V. V. Dokuchaev, who discovered the law of geographical zoning, noted that in nature six natural ingredients: the earth's crust of the lithosphere, the air of the atmosphere, the water of the hydrosphere, the flora and fauna of the biosphere, as well as the soil, constantly exchange matter and energy with each other.

The exchange of matter occurs constantly, and there are many examples of such:

♦ water dissolves minerals and rocks;

♦ water of the hydrosphere is part of the living organisms of the biosphere;

♦ water in the form of steam is constantly present in the lower layer of the Earth's atmosphere;

♦ minerals and rocks of the lithosphere are always found in living organisms, in the atmosphere (dust, sand), in water;

♦ air carbon dioxide dissolves in water;

♦ organisms of the biosphere - plants - absorb carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen;

♦ accumulating at the bottom of the oceans, the remains of biosphere organisms form strata of sedimentary rocks of the lithosphere;

♦ oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere is the main source of life for organisms in the biosphere.

All processes on Earth occur thanks to the energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. In each of the above examples, energy exchange is also assumed. Thus, the energy of plants in the biosphere, consumed by animals, creates the energy of the animal world. Eternal ice hydrospheres cool the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Thanks to these processes, a certain balance between all natural components is maintained in the natural complex. Thanks to these processes, nature has an amazing ability to self-healing, self-purification, self-regulation. If one component changes in the natural complex, then all the others change too, while trying to restore their balance. The desire for self-healing is one of the main properties of nature.

Geographic envelope- this is an integral and continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the surface layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact. Between these parts there is a continuous exchange of matter and energy. Thus, the geographic shell is a planetary, covering the entire surface of the Earth, natural complex.

The total thickness of the geographical envelope is several tens of kilometers. The main source of processes occurring in geographical envelope, is the energy of the sun. Its uneven supply and distribution over the spherical surface of the Earth leads to a huge spatial differentiation. natural conditions in a geographical shell, as a result of which it can be divided into smaller natural complexes, among which there are similar (homogeneous) and completely different.

The largest zonal subdivisions of the geographic shell are the geographic (natural) belts of the Earth, stretching in a latitudinal or sublatitudinal direction. They coincide with climatic zones and have the same names, as they are distinguished by temperature conditions and prevailing air masses.

However, the natural complexes of geographical zones are also heterogeneous. The most significant changes in natural conditions are caused by the division of the Earth's surface into continents and oceans. A different combination of heat and moisture in the coastal and inland parts of the continents is the reason for the formation in geographical zones natural areas – natural complexes of smaller sizes, which in turn can be subdivided into subzones and other smaller natural complexes, such as landscapes.

Landscape(from him. land- land and schaft- interconnected) - a natural geographical complex in which all the main components (relief, climate, water, soil, vegetation and wildlife) are in complex interaction and interdependence, forming a single inseparable system. Many scientists consider the landscape as the main unit in the hierarchy of natural territorial complexes.

Features of various landscapes are formed under the influence of both zonal and azonal factors. Zonal include climate, water, soil, vegetation and animal world; to azonal - relief, geological structure, rocks.

Another important position in modern concepts of geography is occupied by the concept geographical Environment, which arose as a result of a long evolution of the geographical shell under the influence of anthropogenic impact, the creation of the so-called "secondary nature", that is, cities, factories, canals, highways, etc.

Geographical line is part of the nature of the Earth, from which human society directly interacts in his life and production activities on this stage historical development.

Recently, along with the concept of the geographical environment, the concept of environment(or the environment).

Environment - necessary condition life and activities of society. It serves as its habitat, the most important source of resources, provides big influence to the spiritual world of people.

The natural environment has always been the source of human existence. However, the interaction between man and nature has changed in different historical epochs.

Two million years ago, primitive people found everything necessary for life in the natural environment, hunting and gathering: people hunted animals and birds, fished, dug up roots and bulbs of plants, gathered berries, mushrooms, insect larvae, devastated bird nests, took honey from bees, caught mollusks and crustaceans on sea ​​coast wandering in search of food from place to place. Some Indian tribes of North and South America, the Bushmen of Africa, the natives of Australia still live by gathering.

The emergence and development of agriculture 7 thousand years ago marked the beginning of mass deforestation on Earth. According to scientists, at the time of the appearance of man on Earth, forests occupied 60% of its surface, and now - only 30%. At present, forests untouched by man have been preserved in the taiga of Russia, Canada, as well as in the Amazon rainforests. To the greatest extent, forests are reduced in Eurasia and North America. With the expansion of arable land and pastures are rapidly cut down rainforests Africa, Southeast Asia, Amazon. Wood is widely used as a cheap fuel.

Pasture lands are the most prone to desertification. This process is typical for all continents of the Earth. According to experts, man has radically changed and mastered 56% of the land area, and these are the most favorable areas for life. The nature of some geographical zones of the Earth can be observed only in nature reserves. These include primarily the North American prairies and the European steppes. They are completely mastered by man.

Scientists-geographers have proposed to classify geographic areas according to the degree of their transformation by man; unchanged (arctic deserts), slightly modified (tundra, forest-tundra, northern taiga, semi-deserts and deserts), heavily modified (mixed and broad-leaved forests, southern taiga), transformed (forest-steppes, steppes).

In landscape science, depending on the degree of anthropogenic impact, there are primary natural landscapes, which are formed by the action of only natural factors; natural anthropogenic landscapes, which are formed by the action of both natural and anthropogenic factors; and anthropogenic landscapes, the existence of which is supported only by the activities of people.

1 GPa is a gigapascal. Pascal (Pa) is a unit of pressure. 1 Pa ~10‑5 atm. 1 GPa = 109 Pa.

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Lecture No. 13 Geographical shell

Geographic envelope- an integral and continuous shell of the Earth, including lower part atmosphere, upper - lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere. Between the shells of the Earth occurs complex interaction, continuous exchange of matter and energy. Geographical shell geographically and in volume coincides with the biosphere. The geographical shell is characterized by a series specific features. It is distinguished, first of all, by a large variety of material composition and types of energy. The shell substance can simultaneously be in three states of aggregation - solid, liquid and gaseous. The geographical envelope is the area of ​​the origin of life on Earth, the arena vigorous activity human society. In general, the geographic envelope is the most complex part of our planet, especially at the contact of the spheres: atmosphere and lithosphere (land surface), atmosphere and hydrosphere (surface layers of the World Ocean), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean floor), up and down from these surfaces geographical envelope becomes more simple. The geographic envelope is heterogeneous not only in the vertical but also in the horizontal directions. It is differentiated into natural complexes(landscapes) - relatively homogeneous areas of the Earth's surface. Each natural complex consists of interconnected components - constituent parts. These include rocks, air, plants, animals, soils. The differentiation of the geographic envelope into natural complexes is due to the uneven supply of heat to its different sections and the heterogeneity earth's surface(presence of continents and ocean trenches, mountains, plains, hills). Natural complexes can be of different sizes. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope. Natural complexes include continents and oceans. Within the continents, such natural complexes as the East European Plain, Ural mountains. Thus, the entire geographic envelope is a complex mosaic structure and consists of natural complexes different sizes. Natural complexes formed on land are called natural-territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - natural aquatic. The geographical envelope has a number of regularities. The most important of them include integrity, rhythm of development, horizontal zonality and altitudinal zonality. Integrity- the unity of the geographical shell, due to the close relationship of its constituent components. Moreover, the geographic shell is not a mechanical sum of components, but a qualitatively new formation that has its own characteristics and develops as a whole. A change in one component inevitably leads to a change in others and the geographic envelope as a whole. Integrity is inherent in all natural complexes. It is achieved through the circulation of matter and energy. Integrity is the most important geographical regularity, on the knowledge of which theory and practice are based environmental management. The geographical envelope is characteristic rhythm of development- repeatability in time of certain phenomena. In nature, there are rhythms of different duration - daily, intra-secular, super-secular. The planetary geographical pattern established by the great Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev is zoning- a regular change in natural complexes in the direction from the equator to the poles. The largest zonal subdivisions of the geographic shell are geographic belts. They differ from each other in temperature conditions, as well as in general features of atmospheric circulation, soil and vegetation cover. An interesting pattern of changes in nature, called altitudinal zonation, is observed in mountainous areas. Altitudinal zonality is a regular change of natural components and natural complexes with an ascent to the mountains from the foot to the peaks.

The concept of landscapes and natural complexes. The differentiation of the geographical envelope into natural complexes is due to the uneven distribution of heat in different areas and the heterogeneity of the earth's surface. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope itself. The natural complexes also include continents and oceans, natural zones. Small natural complexes are confined to individual hills, their slopes, river valleys and their individual sections (channel, floodplain, floodplain terraces). The smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous the natural conditions within it. Thus, the entire geographic envelope has a complex, mosaic structure; it consists of natural complexes of different ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are called territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic.

The concept of landscapes. A landscape is a natural complex that occupies a specific territory, homogeneous in origin and history of development, having a single geological foundation, the same type of relief, common climate, a uniform combination of hydrothermal conditions, soils, biocenoses. landscape being basic unit physical-geographical zoning, as the most homogeneous formation, at the same time has a complex structure and includes natural-territorial complexes of more low rank: locality - tract - facies- the so-called morphological parts of the landscape. The simplest, elementary element of the landscape is the facies. It is characterized by the homogeneity of natural conditions. Within its boundaries, surface rocks of the same composition, moisture conditions, soils and one plant association are preserved. This may be the bottom of a ravine, an oxbow lake, a riverbank, part of a slope or a valley of a small river. The tract is a more complex natural-territorial complex, consisting of several facies (ravine, gully, stream valley, floodplain, terrace). Several tracts form the area, even more complex education(hillside, small mountain, river valley, specific plant community).

Interaction between man and nature. All that a person uses for his development is called natural resources. essential components surrounding humanity natural environment used to create the material and cultural needs of society (land, forest, wildlife, water, recreational and others). Main types natural resources.

Natural resources

Inexhaustible

Exhaustible

solar energy

Wind, tides, flowing water

Renewable

Non-renewable

Fresh air

Fossil fuel

Fresh water

fertile soil

Metal, mineral raw materials (iron, copper, etc.)

Non-metallic mineral raw materials (clay, sand, phosphates, etc.)

Plants and animals

In connection with the use of natural resources, a number of environmental issues, the main ones are: 1. environmental pollution toxic substances. 2. greenhouse effect. 3. acid rain. 4. degradation and depletion of soils. 5. reduction of areas occupied by forests. 6. pollution of the oceans. 7. Nuclear pollution environment. 8. Ozone layer depletion and formation ozone holes. 9. the problem of waste and garbage. 10. desertification. 11. reduction of the gene pool of the biosphere. 12. human ecology (diseases and epidemics).

Classification of natural resources (according to N.F. Reimers, 1994)

Natural resources	Description of the state, reserves and prospects for use
Energetic resources
Solar radiation	Almost inexhaustible, poorly used. Very promising as an energy resource
Energy sea ​​tides and low tide	Significant: little used; promising, but with limitations (transition to thermal energy adds heat to the troposphere and then to the biosphere)
Energy of natural atomic decay and spontaneous chemical reactions	Intensively used. The prospects are problematic due to the indelibility of waste and the danger of concentration of the active principle.
Oil	Prospective according to hypotheses for about 30-50 years
Natural gas	Promising for 30 years
Coal	Promising for at least 100 years
Slates	Stocks are insignificant, little is used. Unpromising due to significant waste and hard-to-remove consequences.
Peat	The reserves are significant. Unpromising due to high ash content and negative environmental consequences.
Energy of artificial atomic decay and nuclear fusion	Stocks are inexhaustible. But this type of energy is environmentally dangerous until a way to decontaminate waste is found.
Gas and atmospheric resources
Resources of individual atmospheric gases	The balance of income and expenditure is disturbed
Phytoncides and other volatile nutrients	In urbanized areas, it is much lower than biological norms; in some places, due to human maladaptation, it turns into allergens.
Anthropogenic gas pollution	Above acceptable standards.
Water resources
atmospheric moisture	Regionally heavily acidified by precipitation
Ocean and sea waters	Local acidification of shallow waters, regional (Sea of ​​Azov) changes in salinity and volume. The ocean level is rising by about 1 mm per year.
Lakes, reservoirs, ponds	Lakes are changing levels anthropogenic impact. In places, acidification of waters by precipitation is observed.
Flowing waters (rivers, streams) of surface and deep runoff	In some cases, they are deeply anthropogenically changed and heavily polluted. Disturbed water flow
Liquid pollution (including artificially introduced)	In some places they are abundant, exceeding the ability of water bodies to self-purify. Ocean pollution is expected to be above acceptable levels.
Hydrogeological resources	Large, intensively used, in some places groundwater is heavily polluted.
Deep anthropogenic pollution	Very significant in places, especially in regions of massive use of mineral fertilizers, injection of toxic waste and large landfills.
Soil and geological resources
Soils	Globally severely disrupted. More than half of the land has been eroded before being withdrawn from agricultural use.
Cryogenic substrates	In places, there is a slight decrease in the thickness of mountain glaciers. There is a theoretical threat of melting continental ice and degradation of permafrost due to likely climate warming.
Soil erosion (all types)	Global anthropogenic desertification.
metal ores Non-metallic ores non-metallic minerals	Gradually depleted, but the resources are large, except for a number of metals, the reserves of which are promising for 15-20 years. Accumulation on the surface of the Earth extracted from the depths heavy metals is critical, threatening geochemical catastrophes.

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Geographic envelope- this is an integral, continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which they come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact with each other the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere (Fig. 1). All spheres of the geographic envelope continuously exchange matter and energy with each other, forming an integral and balanced natural system.

The geographical shell does not have clear boundaries, so scientists conduct them in different ways. upper border are combined with the troposphere boundary (8-18 km) or with the ozone screen (25-30 km). The lower boundary is taken as the boundary of the earth's crust (from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km under the mountain structures of the continents) or the lower boundary of its sedimentary layer (up to 5 km). The substance in the geographic shell is in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. It has great value for the development of life and ongoing natural processes on Earth.

The main sources of development of all processes occurring in the geographic envelope are solar energy and the internal energy of the Earth. Experiencing the geographical shell and the influence of space. Only in it are conditions created for the development of organic life.

The main regularities of the geographical shell

The geographic envelope has the following general patterns its development: integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zoning, azonal. Knowledge of the general patterns of development of the geographic envelope allows a person to more carefully use natural resources without damaging the environment.

Integrity- this is the unity of the geographical shell, the relationship and interdependence of its natural components (rocks, water, air, soil, plants, animals). The interaction and interpenetration of all natural components of the geographic envelope binds them into a single whole. Thanks to these processes, the natural balance is maintained. A change in one component of nature inevitably entails a change in other components and the geographical envelope as a whole. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographic envelope is of great practical value. If in economic activity If a person does not take into account this regularity of the geographical shell, then destructive processes will occur in it.

A preliminary thorough study of the territory that is exposed to human impact is required. For example, after draining the swamp, the level decreases ground water. As a result, the soil, microclimate, vegetation, and wildlife change, i.e., the natural balance of the territory is disturbed.

Understanding the integrity of the geographic envelope allows you to anticipate possible changes in nature, to give geographic forecast results of human impact on nature.

Rhythm is the repetition of certain natural phenomena at regular intervals, or rhythms. In nature, all processes and phenomena are subject to rhythms. There are rhythms of different duration: diurnal (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (associated with changes in solar activity- 11, 22 years, etc.), centuries-old (centennial) and covering millennia and many millions of years. Their duration can reach 150-240 million years. Associated with them, for example, are periods of active formation of mountains and relative calm of the earth's crust, cooling and warming of the climate.

The best known is the 11-year rhythm of solar activity, which is determined by the number of spots visible on the surface of the Sun. An increase in solar activity is accompanied by an increase in the number of sunspots and solar energy to the earth (" sunny wind"). It's calling on earth magnetic storms, affects the weather and climate, human health.

Circulation of matter and energy - essential mechanism development of natural processes of the geographic envelope, due to which the exchange of substances and energy between its constituent parts. There are various cycles (cycles) of matter and energy: the water cycle (hydrological cycle), air cycles in the atmosphere (atmospheric circulation), cycles in the lithosphere (geological cycle), etc.

There is a circulation of substances in the lithosphere. Magma flows to the surface and forms igneous rocks. Under the influence of the energy of the Sun, water and temperatures, they collapse and turn into sedimentary rocks. Plunging to great depths, sedimentary rocks experience the action of high temperatures and pressure, and turn into metamorphic rocks. At very high temperatures the rocks melt, and they again return to their original state (magma).

The cycles are not closed, they are constantly under the influence of external and internal forces, there are qualitative changes in matter and energy, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole. This contributes to the preservation of balance in nature, its restoration. For example, with slight pollution, water is able to purify itself.

The main regularity of the geographical shell is the manifestation of geographical zoning. Geographic zonation - the main law of the distribution of natural complexes on the surface of the Earth, which manifests itself in the form of latitudinal zonality (consecutive change of geographical zones and natural zones). Latitudinal zoning - a regular change in natural conditions on the Earth's surface from the equator to the poles, associated with a change in the angle of incidence sun rays. A single and integral geographical envelope is heterogeneous at different latitudes. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat with latitude on the globe, not only the climate, but also soil-forming processes, vegetation, wildlife, and the hydrological regime of rivers and lakes naturally change from the equator to the poles.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic shell - geographic zones. They, as a rule, extend in a latitudinal direction, replace each other on land and in the ocean from the equator to the poles and are repeated in both hemispheres: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic, arctic and antarctic. Geographic zones differ from each other in air masses, climate, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.

Each geographical zone has its own set of natural zones. natural area- a zonal natural complex within a geographical zone, which is characterized by common temperature conditions, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna.

In accordance with the change climatic conditions from south to north, in latitude, natural zones also change. Change of natural areas with geographical latitude is a manifestation of the geographical law of latitudinal zonality. Climatic conditions, especially humidity and temperature amplitudes, also change with distance from the ocean to the depths of the continents. That's why main reason the formation of several natural zones within the geographical zone is the ratio of heat and moisture. (Analyze the correspondence of natural zones to geographical zones on the atlas map.)

Each natural zone is characterized by a certain climate, type of soil, vegetation and wildlife. Natural zones regularly change from the equator to the poles and from the coast of the oceans to the depths of the continents following the change in climatic conditions. The nature of the relief affects the moisture regime within the natural zone and can disrupt its latitudinal extent.

Along with zonality, the most important regularity of the geographic envelope is azonality. Azonality- this is the formation of natural complexes associated with the manifestation of the internal processes of the Earth, which determine the heterogeneity of the earth's surface (the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on the continents, etc.). The azonality is most clearly manifested in the mountains in the form of altitudinal zonation. Altitudinal zonality- regular change of natural complexes (belts) from the foot of the mountains to their peaks (see Fig. 2). Altitude zonality has much in common with latitudinal zonality: the change of belts when climbing mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. The first altitudinal belt always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountains are located.

The main regularities of the geographic envelope are integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge about the patterns of development of the geographical envelope is necessary for understanding the processes and phenomena occurring in nature, foreseeing the consequences of human economic activity.

Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:

Ø form an idea of ​​the geographical shell as a natural body;

Ø deepen knowledge about the essence periodic law geographic zoning;

Ø to deepen ideas about the features of the natural conditions of individual geographic zones of the Earth.

Features of the geographical shell. The geographical shell was formed simultaneously with the development of the Earth, so its history is part of common history development of the earth. ( What is a geographic envelope? What components of the geographical shell have you already studied in the course of geography and biology?)

All components of the geographic shell are in contact, interpenetration and interaction . Between them there is a continuous exchange of matter and energy. Life is concentrated in the geographical shell.

In its development, the geographic envelope went through three stages. The beginning of the first - inorganic - can be considered the appearance of the atmosphere. At the second stage, a biosphere was formed in the geographic shell, which transformed all the processes that had previously taken place in it. At the third - modern - stage, human society appeared in a geographical shell. Man began to actively transform the geographic shell.

Due to the fact that the geographic envelope of the Earth is the environment for human life and activity, and human impact on nature is increasing every year, it is distinguished sociosphere With technosphere and anthroposphere.

Sociosphere (from lat. societas - society), - part of the geographical shell, including humanity with its inherent production and industrial relations, as well as the part of the natural environment mastered by man.

Technosphere (from the Greek. techne - art, skill) - a set of artificial objects within the geographic envelope of the Earth, created by man from the substance of the nature surrounding him. The anthropogenic pressure that is increasing on the biosphere, which caused the inclusion of elements of the technosphere and other means and products of human activity in the biosphere into its composition, contributes to the transition of the biosphere to a qualitatively new state.

Anthroposphere (from the Greek. anthropos - man), covers humanity as a collection of organisms. The life of any organism in all forms of its manifestation is possible only with constant interaction with the outside world and a continuous supply of energy from the outside into the body. All types of living beings ultimately use the same energy - the energy of the Sun, but the forms of manifestation and use of this energy are different.

Geographic zonation expressed in a regular change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and distribution geographical areas within these zones. The largest latitudinal-zonal unit of the geographic shell is the geographical belt, which is distinguished by features radiation balance and general atmospheric circulation. Within the belt, the relative homogeneity of the climate is characteristic, which is also reflected in other components of nature (soils, vegetation, wildlife, etc.) ( Remember what geographical zones are distinguished on Earth? What is their total number?).

The shape and area of ​​the belts depend on many factors, the main of which are: the proximity of oceans and seas, relief, sea ​​currents. In geographic zones stand out geographic (natural) zones. Their release is associated, first of all, with the uneven distribution of heat and moisture on the Earth's surface. ( Why?) They are more often elongated in the latitudinal direction (Africa), but under the influence of the configuration of the continents and orographic factors, they can have a meridional direction ( North America).

V. V. Dokuchaev and L. S. Berg made a great contribution to the development of the theory of geographical zoning. V.V. Dokuchaev based the doctrine of natural zones on the assumption that each natural zone (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert and other zones) is a natural complex in which the components of living and inanimate nature interrelated and interdependent. This served as the basis for the classification of natural areas developed by L. S. Berg.

Further development the law of geographic zoning has become periodic law of geographic zoning which was formulated in 1956. famous geographers A.A. Grigoriev and M.I. Budyko. The essence of the periodic law is that geographical zones at different latitudes have a number of properties that are periodically repeated (for example, the zone of forest-steppe and savannas, deciduous forests temperate zone and forests of humid subtropics, etc.) According to this law, the differentiation of the geographic envelope is based on: the amount of absorbed solar energy, (the annual value of the radiation balance of the earth's surface); the amount of incoming moisture (annual precipitation); the ratio of the radiation balance to the amount of heat required to evaporate the annual amount of precipitation (radiation dryness index). The value of the dryness index in different zones ranges from 0 to 4-5. Periodicity is also manifested in the fact that the value of the dryness index close to unity is repeated three times between the pole and the equator (Fig....).

These conditions are characterized by the highest biological productivity of landscapes (with the exception of equatorial forests(hylaea).

Thus, geographic zonality is expressed in the regular change of geographic zones from the equator to the poles and the distribution of geographic zones within these zones. The list of names of geographical zones itself emphasizes their symmetrical position in relation to the equator. The share of the area of ​​each geographical zone in relation to total area of the globe is well shown in the figure (Fig ...).

Along with zonality, azonality or regionality is distinguished. Azonality means the spread of some geographical phenomenon out of connection with the zonal features of the given territory. The main reasons for azonation are geological structure, tectonic features, the nature of the relief, etc. In the presence of these factors, large sections of the geographical envelope acquire individual unique features, which complicates its structure and violates the zoning scheme. Azonality is most often and clearly manifested in the mountains and foothills.

Features of the geographic zones of the Earth. equatorial belt occupies 6% of the total land area of ​​the Earth. It is represented by equatorial forests ( Determine the boundaries on the map equatorial belt )

A feature of the equatorial belt is the exceptionally high intensity of all natural processes (geomorphological, biochemical, and others), as a result of which a powerful weathering crust is formed. The reason for the high intensity of processes is, first of all, the constantly hot and humid climate.

Subequatorial belts occupy about 11% of the total land area. ( Using the map, determine the location of the subequatorial belts). Most of the area of ​​the subequatorial belts, as well as the equatorial one, falls on the World Ocean. Here the belts are clearly expressed and can be identified by trade wind currents. Belts of both hemispheres in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans shifted to the north compared to their position on land.

An essential feature of the subequatorial belts is the variable circulation of the atmosphere, when there is a seasonal change from equatorial air to tropical air, and vice versa, which determines the presence of dry and wet (rainy) seasons.

In the subequatorial belts, two natural zones are distinguished: savannah(savannah and light forests), which is the main area, and the zone variable-moist forests- narrow, transitional from hyla to savanna.

The eastern margins of the continents within these belts are under the influence of monsoons and trade winds.

Tropical belts. In general, they occupy 35% of the entire land area of ​​the Earth. (Find their location on the map). In these latitudes, dry and hot air dominates both on the continents and on the oceans. By natural features within tropical belts allocate zones: forests, savannas and woodlands, semi-deserts and deserts (Using an atlas, determine the boundaries of the natural zones of tropical zones).

subtropical belts occupy an area equal to 15% of the entire land area (Determine their location on the map and compare the distribution in longitude in the northern and southern hemispheres). The peculiarity of the nature of these belts is determined by their geographical position and is expressed in the predominance of tropical(summer) and moderate(winter) air masses. In the western oceanic regions of these belts (see map), nature is Mediterranean with dry summers and wet winters. Eastern coastal territories (see map) have a monsoonal climate with high summer humidity. Inland areas have an arid climate. In general, natural zones are distinguished in the subtropical zones: forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

The natural conditions of the subtropical belts are favorable for human life, so these territories have long been developed and settled. Here the forests are greatly reduced, in their place are fields, plantations of cotton, tea, citrus, etc.

temperate zones characterized by the asymmetry of their location in the northern and southern hemispheres (Determine the location of the belts in the northern and southern hemispheres on the map). The large extent of the territory from east to west and from north to south causes big variety natural conditions. According to natural features, the temperate zone is divided into moderately warm, dry, and moderately cold, damp. In the first, natural zones are distinguished: semi-deserts and deserts, steppes, forest-steppes; in the second: the zone of taiga (coniferous forests), broad-leaved forests, small-leaved and mixed forests. ( Using the atlas, determine the boundaries of the natural zones of the temperate zone northern hemisphere )

subarctic belt located on the northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America. Its southern border is determined to a large extent by the influence of sea currents. In Europe, under the influence of a warm current, the belt occupies a narrow strip of land and is located to the north arctic circle, while in the northeastern part of Eurasia, where there is no action of this current, it expands and reaches 60 ° N. sh. In North America (the region of Hudson's Bay), under the influence of a cold current, its boundary drops to 50°N. sh., i.e. to the latitude of the city of Kyiv. southern border belt approximately corresponds to the 10°C isotherm of the warmest month of the year. This is the limit of the northern distribution of forests. ubiquitous permafrost, which in some places begins already at a depth of 30 cm. Natural zones: tundra, forest-tundra and light forests.

subantarctic belt almost entirely in the oceans. Only a few islands represent land. The largest of them are Falkland, Kerguelen, South Georgia and others. On the islands - oceanic tundra conditions, high humidity, strong winds, poor moss-lichen vegetation. On some islands, the tundra can be traced up to 50 ° S. sh.

Arctic and Antarctic belts (Define them geographical position) although they are located in territories with different underlying surfaces - the first on the oceanic expanses, the second on the mainland Antarctica, but they have more in common than different: low temperatures in winter and summer ( Determine the temperature of the warmest month), strong winds, lack of or little vegetation, etc. The Arctic tundra zone, Arctic and Antarctic deserts stand out.

Questions and tasks

1.2 General patterns of geographic shell

The general patterns of its functioning characteristic of the geographic shell are the result of interpenetration and interaction geographic areas(lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, etc.). Knowledge of regularities makes it possible to explain the territorial features of individual regions of the Earth, as well as the organization of nature, population, and economy. The general geographical patterns include zonality and azonation, the integrity of the geographic envelope, the circulation of matter, the rhythm of natural phenomena.

Geographic zonality is expressed in the regular change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and the distribution of geographical zones within these zones. The largest latitudinal-zonal unit of the geographic shell is the geographic belt, which is distinguished by the features of the radiation balance and the general circulation of the atmosphere. The radiation balance is understood as the sum of income and consumption solar radiation. The incoming part of the radiation balance consists mainly of the solar radiation that came to the Earth's surface, the outgoing part consists of the heat loss of the earth's surface due to thermal radiation. Solar radiation reaches the earth's surface directly or diffusely in the form electromagnetic waves(radiant energy of the Sun). This is the main source of energy for processes occurring on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere. Consequently, within the belt, the relative homogeneity of the climate is characteristic, which is also reflected in other components of nature (soils, vegetation, wildlife, etc.).

The following geographical zones are distinguished on Earth: equatorial, two subequatorial, two tropical, two subtropical, two temperate, two subpolar, arctic and antarctic - a total of 13. The shape and area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe belts depend on many factors, the main of which are: relief, sea currents, proximity to the sea. The greatest homogeneity is inherent in the belts over the ocean.

Geographic zones are divided into geographical (natural) zones. Their release is associated, first of all, with the uneven distribution of heat and moisture on the Earth's surface. They are more often elongated in the latitudinal direction (Eurasia), but under the influence of orographic factors or the configuration of the continents, they can have a meridional direction (North America).

The idea of ​​latitudinal zoning was first expressed by scientists of ancient times (Eudoxus, Aristotle, Eratosthenes). It is known that Eratosthenes, who first proposed the term "geography", compiled a relatively accurate map of the Earth, plotted latitudinal bands with different "climates" on it, and tried to divide the Earth into physical-geographical regions. Later, the idea of ​​zonation was developed by Posidonius, who singled out 13 belts, that is, the same number as is distinguished now. But they were not identical to modern belts, since the very idea of ​​land and sea, and of the Earth in general, was predominantly hypothetical, that is, based on various scientific hypotheses, and sometimes fantasies.

V. V. Dokuchaev and L. S. Berg made a great contribution to the development of the theory of geographical zoning. V.V. Dokuchaev based his theory of natural zones on the assumption that each natural zone (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert and other zones) is a natural complex in which the components of animate and inanimate nature are interconnected and interdependent. This served as the basis for the classification of natural areas developed by L. S. Berg.

A further development of the law of geographic zoning was the periodic law of geographic zoning, which was formulated in 1956 by famous geographers A.A. Grigoriev and M.I. Budyko. The essence of the periodic law is that geographical zones at different latitudes have a number of properties that are periodically repeated (for example, the zone of forest-steppe and savannahs, deciduous forests of the temperate zone and forests of humid subtropics, etc.) According to this law, the differentiation of the geographical envelope is based on lie: the amount of absorbed solar energy, (the annual value of the radiation balance of the earth's surface); the amount of incoming moisture (annual precipitation); the ratio of the radiation balance to the amount of heat required to evaporate the annual amount of precipitation (radiation dryness index). The value of the dryness index in different zones ranges from 0 to 4-5. Periodicity is also manifested in the fact that the value of the dryness index close to unity is repeated three times between the pole and the equator.

These conditions are characterized by the highest biological productivity of landscapes. The exception is the equatorial forests (hylaea).

The geographic zoning of the Earth as a whole is due to the influence of two factors: the radiant energy of the Sun and internal energy Earth. If the Earth's surface were homogeneous, then the zones would be regular latitudinal belts. But due to the fact that during the long geological development Numerous processes took place on the Earth in its spaces, different forces, various forms and a heterogeneous composition of matter were formed, the Earth acquired a very complex internal and surface structure. In addition, the surface of the Earth is characterized by an uneven distribution of land and sea, mountains and plains, etc. Therefore, zoning has specific features and different shape manifestations. This can be seen in the example of the zonal distribution of various natural components (climate, vegetation, soils, etc.).

Zoning is complicated by different local conditions(moisture conditions, lithology, relief complexity, etc.). Due to different orographic conditions on Earth, altitudinal zonation is distinguished. Latitudinal zonality is better expressed in the vast plains, stretching for long distances from north to south. It is most clearly seen on the continent of Eurasia. Altitudinal zonality (synonymous with "altitude zoning") is a natural change in natural conditions and natural complexes with a rise in the mountains from bottom to top.

Altitudinal zonality is primarily due to the change climate indicators(temperature, air density, humidity, solar radiation, etc.) when lifting up. On the altitudinal zonality the exposure and steepness of the slopes of the mountains, the distance from the seas and oceans, and the latitude of the terrain also affect. Altitudinal belts, when rising in the mountains from the bottom up, are replaced in a sequence close to the change in latitudinal zones when moving from the location of the mountain range to the north. However, there are deviations from this analogy. For example, such altitudinal belts as alpine meadows and alpine deserts have no analogues among latitudinal zones.

Along with zonality, azonality or regionality is distinguished. Azonality means the spread of a geographical phenomenon without connection with the zonal features of a given territory. The main causes of azonality are the geological structure, lithological and tectonic features, the nature of the relief, etc. In the presence of these factors, large sections of the geographical envelope acquire individual unique features, which complicates its structure and violates the zoning scheme. Azonality is most often and clearly manifested in the mountains and foothills.

In relation to soils and vegetation, the term intrazonality is more often used (from Latin intra - inside). It means the spread of soils or plants over separate sections, forming inclusions out of connection with the zonal features of the given territory. They can occur within one or more geographic areas without predominance in area. For example, sphagnum swamps and meadows in the tundra and taiga, etc.

An important geographical pattern is the integrity of the geographic envelope. Its essence lies in the fact that natural processes, phenomena and components (water, vegetation, soil, etc.) are in close relationship and a change in one leads to a change in the others. This pattern is inherent both in individual geographical objects in small areas (for example, a lake, a forest, a river floodplain, etc.), and in the entire geographical shell, which consists of a set of geographical complexes different scale. A change in some natural complexes causes a change in others, which are interconnected with the first. For example, after the swamp is drained, the groundwater level decreases not only in the swamp itself, but also in the surrounding areas. As a result, the soil changes, the species composition of plants changes, erosion processes on the slopes become more active, the microclimate changes, etc.

The essence of the geographical regularity of the circulation of matter is that all natural complexes, from local to the geographical shell as a whole, are characterized by the ability to exchange matter. An example would be a cycle chemical elements between the soil and the plant in the process of its growth and death, the water cycle in nature, the circulation of air masses in the atmosphere (between the equator and the tropics), etc. The circulation of matter is a very important pattern, since as a result it is maintained genetic unity animate and inanimate nature, life exists, food is obtained, etc.

The regularity of the rhythm of natural processes lies in their repetition during the day (change of day and night), year - (change of seasons). This also includes seasonal changes in nature. Global patterns of climate fluctuations, surface and groundwater. It is proved that the duration of the planet's humidification cycles is in the range of 1800-2000 years. According to calculations modern period The development of the Earth corresponds to the beginning of the phase of increased moisture, which began after the middle of the last century and is accompanied by depletion of land with water and a rise in the level of the ocean.

A.P. Fedchenko, A.A. Tillo, P.A. Kropotkin, A.I. Voeikov, I.P. Minaev, Yu.M. Shokalsky and many others. Each of these names is an outstanding phenomenon in history. geographical science. It can be said that in Russian geographical society Semenov-Tyan-Shansky created a brilliant constellation of geographers of various specialties, but most of all - geographers general profile involved in comprehensive research...

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