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1. Characteristics of information collection methods

Observation Method

Observation in social psychology is a method of collecting information through direct, purposeful and systematic perception and registration of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural or laboratory conditions.

The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods. Classic examples-- the study of the life of tramps N. Anderson, the work of U, White on the study of the life of emigrants. V, B. Olshansky on the study of value orientations among young workers (G, M. Andreeva, 1972). The method of observation is also carried out in order to collect preliminary research material, as well as to control the empirical data obtained.

The classification of observation is made on various grounds:

Depending on the degree of standardization of the observation technique, it is customary to distinguish two main varieties of this method: standardized and non-standardized observation.

The standardized technique assumes the presence of a developed list of signs to be observed, the definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for the observer, uniform codifiers for registering observed phenomena. Data collection in this case involves their subsequent processing and analysis by means of mathematical statistics. The most famous observation schemes are IPA methods, R. Bales' SYMLOG (M. A. Rober, F. Tilman, 1988), L. Carter's leadership observation scheme, fixations non-verbal behavior P. Ekman and others.

A non-standardized observation technique determines only general directions of observation, where the result is recorded in a free form, directly at the moment of perception or from memory. The data of this technique are usually presented in a free form, it is also possible to systematize them using formal procedures.

Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, there are included (participating) and non-included (simple) observations.

Participant observation involves the interaction of the observer with the group being studied as a full member of it. The researcher imitates his entry into social environment, adapts to it and observes the events in it as if "from the inside". Exist different types included observation, depending on the degree of awareness of the members of the study group about the goals and objectives of the researcher (V. E. Semenov, 1987; A. A. Ershov, 1977; G. M. Andreeva, 1972).

Non-included observation registers events "from the outside", without interaction and establishing relationships with the person or group being studied. Observation can be carried out in an open way and incognito, when the observer masks his actions (L. A. Petrovskaya, 1977). The main disadvantage of participant observation is related to the impact on the observer (his perception and analysis) of the values ​​and norms of the group under study. The researcher risks losing the necessary neutrality and objectivity in the selection, evaluation and interpretation of data. Common Mistakes: reduction of impressions and their simplification, their banal interpretation, reconstruction of events to the average, loss of the "middle" of events, etc. In addition, labor intensity and organizational complexity cause serious problems this method.

According to the organization condition, observations are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (observations under experimental conditions). The objects of observation are individual people, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes taking place in them, for example, panic. The subject of observation is usually the verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a certain social situation. The most typical verbal and non-verbal characteristics include: speech acts(their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touches, pushes, blows, joint actions, etc. (V.A. Labunskaya, 1986). Sometimes the observer captures the events taking place using generalized traits, qualities of a person or the most typical tendencies of his behavior, for example, dominance, submission, friendliness, analyticity, expressiveness, etc. (R. Bales, 1979). The question of the content of an observation is always specific and depends on the purpose of the observation and the theoretical position of the researcher regarding the phenomenon under study. the main task the researcher at the stage of organization of observation - to determine in which acts of behavior that are accessible to observation and fixation, the psychological phenomenon or property of interest to him is manifested, and to choose the most significant, most fully and reliably characterizing its signs. The selected characteristics of behavior (observation units) and their codifiers constitute the so-called "observation scheme" (see R. Bales' scheme). The complexity or simplicity of the observation scheme affects the reliability of the method. The reliability of the scheme depends on the number of observation units (the fewer there are, the more reliable it is); their specificity (the more abstract the attribute, the more difficult it is to fix it); the complexity of the conclusions that the observer comes to when classifying the identified features. The reliability of the observation scheme is usually tested by data control by other observers, as well as other methods (eg, use of similar observation schemes, peer review) and repeated observation. The results of the observation are recorded in accordance with a specially prepared observation protocol. The following methods of registration of observational data are most common: descriptive (factual), involving the fixation of all cases of manifestation of units of observation; evaluative - when the manifestation of signs is not only recorded, but also evaluated using an intensity scale and a time scale (for example, the duration of an act of behavior). The results of observation should be subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis and interpretation. Methods for processing observation data include methods of classification and grouping, content analysis, etc.

The main disadvantages of the method are:

high subjectivity in data collection, introduced by the observer (effects of halo, contrast, condescension, modeling, etc.) and observed (the effect of the presence of the observer);

predominantly qualitative nature of the conclusions of the observation;

relative limitations in generalizing the results of the study.

Ways to improve the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means fixing data, training the observer, minimizing the effect of the presence of the observer (V.E. Semenov. 1987; A.A. Ershov, 1977).

Poll method

A very common method in socio-psychological research. The essence of the method is to obtain information about objective or subjective (opinions, moods, motives, attitudes, etc.) facts from the words of the respondents. Among the many types of surveys, two main types are most common: a) a face-to-face survey - an interview, a face-to-face interview conducted by a researcher in the form of questions and answers with the respondent (respondent); b) correspondence survey - questioning with the help of a questionnaire (questionnaire) intended for self-completion by the respondents themselves.

F. Galton was the first to use the survey method in psychology in order to study the origin of mental qualities and the conditions for the development of scientists. The pioneers of its application in psychology are also S. Hall, A. Binet, G. M. Andreeva, E. Noel. Scope of the survey in social psychology:

in the early stages of the study, to collect preliminary information or pilot testing of methodological tools;

survey as a means of clarifying, expanding and controlling data;

as the main method of collecting empirical information.

The specifics of the use of a survey in social psychology is related to the following:

in social psychology, the survey is not the main methodological tool, for example, in comparison with sociology;

the survey is generally not used for sample surveys;

applied as a continuous survey on real social groups;

most often carried out in person;

in a socio-psychological study, the questionnaire is not just a questionnaire, but a complex of special techniques and methods (scales, associative techniques, tests, etc.) for studying an object, etc. (A. L. Zhuravlev, 1995).

The source of information during the survey is the verbal or written judgment of the interviewed person. The depth, completeness of the answers, their reliability depend on the ability of the researcher to correctly build the design of the questionnaire. There are special techniques and rules for conducting a survey aimed at ensuring the reliability and reliability of information: determining the representativeness of the sample and motivation for participating in the survey; construction of questions and composition of the questionnaire; conducting a survey (V. A. Yadov, 1995; G. M. Andreeva, 1972; A. L. Sventsitsky, 1977; E. Noel, 1978).

Interview.

The main types of interviews in socio-psychological research are standardized and non-standardized interviews. In the first case, the interview assumes the existence of standard wording of questions and their sequence, determined in advance. In this case, the researcher does not have the opportunity to change them. The non-standardized interview methodology is characterized by flexibility and wide variation. At the same time, the interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the survey, formulating questions in accordance with specific situation and respondent's responses. Conversational technique is essential to successful interviewing. It requires the interviewer to be able to establish close contact with the respondent, to interest him in a sincere conversation, to “actively” listen, to master the skills of setting and registering answers, to overcome the “resistance” of the interviewee. At the same time, the interviewer should avoid imposing (“prompting”) the interviewee possible option answer, to exclude the subjective interpretation of his statement. The difficulty of conducting an interview is related to the task of maintaining the necessary depth of contact with the respondent throughout the conversation.

There are also other types of interviews, for example, focused, therapeutic, etc. Each of listed species the interview is characterized by certain restrictions on the purposes of application and the nature of the information received.

It is customary to single out the key phases of the interview: establishing contact, the main and completing the interview.

Criteria for the effectiveness of the interview: completeness (breadth) - it should allow the interviewee to cover as fully as possible various aspects the problem under discussion; specificity (concreteness) - it should provide accurate answers for each aspect of the problem that is significant for the questioned aspect; depth (personal meaning) - it must reveal the emotional, cognitive and value aspects of the respondent's attitude to the situation under discussion; personal context - the interview is designed to reveal the characteristics of the personality of the interviewee and his life experience(R. Merton, 1986).

Conversation is one of the methods of psychology, providing for the direct or indirect receipt of information through verbal communication. It is organized in order to clarify the individual characteristics of a person (motivational and emotional spheres, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, attitudes towards the environment, towards the team, etc.). The conversation is combined with other methods of psychological and pedagogical research: with observation, questioning, experiment, etc.

Research by the method of conversation provides for the presence general plan, as a rule, which does not include specific questions (unlike questionnaires and questionnaires), highlighting the main topics and provisions that must be addressed in order to obtain the desired result. Preparing the interview involves selecting targeted and supportive questions that the experimenter intends to ask during the interview. Supporting questions help to keep the conversation going, keep the conversation going, and target questions are needed to clarify the research problem. The questions selected for the conversation form a list called a questionnaire.

The effectiveness of the conversation largely depends on the experience of the researcher (teacher, experimenter), the degree of his pedagogical and psychological preparation, the level of his theoretical knowledge from the art of conversation. When organizing a conversation, the psychologist needs the ability to make contact with the client, the ability to maintain the desired direction of the conversation. It is impossible not to take into account the personal qualities and abilities of the person involved in the conversation. Whether he is secretive or frank, gullible or suspicious, excited or depressed - all this affects both the course and the effectiveness of the conversation.

The wording of individual moments of the conversation is constructed in such a way that the desired signs can be judged not only by direct judgments (statements) of the subject (not always sincere and objective), but also by indirect indicators (use of examples and details, comments, facial expressions, emotional reactions and etc.). The course and content of the conversation are recorded (for example, using a voice recorder, tape recorder, video filming).

To use the method of conversation, the researcher, the experimenter must have sufficient experience and tact to minimize errors due to their own attitudes, and also take into account the impact on the course of the conversation of a number of indirect factors: emotional and physical state researcher, his attitude to the researcher and directly to the conversation, the influence of factors of the situation, time, etc.

The results obtained by the conversation method are not amenable to formalization and statistical processing. According to them, it is possible only in a general way to judge the severity of the trait under study. The results of the conversation in a comprehensive study are preliminary and should be compared with the results of other methods, such as observation, experiment, etc.

Types of conversation

Conversations differ depending on the psychological task pursued. There are the following types:

1) Therapeutic conversation

2) Experimental conversation (in order to test experimental hypotheses)

3) Autobiographical conversation

4) Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject)

5) Collecting an objective anamnesis (collecting information about acquaintances of the subject)

Types of conversations (according to another classification):

1) casual conversation

2) interview,

3) questionnaires,

4) psychological questionnaires.

Distinguish between managed and unmanaged form of conversation. A guided conversation is conducted on the initiative of a psychologist, he determines and maintains the main topic of the conversation. An uncontrolled conversation often occurs at the initiative of the respondent, and the psychologist only uses the information received in research purposes.

In a controlled conversation, which serves to collect information, the inequality of the positions of the interlocutors is clearly manifested. The psychologist has the initiative in conducting the conversation, he determines the topic and asks the first questions. The respondent usually answers them. The asymmetry of communication in this situation can reduce the confidence of the conversation. The respondent begins to "close", deliberately distort the information he reports, simplify and schematize answers down to monosyllabic statements like "yes-no".

Guided conversation is not always effective. Sometimes an unmanaged form of conversation is more productive. Here the initiative passes to the respondent, and the conversation can take on the character of a confession. This kind of conversation is typical for psychotherapeutic and advisory practice when the client needs to "talk out". In this case, such a specific ability of the psychologist as the ability to listen acquires special significance.

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

1) Reflective listening - a style of conversation that involves active speech interaction psychologist and respondent.

Reflective listening is used to accurately control the correctness of the perception of the information received. The use of this style of conversation may be associated with personality traits respondent (eg. low level development of communication skills), the need to establish the meaning of the word that the speaker had in mind, cultural traditions(etiquette of communication in cultural environment to which the respondent and the psychologist belong).

Four basic techniques for maintaining a conversation and controlling the information received:

A) Clarification (using clarifying questions)

B) Paraphrasing (formulation of what the respondent said in his own words)

C) Verbal reflection by the psychologist of the respondent's feelings

D) Summary

2) Non-reflective listening- a style of conversation that uses only the minimum necessary words and techniques from the point of view of expediency non-verbal communication by the psychologist.

Non-reflexive listening is used in cases where there is a need to let the subject speak out. It is especially useful in situations where the interlocutor shows a desire to express his point of view, discuss topics of concern to him, and where he has difficulty expressing problems, is easily confused by the intervention of a psychologist, and behaves enslavedly due to the difference in social position between the psychologist and the respondent.

The types of surveys are divided according to the number of respondents (individual and group), according to the place of conducting, according to the method of distribution of questionnaires (handout, mail, press). Among the most significant shortcomings of the distribution, and especially mail and press surveys, are the low percentage of return of questionnaires, the lack of control over the quality of filling out the questionnaires, the use of only questionnaires that are very simple in structure and volume.

The preference for the type of survey is determined by the objectives of the study, its program, and the level of knowledge of the issue. The main advantage of questionnaires is associated with the possibility of mass coverage. a large number respondents and their professional accessibility. The information received in the interview is more meaningful and deep in comparison with the questionnaire. However, the disadvantage is, first of all, the difficultly controlled influence of the individual and professional level interviewer to interviewee, which can lead to a distortion of the objectivity and reliability of information.

A psychological test is a standardized task, the results of which are used to judge psychophysiological and personal characteristics, knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

Psychological tests are needed in order to find out something about the person who will pass them. The signs of such tests are: short duration, standardization, does not require complex technical devices, the results are a number, statistical processing.

Tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, but are widely used to diagnose different groups, interpersonal, intergroup and other types of interaction, social perception, socio-psychological personality traits (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.).

The test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test. With the help of tests in social psychology, interindividual, intergroup differences are determined. On the one hand, it is believed that tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, and all methodological standards adopted in general psychology are also valid for social psychology (GM Andreeva, 1995). On the other hand, a wide range of used socio-psychological methods for diagnosing an individual and a group, intergroup interaction allows us to talk about tests as an independent tool. empirical research(V.E. Semenov, 1977: M.V. Kroz, 1991). Areas of application of tests in social psychology: diagnostics of groups, the study of interpersonal and intergroup relations and social perception, socio-psychological properties of a person (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.). The testing procedure involves the performance by the subject (group of subjects) of a special task or obtaining answers to a number of questions that are indirect in tests. The point of post-processing is to use a "key" to correlate the received data with certain evaluation parameters, for example, with personality characteristics. Final result measurement is expressed as a test score. Test scores are relative. Their diagnostic value is usually determined by correlation with the normative indicator obtained statistically on a significant number of subjects. The main methodological problem of measurement in social psychology with the help of tests is the definition of a normative (basic) assessment scale in the diagnosis of groups. It is associated with the systemic, multifactorial nature of socio-psychological phenomena and their dynamism. The classification of tests can be based on several grounds: according to the main object of research (intergroup, interpersonal, personal), according to the subject of research (tests of compatibility, group cohesion, etc.), according to the structural features of the methods (questionnaires, instrumental, projective tests), according to the starting point of evaluation (methods of peer review, preferences, subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships) (G.T. Khomentauskas, 1987; V.A. Yadov, 1995). Among the most famous tests socio-psychological diagnostics, it is necessary to indicate the test of interpersonal diagnostics by T. Leary (L.N. Sobchik, 1981), the V. Schutz compatibility scale (A.A. Rukavishnikov, 1992), the method of evaluative bipolarization F. Fidler (I.P. Volkov, 1977), etc.

Projective tests

Methods aimed at the study of personality and developed within the framework of a projective diagnostic approach. Based on the interpretation of the subject's projections on the stimulus material. Traditionally, projective tests are among the most reliable.

1) Method of color choices. Adapted version color test Luscher.

2) Method "Aggressiveness". Modification of the Rosenzweig test.

3) Methodology "Sentence Completion" (for egocentrism).

4) Projective technique "Completion of the judgment" (to identify the propensity of the subject to a contemplative or active lifestyle).

5) The projective technique "My Holidays" (for diagnosing the emotional orientation of a person, his value sphere. It is intended for professional use by a psychologist in the process of psychological counseling, psychodiagnostics).

6) Projective technique "Three trees". The psychologist asks the child to draw on a standard sheet of A4 paper, which is horizontal, “any three trees” ...

7) Test "House-Tree-Man". This one is one of the most famous projective technique personality research was proposed by J. Book in 1948. The test is intended for both adults and children, a group examination is possible.

8) Test "Non-existent animal". Personality research method using projective test"Non-existent animal" is built on the theory of psychomotor connection. To register the state of the psyche, the study of motor skills is used (in particular, the motor skills of the drawing dominant right hand, fixed in the form of a graphic trace of movement, drawing).

9) Test "What do your drawings say." Analysis of drawings that are made during boring meetings or just having nothing to do: different patterns in a notebook, on a piece of paper.

10) Test "Family Drawing". The purpose of applying this projective technique is to identify the features of intra-family relations. Tasks: based on the performance of the image, answers to questions, assess the features of the child's perception and experiences of family relations.

11) Sachs-Levy test. Analysis of the system of relations of the subject using the technique of completing sentences.

12) Hand test - a projective technique aimed at studying an aggressive attitude. The stimulus material consists of 9 images of hands and one blank card, when shown, they are asked to imagine a hand and describe its imaginary actions.

2 . Method of sociometry

The method of sociometry was developed by J. Moreno to study emotional and psychological relationships in a small group. The sociometric procedure involves a survey of each member of a small group in order to establish the possibility of his participation (or non-participation) in a certain type of joint activity or situation.

The non-parametric procedure in sociometry is carried out without limiting the number of preferences or deviations of group members. Parametric procedure implies a strictly fixed number of preferences or deviations, which makes it possible to standardize their conditions in groups of different sizes.

The results of using sociometry can be presented in the form of sociometry (tables), sociograms that graphically display the structure of relationships in a group, and sociometric indices that quantify psychological relations in a group. The reliability of sociometric data depends primarily on the strength of the sociometric criterion (question) as a basis for preferences or deviations of group members.

Among the well-known varieties of the sociometric method are the acceptability scale, autosociometry, communicometry, etc.

The most significant disadvantages of the sociometry method:

a) the impossibility of identifying the motives of interpersonal preferences or rejections;

b) high probability of distorting the results due to insincere answers or psychological protection;

c) the possibility of using only in groups with experience in group interaction.

Document analysis method

This method is a kind of product analysis methods. human activity. A document is any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic or photo media (V. A, Yadov, 1995). For the first time in social psychology, it was used as the main research method by W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky in the study of the phenomenon of social attitude (G. M. Andreeva, 1972; V. A, Yadov, 1995). Documents differ in the way information is recorded (handwritten, printed, film, photo, video documents), by intended purpose (targeted, natural), by the degree of personification (personal and impersonal), depending on the status of the document (official and unofficial).

Sometimes they are also divided according to the source of information into primary (documents based on direct registration of events) and secondary documents. The preference for one or another type of document as a carrier of socio-psychological information is determined based on the purpose of the study and the place of documents in the overall research program.

All methods of document analysis are divided into traditional (qualitative) and formalized (qualitative-quantitative).

At the heart of any method are the mechanisms of the process of understanding the text, i.e., the interpretation by the researcher of the information contained in the document. Quantitative methods for analyzing textual materials became widespread in the 1930s and 1940s in connection with the development of a special procedure called content analysis (literally, the term means content analysis).

Content analysis is a method of converting textual information into quantitative indicators with its subsequent statistical processing (A.N. Alekseev, 1973; V.E. Semenov, 1983; N.N. Bogomolova, 1979, 1991). The quantitative characteristics of the text obtained with the help of content analysis make it possible to draw conclusions about the qualitative, including the latent (not explicit) content of the text. In this regard, the method of content analysis is often referred to as a qualitative-quantitative analysis of documents. Its main procedures were developed by X. Lasswell, B. Berelson, C. Stone, C. Osgood and others. (A. Rybnikov, I. N. Shpilrein, etc.).

Basic units and procedures of content analysis. The content analysis procedure involves several stages: the selection of units of analysis (qualitative and quantitative), the preparation of a coding instruction, the pilot text coding, the coding of the entire array of texts under study and the calculation of the quantitative ratio of units of analysis in the studied text, as well as the interpretation of the data obtained. Qualitative (semantic) units:

indicators -- forms of expression of semantic units of analysis in the language of the text being studied.

For example, as semantic units for analyzing information (texts) about a political election campaign (programs, appeals, press publications, leaflets, etc.) the following are used: events, subjects of events ( political leaders, parties, officials, voters, etc.), their attitude to events (for - against, profitable - disadvantageous, good - bad), interests, positions, programs, goals and ways to achieve them, attitudes, value orientations, business and personal qualities of candidates, etc. The founder of this method, G. Lasswell, used a four-dimensional scheme for analyzing the text of newspapers: for himself (pro-x) - against himself (contra-x), for the enemy (pro-y) - against the enemy (contra-y).

The quantitative units of analysis include:

context units - parts of the text (sentence, answer to a question, paragraph of text), in which the frequency and volume of the use of categories are considered;

units of account and volume -- spatial, frequency, temporal characteristics of representation in the text of semantic units of analysis.

Quantitative information processing involves the use typical ways statistical analysis of data: distribution and frequency of occurrence of categories of analysis, correlation coefficients, etc. Special techniques have been developed for quantitative processing of content analysis data. The most famous are the coefficients of "joint occurrence" of categories, "associations", "favorability of assessment", " specific gravity» categories, etc. The main methodological difficulty of content analysis is finding in the text the appropriate semantic units of analysis of the phenomenon under study, as well as their adequate description. Procedures have been developed to justify the completeness of the identified units of analysis: the "snowball" method, the method of experts (judges), the method of independent criterion, etc. (V. A. Yadov, 1995). K.-a. applies:

if necessary, the accuracy and objectivity of the analysis of documents;

in the presence of a large volume of unsystematized material;

Content analysis can be used as an independent method, for example, in the study of the social attitudes of the audience of a particular body or subject of communication. However, more often and most successfully it is used in combination with other methods, such as observation, questioning, etc. The scope of k.-a. in social psychology: the study of the socio-psychological characteristics of communicators and recipients; study of socio-psychological phenomena reflected in the content of the document; study of the specifics of means of communication, forms and methods of organizing their content; study of socio-psychological aspects of communication impact. The specifics of the application of content analysis in each specific case is largely determined by the initial theoretical basis of the study. No other method in social psychology is as directly related to the purpose and theoretical concept of research as content analysis. This is explained by the fact that the basic concepts of the study are at the same time the categories of content analysis, with which the studied content of the text is correlated. The main task of content analysis is not only to reveal the real facts, events referred to in the text, but also moods, attitudes, feelings, and other socio-psychological phenomena. The content analysis technique is also used for auxiliary purposes as a data processing technique in a number of personality tests (TAT, achievement motivation tests, etc.), for processing and clarifying data obtained by other methods, such as questionnaires. The main disadvantage of the method lies in the complexity and laboriousness of the procedure and technique, which requires highly qualified encoders - analysts,

Experiment

An experiment in social psychology is a specially organized (in natural or artificial conditions) a procedure aimed at establishing causal relationships between the studied phenomena, at least one of which belongs to the category of socio-psychological (processes, states or properties).

Among specific signs socio-psychological experiment distinguish:

Artificial modeling of the studied socio-psychological phenomena or strict control of the natural conditions of the study, i.e., the creation of an experimental situation;

The active influence of the researcher on the phenomena being studied, the so-called variation of variables;

Measurement of the response forms of behavior of an individual or a group (subjects) to this impact;

The requirement for reproducibility of results, etc.

Depending on the conditions in which the experiment is organized, it is divided into laboratory and natural.

The experimental method is one of the most rigorous methods for obtaining empirical data, therefore the formation of social psychology as a science is largely due to the use of experiment in the study of socio-psychological phenomena. Classic studies of the group effect (i.e., the influence of the group on the behavior of the individual), carried out at the very beginning of the 20s. 20th century V. Mede in Germany, F. Allport in the USA and V. M. Bekhterev in Russia, actually laid the foundations of experimental social psychology.

The experimental method has become increasingly important in social psychology as it has developed, and the technique of this method has also improved. However, in social psychology, the experiment is criticized primarily for its low ecological validity, i.e., the difficulty of transferring the results and conclusions obtained in the experimental situation to the real life activity of the individual, and even more so of the group. Another problem is the difficulty of interpreting data obtained under artificial (laboratory) conditions.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

When working with a subject, it is necessary to observe the ethics of psychological research. In most cases, you need:

1) Obtain the consent of the potential subject, explaining to him the purpose and objectives of the study, his role in the experiment to the extent that he was able to make a responsible decision about his participation.

2) Protect the subject from harm and discomfort.

3) Take care of the confidentiality of information about the subjects.

4) Fully explain the meaning and results of the study after the end of the work.

Hardware method

This group of methods is a development experimental procedures studies of the socio-psychological characteristics of an individual, a small group and various social communities (audiences). The most well-known and widely used in social psychology are instrumental methods for studying various social psychological phenomena which are manifested in the conditions of group work. The design of instrumental methods and their classification are based on the following principles: technical (design features, functionality of the model, the ability to register various components of activity), general psychological and (inclusion of various mental processes into the simulated activity), socio-psychological (character, type, level of interconnectedness of actions when performing tasks). Based on these criteria, it is customary to single out the following groups of hardware models:

models for the comparative evaluation of individual contributions (Arch, Labyrinth, Overpass);

models of the total impact (Rhythmograph, Voluntograph);

models of multiply connected control of equilibrium in the system (Homeostat);

models of multi-connected control of a moving object (Kibernometer, Group sensorimotor integrator) (L. I. Umansky, 1977, A. S. Chernyshev, 1980, 1985; N. N. Obozov, 1977; V. Terekhin, 1988).

Despite the fact that all methods are constructively very conditional, they are considered

Group personality assessment method (GOL)

The group assessment method is a method of obtaining the characteristics of a person in a particular group on the basis of a mutual survey of its members about each other. The development of the method is associated with applied research in industrial and organizational psychology, where on its basis they try to solve the issues of selection and placement of personnel (E. S. Chugunova, 1986). This method allows you to assess the presence and degree of severity (development) psychological qualities human, which are manifested in behavior and activities, in interaction with other people. Wide application GOL for applied and research purposes is due to its simplicity and accessibility for users, the ability to diagnose those qualities of a person for which there is no reliable toolkit (tests, questionnaires), etc. Psychological basis GOL is a socio-psychological phenomenon of group ideas about each of the members of the group as a result of mutual knowledge of people by each other in the process of communication. At the methodological level, GOL is a statistical set of individual ideas (images), fixed in the form of assessments. Psychological entity method determines the boundaries of its practical application as a method of fixing some of the reflected personality traits, the level of manifestation of personality traits of the person being evaluated in a particular group. The procedure of the GOL method involves assessing a person according to a certain list of characteristics (qualities) using direct scoring, ranking, pairwise comparison, etc. The content of the assessment, i.e., the totality of the assessed qualities, depends on the purpose of using the data obtained. The number of qualities varies among different researchers in wide range from 20 to 180. Qualities can be grouped into separate semantic groups (for example, business and personal qualities). Other grounds for separation are also used (A. L. Zhuravlev, 1990; E. S. Chugunova, 1986). To obtain reliable results, the number of subjects of evaluation in the range of 7-12 people is recommended. The adequacy of measurement with the help of GOL depends on three points: the cognitive abilities of the subjects of assessment (experts); on the characteristics of the object of assessment; from the position (level, situation) of the interaction between the subject and the object of assessment (E. S. Chugunova, 1977, 1986).

sufficiently adequate to the nature of the studied socio-psychological phenomena. Usually the degree of efficiency and reliability of these methods is determined by the coincidence of the data obtained in the experiment with practice, with the results of applying other methods. These methods are applied in applied research when solving problems of diagnostics, acquisition and training of groups of small numbers.

3. Active methods of social psychological impact: content, orientation, types. Socio-psychological

psychology conversation information training

Active learning methods - teaching methods aimed at developing students' independent creative thinking and the ability to competently solve non-standard professional tasks. The purpose of training is not only to equip knowledge, skills and abilities to solve professional problems, but also to develop the ability to think, a culture of thinking creative activity. These methods are characterized by activity cognitive activity students, close connection between theory and practice, focus on mastering the dialectical method of analysis and solving complex problems, developed reflection, an atmosphere of cooperation and co-creation, assistance in mastering a productive style of thinking and activity.

Methods of active socio-psychological learning - methods of active learning, purposefully realizing the socio-psychological patterns of active learning activity of a student in an educational or other target group.

Emelyanov Yu.N. under the active group method is understood any way of the planned activation of communicative processes in the educational or target group (regardless of the content of the educational, cognitive, creative or psycho-corrective tasks set).

Active group methods Yu.N. Emelyanov proposes to combine conditionally into three main blocks: a) discussion methods (group discussion, analysis of incidents from practice, analysis of situations of moral choice, etc.); b) game methods: didactic and creative games, including business (management) games; role-playing games (behavioral learning, game psychotherapy, psychodramatic correction); counterplay (transactional method of understanding communicative behavior); c) sensitive training (training of interpersonal sensitivity and perception of oneself as a psychophysical unity).

S.V. Petrushin proposes to subdivide the main methods of active socio-psychological education into the main areas of psychology and singles out training groups, meeting groups, psychodrama, Gestalt psychotherapy.

The application of active socio-psychological learning methods is specified in the following tasks:

1. mastery of psychological, pedagogical and special knowledge (knowledge of the subject being studied);

2. formation of personal and professional skills and abilities, especially in the field of communication;

3. correction and development of attitudes necessary for successful activity and communication;

4. development of the ability to adequately and fully understand oneself and other people;

5. correction and development of the system of personality relations.

With active socio-psychological training, the leaders, to one degree or another, use all methods of psychological influence on the trainees: infection, suggestion, persuasion, imitation.

Contagion can be defined as the unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. It manifests itself not through the more or less conscious acceptance of some information or patterns of behavior, but through the transmission of a certain emotional state. Since this emotional state occurs in a mass of people, the mechanism of multiple mutual reinforcement of their emotional impact operates. The individual here does not experience organized deliberate pressure, he unconsciously learns patterns of someone's behavior, only obeying him. When infected big mass people experience a general mental state, in addition to speech influence, other means are used (exclamation, rhythms, etc.).

Suggestion is a purposeful, unreasoned influence of one person on another or on a group. With suggestion, the process of transmitting information is carried out, based on its non-critical perception. It is assumed that the person receiving the information, in the case of suggestion, is not capable of receiving it. critical appraisal. Suggestion causes a certain mental state, without the need for proof and logic, it is mainly an emotional-volitional influence. With suggestion, it is not agreement that is achieved, but simply the acceptance of information based on a ready conclusion.

Suggestion has a one-sided orientation - it is a personified, active influence of one person on another or on a group. In this case, the suggestion, as a rule, is verbal in nature. Children are more suggestible than adults; people who are tired, physically weaker than those who feel well. Experimental studies have revealed that the decisive condition for the effectiveness of suggestion is the authority of the suggestor (the person carrying out the suggestion), since it creates a special, trusting factor of influence - trust in the source of information. The authority of the suggestor performs the function of the so-called "indirect argumentation", a kind of compensator for the lack of direct argumentation, which is a specific feature of suggestion.

As a factor of suggestion, a given (or established) social attitude preceding perception in communication can be considered.

Persuasion is built on using rationale to achieve consent from the person receiving the information. When persuading, the conclusions of the person receiving the information are made independently. Persuasion is primarily an intellectual influence.

Imitation refers to the ways people influence each other in conditions of predominantly non-collective behavior, although its role in groups is also quite large. When imitation is carried out, it is not a simple acceptance of the external features of the behavior of another person or mass mental states, but the reproduction by the individual of traits and patterns of demonstrated behavior. As a result of imitation, group norms and values ​​are formed. It acts as a source of progress: periodically innovations are made in society, which are imitated by the masses. These discoveries and inventions subsequently enter the structure of society and are re-assimilated through involuntary imitation, regarded as a "kind of hypnotism."

Imitation in adults is observed, as a rule, in cases where there is no possibility to apply any other way of mastering an unfamiliar action. In this form, imitation is present as an element of mastering a skill, sometimes a rather elementary professional action.

In a group, imitation, more than contagion or suggestion, is included in the group context. Because the we are talking about the assimilation of the proposed patterns of behavior, then there are always two plans for imitation: either for a specific person, or for the norms of behavior developed by the group. In the latter case, the problem of imitation is closely connected with the problem of conformity, in other words, with the problem of group pressure on the individual.

The effectiveness of the influence of these methods of influence is largely determined by the authority of the leader for the trainees, the level of his professional and psychological competence.

4 . Socio-psychologicalcue training and its varieties

The term "training" (from the English train, training) has a number of meanings - "education, training, training, training." Group psychological training goes beyond these limits and is used, in the broadest sense, for the purposes of development, psycho-correction, training and diagnostics. N.Yu. Khryashchev and S.I. Makshanov present training as a multifunctional method of deliberate changes in the psychological phenomena of a person, group and organization in order to harmonize the professional and personal being of a person.

Training groups are usually understood as all specially created small groups, the participants of which, with the assistance of a leading psychologist, are included in a kind of experience of intensive communication and interaction, focused on solving various psychological problems of the participants, their self-improvement, as well as the development of the group and the solution of general group problems.

Socio-psychological training began to become widespread in domestic practice in the early 80s. L.A. Petrovskaya proposed under the single term "social-psychological training" to designate the practice of psychological influence based on active methods of group work.

The purpose of socio-psychological training is to increase competence in communication.

The main directions of development of group methods

socio-psychological work

Currently, the following are distinguished as the main approaches to the development of group psychological training.

humanist direction. The main subject of humanistic psychology is personality and its uniqueness, human experience of the world and awareness of one's place in it. The theory is based on the assumption that a person has an innate ability to achieve the full disclosure of his spiritual potential, to solve all his personality problems if he is in an optimal for him, friendly socio-psychological atmosphere.

One of the characteristic features of the classical humanistic trend is the most non-directive style of group management, which encourages participants to be active and take responsibility for what is happening.

Gestalt model. This direction was developed by F. Perls and his followers. In Gestalt therapy, an important place is given to the process of self-regulation of the body, leading to the formation of a holistic mental formation, a certain specific organization of parts, called gestalt. The central point of the theory is that everything happens here and now. The purpose of the group process is to expand the scope of each participant's awareness of himself, his individual characteristics, his awareness of self-identity and perfection, and the acceptance of personal responsibility for what is happening to him. The process of self-awareness by the participants can be compared to the “manifestation” of a person in a photograph and separation from an independent background. At the same time, the appeal is not so much to the consciousness, but to the feelings and aspirations of the participants.

psychodramatic approach. Psychodrama as a method of group work determines the enactment by the participants certain roles in simulated life situations that have personal meaning for them. The effectiveness of this method is largely based on the healing effect of group interaction. The creator of psychodrama, Jacob Moreno, believed that changes in a person can occur at different levels. Changing attitudes, beliefs can occur at the cognitive level using the techniques of suggestion, persuasion and acceptance.

transactional model. This direction is based on the concept of E. Berne about the various states of "I", which he called "Parent", "Adult", "Child". According to this concept, at each moment of time an individual exists in one of these states. It defines how a person thinks, feels and behaves.

Accordingly, his interaction with other people, as well as the interpretation of this interaction, occurs in different ways. The central point of the concept is the provision that many previously formed life scenarios can be "rewritten" in a more constructive way. The task is to recognize them, open them and reshape them.

behaviorally oriented groups. Behavioral training does not set global goals for personal development or the realization of human potential. They formulate their goals much more modestly and specifically. Usually these sessions are called training. life skills. Their task is to train participants to cope with specific problems and develop the ability to adapt to certain life circumstances. According to the postulates of behaviorism, in a simplified form, a person receives all experience through learning. Accordingly, in order to correct undesirable behavior, it is necessary to retrain it, having developed more effective behavior or more adaptive reactions. One of the typical techniques directly related to behaviorism is the rehearsal of the desired behavior. After modeling the desired behavior, the participant is invited to play it in the form of an exercise, episode or role-play. If successful, reinforcement follows in the form of a positive reaction from the group and the facilitator. To ensure a more successful transfer of the acquired skill to real life group members are invited to try it out as homework outside the group, followed by a discussion of the results in the next lesson.

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Table 1.1

Main method	Variant of the main method
Observation	External (from the side) Internal (self-monitoring) free Standardized Included third party
	Writing Free Standardized
	Test questionnaire Test task projective test
Experiment	Natural Laboratory
Modeling	Mathematical Technical Boolean Cybernetic

Observation has several options. outside surveillance is a way of collecting data about the psychology and behavior of a person by direct observation of him from the side. Internal Surveillance , or introspection, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind. Internally perceiving the corresponding phenomenon, the psychologist, as it were, observes it (for example, his images, feelings, thoughts, experiences) or uses similar data communicated to him by other people who themselves conduct inspections on his instructions.

Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, program, procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature in the course of the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer. Standardized Observation , on the contrary, is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is carried out according to a certain pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens in the process of observation with the object or the observer himself.

At enabled surveillance (it is most often used in general, developmental, pedagogical, social psychology) the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process, the course of which he is observing. For example, a psychologist can solve a problem in his mind while simultaneously observing himself. Another variant of the included observation: when investigating the relationships between people, the experimenter can engage himself in communication with the observed, without stopping at the same time to observe the relationships that develop between them and these people. Third Party Surveillance unlike the included one, it does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process that he is studying.

Interview is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. There are several survey options, and each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Let's consider them.

oral questioning used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written one, but it requires special training, education, and, as a rule, a large investment of time for research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on the personality of the person who conducts the survey, and on the individual characteristics of the one who answers the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the survey situation.

Written survey allows you to reach more people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. Its disadvantage is the fact that when applying the questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account the respondent's reactions to the content of her questions in advance and, if necessary, change them.

Free Poll - a kind of oral or written survey, in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change the tactics of research, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them. In its turn standardized survey , in which questions and the nature of possible answers to them are determined in advance and are usually limited to fairly narrow limits, is more economical in time and in material costs than a free survey.

Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can get an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon under study. Tests differ from other research methods in that they imply a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychology of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.

Test questionnaire based on a system of pre-thought out, carefully selected and tested in terms of their validity and reliability of questions, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.

Test task involves assessing the psychology and behavior of a person based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, based on the results of which, psychologists judge the presence or absence and degree of development of the studied quality.

The third type of tests is projective . Such tests are based on the projection mechanism, according to which unconscious personal qualities, especially shortcomings, that a person tends to attribute to other people. Projective tests are designed to study the psychological and behavioral features negative people.

Specificity experiment as a method of psychological research lies in the fact that it purposefully and structured creates an artificial situation in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than all other methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and development.

There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow studying the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. natural experiment It is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere in the course of ongoing events, fixing them in the form in which they unfold on their own. Laboratory experiment involves the creation of some artificial situation in which the property under study can best be studied.

Modeling how the method is applied when the study of the phenomenon of interest by simple observation, questioning, test or experiment is difficult or impossible due to complexity or inaccessibility. Then they resort to creating an artificial model of the phenomenon under study, repeating its main parameters and expected properties. This model is used to study this phenomenon in detail and draw conclusions about its nature.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic. Mathematical model is an expression or formula that includes variables and relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomenon under study. Technical Modeling involves the creation of a device or device, in its action reminiscent of what is being studied. Cybernetic simulation is based on the use of concepts from the field of informatics and cybernetics as elements of the model. Logic Modeling based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

In addition to the methods listed above, designed to collect primary information, psychology is widely used various ways and techniques for processing these data, psychological and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. facts and conclusions arising from the interpretation of the processed primary information. For this purpose, various methods of mathematical statistics, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena being studied, as well as qualitative analysis methods.

The methods used in social psychology to collect empirical data are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used not only in social psychology, but also in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The whole set of methods can be divided into two large groups: research methods and methods of influence. The latter belong to a specific area of ​​social psychology, to the so-called "". Research methods, in turn, differ in the methods of collecting information and methods of processing it.

There are many other classifications of methods of socio-psychological research. For example, there are three groups of methods:
1) methods of empirical research;
2) modeling methods;
3) managerial and educational methods.

Among the methods of collecting information, one should name: studying documents (in particular, content analysis), various kinds (questionnaires, interviews), various kinds of tests (including the most common sociometric test), finally, an experiment (both laboratory and natural ). In most cases, these methods are identical to those used in sociology and psychology.

Observation is the "oldest" method of social psychology and is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions and to find the meaning of these phenomena that are not directly given. In the case of obtaining data on open behavior, on the actions of individuals, the method of observation plays a very important role. The main problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure the fixation of certain classes of characteristics so that the “reading” of the observation protocol is understandable and can be interpreted by another researcher in terms of a hypothesis.

The study of documents is of great importance, since with the help of this method it is possible to analyze the products of human activity. A special problem arises here in connection with the fact that the document is interpreted by the researcher, i.e. a person with his own individual psychological characteristics inherent in him. The most important role in the study of the document is played, for example, by the ability to understand the text.

To overcome the "subjectivity" in the interpretation of the document by the researcher, a special technique is introduced, called "" (literally: "content analysis"). This is a special, more or less formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are highlighted in the text, and then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to apply the content analysis method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information, so that one has to analyze numerous texts.

A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Among the many, the most widespread in social psychology are interviewing and questioning (especially in studies of large groups).

Questionnaire method - a written survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent, who is the source necessary information, mediated by the questionnaire.

Interviewing is a method of collecting information that involves oral appeal researcher to a certain set of people with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study. During the interview, all the ways of influencing one person on another described in social psychology are manifested, all the laws and norms of their communication are in effect.

The main methodological problems that arise when applying these methods lie in the design of the questionnaire. The first requirement here is the logic of its construction, ensuring that the questionnaire delivers exactly the information that is required by the hypothesis, and that this information is as reliable as possible.

A test is a special kind of test in which the subject performs either a specially designed task, or answers questions that differ from questions in questionnaires or interviews. Questions in tests are indirect. Tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, they are widely used in various areas psychology. When talking about the use of tests in social psychology, they mean most often personality tests, less often - group tests. There are not many tests that are relevant for diagnosing a group. An example is the widely used sociometric test, which will be discussed specifically in the small group section.

There is no special specificity in the application of this method in socio-psychological research: all the methodological standards for the use of tests adopted in general psychology are also valid here.

The experiment acts as one of the main research methods in social psychology. The specificity of the experiment lies in the fact that an artificial situation is deliberately and thoughtfully created in it, in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. In other words, the experiment creates an imitation of everyday processes. By varying one or two factors - called independent variables - the experimenter finds out how changing them affects people. Controversy around opportunities and limitations experimental method in this area is one of the most heated controversies on methodological issues at the present time.

By experimenting, social psychologists sometimes create situations that affect. In this case, scientists are required to follow professional ethical rules: obtain consent from the subjects, follow the principle of “do no harm”, after the completion of the experiment, fully disclose to the participants any temporary deception.

In social psychology, there are two main ones: laboratory and natural. For both types, there are general rules, expressing the essence of the method, namely: the arbitrary introduction by the experimenter of independent variables and control over them, as well as over changes in dependent variables. Also common is the requirement to separate the control and experimental groups so that the measurement results can be compared with some standard. However, along with these general requirements laboratory and natural experiments have their own rules.

Psychological research is aimed at studying personality and mental qualities occurring in it. And for this, a toolkit is required, with the help of which it is necessary to measure how the properties and qualities of a person have changed. These measurements are subjected to special processing, the results of which are used to judge changes in the object of study.

In psychology, various methods and techniques for processing the results of psychological research, their logical and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. factors and conclusions arising from the interpretation of the processed primary information. For this purpose, in particular, various methods of mathematical statistics, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena under study, as well as qualitative analysis methods.

The most commonly used data processing methods are statistical methods(finding average values, deviations from the average value, relationships between variables, significance level, reliability, identification of factors, etc.). Such methods allow revealing the existing patterns, presenting information in a generalized and visual form.

End of work -

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Discipline: psychology

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Types of questions in accordance with the tasks to be solved
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