressed regret that such grandiose opportunities were not provided to him 20 years ago. If it were possible to turn back time, then he, Pavlov, would be 66 years old, and this is the age when scientists are usually already moving away from active work!

H. G. Wells, who visited Pavlov's laboratory in Koltushi in 1934, wrote: "Research carried out at Pavlov's new physiological institute near Leningrad is one of the most significant biological research in the world. This institute is already operating and continues to expand rapidly under the leadership of its founder. Pavlov's reputation contributes to prestige Soviet Union, and he gets everything he needs; You have to give credit to the government for that." Pavlov lived and worked surrounded by popular love. Celebrating the 85th anniversary of the great scientist, Soviet government allocated large funds for the further development of his research work. The greeting of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR said: "To Academician I.P. Pavlov. On the day of your 85th birthday, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR sends you warm greetings and congratulations. The Council of People's Commissars especially notes your inexhaustible energy in scientific work, the success of which deservedly brought your name among the classics of natural science.

The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR wishes you health, cheerfulness and fruitful work for many years to come for the benefit of our great motherland."

The scientist was touched and excited by such an attentive and warm attitude of the Soviet authorities towards his scientific activity. Pavlov, who under the tsarist regime was constantly in need of funds for scientific work, was now worried: would he be able to justify the care and trust of the government and the colossal funds allocated for research? He spoke about this not only to his entourage, but also publicly. So, speaking at a reception hosted by the Soviet government in the Kremlin for delegates to the XV International Congress of Physiologists (M.-L., 1935), Pavlov said: "We, the leaders of scientific institutions, are directly in anxiety and concern about whether we will be able to justify all the funds that the government provides us."

Death great scientist.

"I want to live long, - Pavlov said, - because my laboratories are flourishing like never before. The Soviet government gave millions for my scientific work, for the construction of laboratories. I want to believe that measures to encourage workers in physiology, and I still remain a physiologist, will achieve their goal, and my science will especially flourish on my native soil.

The brilliant naturalist was in his 87th year when his life ended. Pavlov's death came as a complete surprise to everyone. Despite his advanced age, he was physically very strong, burned with seething energy, relentlessly created, made plans with enthusiasm further work II, of course, thought least of all about death... In a letter to I.M. I still have my confidence to live to be 100. To this day, the tail of it remains, although to this day I do not allow changes in the distribution and size of my studies.

Before telling about the sad circumstances of the death of I.P. Pavlov, we note that he generally had very good health and rarely fell ill. True, Ivan Petrovich was somewhat prone to colds and had pneumonia several times in his life. Perhaps the fact that Pavlov walked very quickly and at the same time sweated profusely played a certain role in this. According to the testimony (Seraphim Vasilievna, a scientist, seeing this as the reason frequent colds, starting in 1925, after another illness with pneumonia, he stopped wearing a winter coat and went all winter in an autumn one. And, indeed, after that, the colds stopped for a long time. In 1935, he caught a cold again and fell ill with pneumonia. As usual, Pavlov, this time too, did not immediately turn to the doctors, the disease took on a very dangerous character; it took undue effort to save the scientist's life. After his illness, he recovered so much that he went to England, led the organization and conduct of the XV International Congress of Physiologists, visited his native Ryazan and, after a long separation, saw places dear to his heart, relatives and peers.

However, Ivan Petrovich's health was no longer the same as before: he looked unhealthy, quickly got tired and did not feel well. A heavy blow for Pavlov was the illness and quick death of his youngest son Vsevolod (autumn 1935). As Serafima Vasilievna writes, after this misfortune, Ivan Petrovich's legs began to swell. In response to her concern about this, Pavlov only chuckled and said: “It is you who needs to take care of your bad heart, and my heart works well. Don’t think, I want to live longer, more and take care of my health. and they find that my organism is still working like a young man's.'' Meanwhile, the general weakness of his organism was intensifying.

On February 22, 1936, during another trip to the scientific town of Koltushi, the beloved "capital of conditioned reflexes", Ivan Petrovich again caught a cold and fell ill with pneumonia. An experienced Leningrad doctor M. M. Bok on the very first day of illness established the presence of inflammation of the large and medium bronchial tracts. Soon, large medical forces of the country were mobilized for the treatment of Pavlov: the Leningrad professor M.K. Chernorutsky and the famous Moscow therapist D.D. Pletnev. Until the night of February 25-26, the course of Pavlov's illness did not cause much alarm, there were even some signs of an improvement in his state of health. However, he spent that night restlessly, the patient's pulse quickened, bilateral pneumonia began to develop, covering the entire lower lobes of both lungs, hiccups and extrasystoles appeared. The pulse rate steadily increased. Ivan Petrovich was in a semiconscious state. The well-known neuropathologist M. P. Nikitin, who was called for a consultation, did not find any changes in the activity of the nervous system. By the evening of February 26, doctors noted the further spread of pneumonia, a drop in temperature, and a weakening of cardiac activity. At about 10 p.m. Pavlov fell into a state of collapse, from which the doctors brought him out with great difficulty. Re-collapse at 2 hours 45 minutes. February 27 turned out to be fatal.

With modern effective medicines - antibiotics and sulfa drugs, it would probably be possible to cure the scientist. The then means of combating pneumonia, applied, moreover, not immediately after the onset of the disease, turned out to be powerless to save IP Pavlov's life so dear to all mankind. February 27, she went out forever.

"Ivan Petrovich himself- recalled Serafima Vasilievna, - didn't expect such a quick end. All these days he joked with his granddaughters and talked cheerfully with those around him. Pavlov dreamed, and sometimes told his collaborators, that he would live at least a hundred years, and only in the last years of his life would he leave laboratories to write memoirs about what he had seen on his long life path.

Shortly before his death, Ivan Petrovich began to worry about the fact that sometimes he forgets the right words and pronounces others, makes some movements involuntarily. The penetrating mind of a brilliant researcher flashed for the last time: "Excuse me, but this is a bark, this is a bark, this is a swelling of the bark!" he said excitedly. The autopsy confirmed the correctness of this, alas, the last guess of the scientist about the brain - the presence of edema of the cortex of his own powerful brain. By the way, it also turned out that the vessels of Pavlov's brain were almost not affected by sclerosis.

The death of IP Pavlov was a great grief not only for the Soviet people, but for all progressive mankind. Gone big man and a great scientist who created an entire era in the development of physiological science. The coffin with the body of the scientist was exhibited in the great hall of the Uritsky Palace. Not only Leningraders came to say goodbye to the illustrious son of Russia, but also numerous envoys from other cities of the country. In the guard of honor at the coffin of Pavlov stood his orphaned students and followers. Accompanied by thousands of people, the coffin with the body of Pavlov on a gun carriage was delivered to the Volkovskoye cemetery, IP Pavlov was buried near the grave of the outstanding Russian scientist D. I. Mendeleev. Our party, the Soviet government and the people have done everything so that the deeds and name of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov live for centuries.

Many scientific institutes and higher educational institutions have been named after the great physiologist, monuments have been erected to him, complete collection of his writings and individual works in Russian and foreign languages, valuable scientific materials from his handwritten fund, collections of memoirs of Soviet and foreign scientists about him, a collection of his correspondence with prominent domestic and foreign figures of science and culture, a chronicle of his life and work, a large number of individual brochures and books dedicated to his life and scientific work, new scientific institutions were organized for the further development of the richest scientific heritage I. P. Pavlov, including the largest Moscow Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, established a prize and a gold medal named after him, created a special periodical "Journal of Higher Nervous Activity named after Academician I. P. Pavlov", are regularly convened special all-Union conferences on higher nervous activity.

Bibliography:

1. Yu.P. Frolov. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Memoirs, Publishing House of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, Moscow, 1949.
2. PC. Anokhin. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Life, activity and scientific school. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow, 1949.
3. E.A. Hasratyan. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. life, creativity, state of the art teachings. Publishing house "Nauka", Moscow, 1981.
4. I.P. Pavlov in the memoirs of his contemporaries. L .: Nauka, 1967.

An outstanding Russian physiologist, the discoverer of the conditioned reflex. The first domestic scientist awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Corresponding member (1901), academician (1907) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy Sciences (1917), Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1925).

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14 (26), 1849 in the family of Pyotr Dmitrievich Pavlov (1823-1899), a priest of the Nikolo-Vysokovskaya Church in.

In 1860-1864, IP Pavlov studied at the Ryazan Theological School, in 1864-1870 - at the Ryazan Theological Seminary. In 1870 he moved to and until 1875 studied at St. Petersburg University (first at law school, then - at the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics). He graduated from the university with a PhD in natural sciences.

After graduating from the university in 1875, I.P. Pavlov entered the 3rd year of the Medical-Surgical Academy (since 1881 - the Military Medical Academy), which he graduated in 1879 with a gold medal and began working in the physiological laboratory of the clinic S.P. Botkin, conducting research on the physiology of blood circulation.

In 1883, I. P. Pavlov defended his doctoral dissertation "On the centrifugal nerves of the heart." In 1884-1886, the scientist went on a business trip abroad to improve his knowledge in Breslau (now Wroclaw in Poland) and Leipzig (Germany), where he trained in the laboratories of the leading German physiologists of that time R. Heidenhain and K. Ludwig.

In 1890, I.P. Pavlov was elected professor and head of the department of pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy, and in 1896 - head of the department of physiology, which he led until 1924. At the same time (since 1890), IP Pavlov was in charge of the physiological laboratory at the then organized Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine.

In 1901, IP Pavlov was elected a corresponding member, and in 1907 a full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In 1904, IP Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for many years of research into the mechanisms of digestion.

From 1925 until the end of his life, IP Pavlov headed the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

IP Pavlov was elected a member and an honorary member of many foreign academies, universities and societies. In 1935, at the XV International Congress of Physiologists, for many years of scientific work, he was awarded the honorary title of "Elder Physiologists of the World" (neither before nor after I.P. Pavlov, not a single scientist was awarded such an honor).

I. P. Pavlov died on February 27, 1936. He was buried at the Literary bridges of the Volkovsky cemetery.

In the course of his research activity, I. P. Pavlov introduced into practice a chronic experiment, which makes it possible to study the activity of a practically healthy organism. With the help of the method of conditioned reflexes developed by him, he was able to establish that the basis of mental activity is the physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. IP Pavlov's research in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity had a great influence on the development of physiology, medicine, psychology and pedagogy.