Geographic envelope- this is an integral, continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which they come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact with each other the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere (Fig. 1). All areas geographical envelope continuously exchange matter and energy with each other, forming an integral and balanced natural system.

The geographical shell does not have clear boundaries, so scientists conduct them in different ways. upper border coincide with the boundary of the troposphere (8-18 km) or with ozone shield(25-30 km). The lower boundary is taken as the boundary earth's crust(from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km under the mountain structures of the continents) or the lower boundary of its sedimentary layer (up to 5 km). The substance in the geographic shell is in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. It has great value for the development of life and ongoing natural processes on Earth.

The main sources of development of all processes occurring in the geographical envelope are solar energy and internal energy Earth. Experiencing the geographical shell and the influence of space. Only in it are conditions created for the development of organic life.

The main regularities of the geographical shell

The geographical shell has the following general patterns of its development: integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge general patterns development of the geographic envelope allows a person to more carefully use natural resources without damaging the environment.

Integrity- this is the unity of the geographical shell, the relationship and interdependence of its natural components (rocks, water, air, soil, plants, animals). The interaction and interpenetration of all natural components of the geographic envelope binds them into a single whole. Thanks to these processes, the natural balance is maintained. A change in one component of nature inevitably entails a change in other components and the geographical envelope as a whole. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographic envelope is of great practical value. If in economic activity If a person does not take into account this regularity of the geographical shell, then destructive processes will occur in it.

A preliminary thorough study of the territory that is exposed to human impact is required. For example, after draining the swamp, the level decreases ground water. As a result, the soil, microclimate, vegetation, animal world, i.e., the natural balance of the territory is disturbed.

Understanding the integrity of the geographic envelope makes it possible to foresee possible changes in nature, give geographic forecast results of human impact on nature.

Rhythm is the repetition of certain natural phenomena at regular intervals, or rhythms. In nature, all processes and phenomena are subject to rhythms. There are rhythms of different duration: diurnal (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (associated with changes in solar activity- 11, 22 years, etc.), centuries-old (centennial) and covering millennia and many millions of years. Their duration can reach 150-240 million years. Associated with them, for example, are periods of active formation of mountains and relative calm of the earth's crust, cooling and warming of the climate.

The best known is the 11-year rhythm of solar activity, which is determined by the number of spots visible on the surface of the Sun. An increase in solar activity is accompanied by an increase in the number of sunspots and solar energy to the earth (" sunny wind"). It's calling on earth magnetic storms, affects the weather and climate, human health.

Circulation of matter and energy - essential mechanism development of natural processes of the geographic envelope, due to which the exchange of substances and energy between its constituent parts. There are various cycles (cycles) of matter and energy: the water cycle (hydrological cycle), air cycles in the atmosphere (atmospheric circulation), cycles in the lithosphere (geological cycle), etc.

There is a circulation of substances in the lithosphere. Magma erupts to the surface and forms igneous rocks. Under the influence of the energy of the Sun, water and temperatures, they collapse and turn into sedimentary rocks. Plunging to great depths, sedimentary rocks experience the effect high temperatures and pressure, turn into metamorphic rocks. At very high temperatures, the rocks melt, and they again return to their original state (magma).

The cycles are not closed, they are constantly under the influence of external and internal forces, there are qualitative changes in matter and energy, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole. This contributes to the preservation of balance in nature, its restoration. For example, with slight pollution, water is able to purify itself.

The main regularity of the geographical shell is the manifestation of geographical zoning. Geographic zoning - the basic law of distribution natural complexes on the surface of the Earth, which manifests itself in the form of latitudinal zonality (consecutive change geographical zones and natural areas). Latitudinal zoning- regular change natural conditions on the Earth's surface from the equator to the poles, associated with a change in the angle of incidence sun rays. A single and integral geographical envelope is heterogeneous at different latitudes. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat with latitude on the globe, not only the climate changes regularly from the equator to the poles, but also soil-forming processes, vegetation, wildlife, hydrological regime rivers and lakes.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic shell - geographic zones. They, as a rule, extend in a latitudinal direction, replace each other on land and in the ocean from the equator to the poles and are repeated in both hemispheres: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic, arctic and antarctic. Geographic zones differ from each other in air masses, climate, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.

Each geographical zone has its own set of natural zones. natural area- a zonal natural complex within a geographical zone, which is characterized by common temperature conditions, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna.

In accordance with the change in climatic conditions from south to north, in latitude, natural zones also change. The change of natural zones with geographic latitude is a manifestation of the geographical law of latitudinal zonality. Climatic conditions, especially humidity and temperature amplitudes, also change with distance from the ocean to the depths of the continents. So main reason the formation of several natural zones within the geographical zone is the ratio of heat and moisture. (Analyze the correspondence of natural zones to geographical zones on the atlas map.)

Each natural zone is characterized by a certain climate, type of soil, vegetation and wildlife. Natural zones regularly change from the equator to the poles and from the coast of the oceans to the depths of the continents following the change in climatic conditions. The nature of the relief affects the moisture regime within the natural zone and can disrupt its latitudinal extent.

Along with zonality, the most important regularity of the geographic envelope is azonality. Azonality- is the formation of natural complexes associated with the manifestation internal processes Lands that define heterogeneity earth's surface(the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on the continents, etc.). The azonality is most clearly manifested in the mountains in the form of altitudinal zonation. Altitudinal zonality - regular change of natural complexes (belts) from the foot of the mountains to their peaks (see Fig. 2). Altitude zonality has much in common with latitudinal zonality: the change of belts when climbing mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. The first altitudinal belt always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountains are located.

The main regularities of the geographic envelope are integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge about the patterns of development of the geographical envelope is necessary for understanding the processes and phenomena occurring in nature, foreseeing the consequences of human economic activity.

A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by specific homogeneity. various conditions, including natural, geographical. This means that there is a regional differentiation of nature. On the processes of spatial differentiation natural environment a huge impact renders such a phenomenon as zonality and azonality of the geographic envelope of the Earth.

By modern ideas, geographical zonality means a regular change in physical and geographical processes, complexes, components as you move from the equator to the poles. That is, zonality on land is a successive change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and a regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

The reasons for zoning are the shape of the Earth and its position relative to the Sun. The zonal distribution of radiant energy determines the zoning of temperatures, evaporation and cloudiness, salinity of the surface layers sea ​​water, the level of its saturation with gases, climates, processes of weathering and soil formation, flora and fauna, water networks, etc. Thus, the most important factors determining geographic zoning are the uneven distribution of solar radiation over latitudes and climate.

Geographic zoning is most clearly expressed on the plains, since it is when moving along them from north to south that climate change is observed.

Zoning is also manifested in the World Ocean, and not only in the surface layers, but also on the ocean floor.

The doctrine of geographical (natural) zonality is perhaps the most developed in geographical science. This is due to the fact that it reflects the earliest patterns discovered by geographers, and the fact that this theory forms the core of physical geography.

It is known that the hypothesis of latitudinal thermal zones arose as early as antique time. But it began to turn into a scientific direction only at the end of the 18th century, when naturalists became participants in circumnavigations around the world. Then, in the 19th century, huge contribution In the development of this doctrine was made by A. Humboldt, who traced the zonality of vegetation and fauna in connection with climate and discovered the phenomenon of altitudinal zonality.

However, the doctrine of geographical zones in its modern form originated only at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. as a result of research by V.V. Dokuchaev. He is admittedly the founder of the theory of geographic zonation.

V.V. Dokuchaev substantiated zonality as a universal law of nature, manifesting itself equally on land, sea, and mountains.

He came to understand this law from the study of soils. His classic work "Russian Chernozem" (1883) laid the foundations of genetic soil science. Considering soils as a “mirror of the landscape”, V.V. Dokuchaev, when distinguishing natural zones, named the soils characteristic of them.

Each zone, according to the scientist, is a complex formation, all components of which (climate, water, soil, soil, flora and fauna) are closely interconnected.

L.S. Berg, A.A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, S.V. Kalesnik, K.K. Markov, A.G. Isachenko and others.

The total number of zones is defined in different ways. V.V. Dokuchaev singled out 7 zones. L.S. Berg in the middle of the 20th century. already 12, A.G. Isachenko - 17. In modern physical and geographical atlases of the world, their number, taking into account subzones, sometimes exceeds 50. As a rule, this is not a consequence of any errors, but the result of a passion for too detailed classifications.

Regardless of the degree of fragmentation, the following natural zones are represented in all options: arctic and subarctic deserts, tundra, forest tundra, temperate forests, taiga, temperate mixed forests, temperate broadleaf forests, steppes, semi-steppes and deserts of the temperate zone, deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropical and tropical belts, monsoon forests of subtropical forests, forests of tropical and subequatorial belts, savannah, equatorial humid forests.

Natural (landscape) zones are not ideally correct areas that coincide with certain parallels (nature is not mathematics). They do not cover our planet with continuous stripes, they are often open.

In addition to zonal patterns, azonal patterns were also revealed. An example of it is the altitudinal zonality (vertical zonality), which depends on the height of the land and changes in the heat balance with height.

In the mountains, a regular change in natural conditions and natural-territorial complexes is called altitudinal zonality. It is also explained mainly by climate change with height: for 1 km of ascent, the air temperature drops by 6 degrees C, air pressure and dust content decrease, cloudiness and precipitation increase. A unified system of altitudinal belts is being formed. The higher the mountains, the more fully expressed altitudinal zonality. The landscapes of altitudinal zonation are basically similar to the landscapes of natural zones on the plains and follow each other in the same order, with the same belt located the higher, the closer the mountain system is to the equator.

There is no complete similarity between natural zones on the plains and vertical zonality, since landscape complexes change vertically at a different pace than horizontally, and often in a completely different direction.

AT last years as the humanization and sociologization of geography geographical areas are increasingly being referred to as natural-anthropogenic geographic zones. The doctrine of geographical zoning has great importance for regional studies and country studies analysis. First of all, it allows you to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and management. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the dependence of the economy on natural conditions and natural resources, its close relations with nature, and in some cases even dependence on it. Clear and persistent important role natural component in the development and functioning of society, in its territorial organization. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of adapting a person to the territory, determines the nature of nature management.

Geographic zonality actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor zoning, and, consequently, regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zoning provides a wealth of material for country and regional comparisons and thus contributes to the clarification of country and regional specifics, its causes, which, ultimately, is the main task of regional studies and country studies. So, for example, the taiga zone in the form of a plume crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, Fennoscandia. But the degree of population economic development, living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies, country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences, nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

In a word, the task of regional studies and country studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory ( theoretical basis it is the doctrine of geographical zonality), but also the identification of the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural, civilizational, etc. grounds.

The doctrine of geographical zonality. Region in broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by the specific homogeneity of various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is a regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such a phenomenon as zonality and azonality of the geographic envelope of the Earth. According to modern concepts, geographical zoning means a regular change in physical and geographical processes, complexes, components as you move from the equator to the poles. That is, zonality on land is a successive change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and a regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

In recent years, with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographical zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographical zones.

The doctrine of geographic zoning is of great importance for regional studies and country studies analysis. First of all, it allows you to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and management. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the dependence of the economy on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with nature continue to be preserved, and in many cases even dependence on it. The remaining important role of the natural component in the development and functioning of society, its territorial organization is also obvious. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of adapting a person to the territory, determines the nature of nature management.

Geographic zonality actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in zoning and, consequently, regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zoning provides a wealth of material for country and regional comparisons, and thus contributes to the clarification of country and regional specifics, its causes, which ultimately is main task regional studies and country studies. For example, the taiga zone in the form of a plume crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, and Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies, country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences, nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

In a word, the task of regional studies and country studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory (its theoretical basis is the doctrine of geographical zonality), but also to identify the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural and civilizational nym, etc. grounds.

Cycle method

cycle method. The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are inherent in cyclicity. The method of cycles is among the young and therefore, as a rule, it is personified, that is, it bears the names of its creators. This method has an undoubted positive potential for regional studies. Identified by N.N. Kolosovsky, energy production cycles, unfolding in certain territories, made it possible to trace the regional specifics of their interaction. And she, in turn, was projected onto certain management decisions, i.e. to regional politics.

The concept of ethnogenesis L.N. Gumilyov, also based on the method of cycles, allows you to penetrate deeper into the essence of regional ethnic processes.

The concept of large cycles, or "long waves" N.D. Kondratiev is not only a tool for analysis state of the art world economy, but also has a great predictive charge not only in relation to the development of the world economy as a whole, but also its regional subsystems.

Models of cyclical geopolitical development (I. Wallerstein, P. Taylor, W. Thompson, J. Modelski and others) explore the process of transition from one “world order” to another, changes in the balance of power between great powers, the emergence of new conflict zones, centers of power . Thus, all these models are important in studying the processes of political regionalization of the world.

20. Program-target method. This method is a way of studying regional systems, their socio-economic component and, at the same time, an important tool of regional policy. Examples of targeted comprehensive programs in Russia are the presidential program "Economic and social development Far East and Transbaikalia for 1996–2005”, “ federal program development of the Lower Angara region”, adopted in 1999, etc.

The program-target method is aimed at solving difficult problems, is associated with the development of long-term forecasts of social economic development country and its regions.

The program-target method is actively used to solve the problems of regional policy in most countries of the world. In Italy, within the framework of regional policy, in 1957 the first law on "growth poles" was adopted. In accordance with it, in the south of Italy (this is a region with a strong lag behind industrial developed North) were built several large enterprises, for example, a metallurgical plant in Taranta. Growth poles are being created in France and Spain. The core of Japan's regional programs is the target setting for the development of infrastructure associated with an increase in exports.

Development and implementation targeted programs – characteristic politicians European Union. An example of such, for example, are the programs "Lingua", "Erasmus". The purpose of the first one is to eliminate language barrier, the second is the expansion of the exchange of students between the countries of the Union. In 1994–1999 within the framework of the EU, 13 targeted programs were financed - "Leader II" (social development of the countryside), "Urban" (liquidation of urban slums), "Reshar II" (coal industry), etc.

Similar information.

Uneven distribution of solar heat on the surface of the Earth, due to its sphericity and rotation around its axis, it forms, as we have already said, climatic zones (p. 54). Each of them is characterized by a certain direction and rhythm of natural phenomena (accumulation of biomass, intensity of soil formation and relief formation under the influence of external factors and etc.). Therefore, on the basis of climatic zones, geographical zones can be distinguished.

Total allocated 13 geographic zones: one equatorial, two subequatorial (northern and southern hemispheres), two tropical, two subtropical, two temperate, two subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic), and two polar (arctic and antarctic).

The very list of names already indicates the symmetrical arrangement of the belts in relation to the equator. Each of them is dominated by certain air masses. For belts bearing names without the prefix "", their own air masses are characteristic (equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic). On the contrary, in three pairs with the prefix "sub", neighboring geographical zones alternately dominate: in the summer half of the year in the northern hemisphere - more southern (and in the southern, on the contrary, - northern), in the winter half of the year - more northern (and in southern hemisphere- southern).

The latitudinally elongated geographical belts of land are heterogeneous. This is determined primarily by the position of one or another part of them in the oceanic or continental regions. The oceanic ones are better moistened, while the continental, inland ones, on the contrary, are drier: the influence of the oceans no longer extends here. On this basis, the belts are divided into sectors - oceanic and continental.

Sectorization is especially well expressed in the temperate and subtropical zones of Eurasia, where the land reaches its maximum size. Here, the humid forest landscapes of the oceanic margins (two oceanic sectors), as they move deeper into the mainland, are replaced by dry steppe, and then semi-desert and desert landscapes of the continental sector.

The sector pattern is least clearly manifested in the tropical, subequatorial and equatorial belts. In the tropics, precipitation is brought only to the eastern periphery of the belts. Wet are common here. As regards internal and western regions, then they are distinguished by a dry, hot climate, and deserts on western coasts out to the ocean. Therefore, only two sectors stand out in the tropics.

Two sectors are also distinguished in the equatorial and subequatorial belts. In the subequatorial - this is a constantly wet sector () with forest landscapes and a seasonally wet sector (includes the rest), occupied by light forests and savannahs. In the equatorial zone, part of the territory belongs to the constantly humid sector with humid "rain" forests (gileyas), and only the eastern part belongs to the seasonally wet sector, where mainly deciduous forests are common.

The sharpest "sectoral boundary" occurs where it runs along mountain barriers (for example, in the Cordillera of North America and the Andes - South). Here, the western oceanic sectors occupy a narrow coastal strip plains and adjacent mountain slopes.

Large components of belts - sectors are subdivided into smaller units - natural areas. The basis of such a subdivision is the differences in the conditions of moistening of the territory. However, it would be wrong to measure only the amount of precipitation. The ratio of moisture and heat is important here, since the same amount of precipitation, for example, less than 150-200 mm per year. can lead to the development of swamps (in the tundra) and to the formation of deserts (in the tropics).

To characterize moisture, there are many quantitative indicators, more than two dozen coefficients or indices (dryness or humidity). However, they are not all perfect. For our topic - finding out the effect of the ratio of heat and moisture on the differentiation of natural zones - it is better to take into account not the entire amount of precipitation for the year. but only the so-called gross moisture (precipitation runoff) and its radiation balance, because in biological processes practically does not participate. This indicator is called the "hydrothermal coefficient" (HTC). It expresses the main zonal regularities more fully than others. If it has a value greater than 10, then wet (mainly forest) landscapes develop, if less than 7 - herbaceous-shrub, and in the range from 7 to 10 - transitional types; with HTC less than 2 - deserts.

It is possible to build the ratio of heat and moisture in the main natural areas land on the plains (see p. 54). The space enclosed within the curve is an arena for the development of natural landscapes.

The diversity of landscapes is especially great in the hot climatic zone. This is a result of the large differences here in humid conditions at high temperatures. Scientists have long turned to the relationship of moisture conditions with the productivity of plant mass: it is highest in the deltaic regions of the sub-znatorial belt - up to 3 thousand centners of dry matter per 1 hectare per year; deltas, located at the junction of land and sea, are most of all provided with moisture and the necessary chemical elements in the soil, and at high temperatures continues round here. The names of natural zones are given according to the nature of the vegetation, since it most clearly reflects the zonal features of nature. in the same natural areas different continents vegetation cover has similarities. However, the distribution of vegetation is influenced not only by the zonal features of the climate, but also by other factors: the evolution of the continents, the features of the rocks that make up the surface horizons, and human influence. The location of the continents also plays a significant role in the distribution of modern vegetation. Thus, the territorial proximity between Eurasia and North America, especially in the Pacific regions, led to the obvious relationship of vegetation in the polar regions of both continents. On the contrary, the vegetation cover of the continents more distant from each other, located in the southern hemisphere, differs significantly in species composition. There are especially many endemics, i.e., species distributed in a limited area, in Australia - this is its long isolation.

The main barriers to plant migration were not only oceans, but also mountain ranges, although it happened that they served as pathways for plant settlement.

All these factors have led to the diversity of vegetation cover. the globe. In the next section, when describing natural zones, we will characterize the zonal type of vegetation, the properties of which are most consistent with climatic conditions certain zones. However, in terms of species composition, the vegetation of identical natural zones on different continents is characterized by significant differences.

Natural zones of the arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical belts most pronounced in Eurasia and North America. It's connected with large sizes land in these latitudes and vastness flat territories, as high mountains and violate, as we will see below, common features zonation. Most of the continents of South America, Africa, as well as southern part Asia are located in the equatorial, subequatorial and tropical zones.

Belts and natural zones become more complex as you move from the Arctic regions to the equator. In this direction, against the background of an increasing amount of heat, regional differences in humidification conditions increase. Hence the much more variegated character of landscapes in tropical latitudes.

Along with the zonality of natural processes, there is a phenomenon called intrazonality. Intrazonal soils, vegetation cover, various natural processes can occur in specific conditions and are found on separate territories in different natural areas. Moreover, usually intrazonal phenomena bear the imprint of the corresponding zone; we will see this below with concrete examples.

Natural areas are subdivided into smaller units - landscapes, which serve as the main cells of the geographic envelope.

Everything in landscapes natural ingredients are closely interconnected and interdependent, as if “fitted” to each other, that is, they form! natural . The diversity of landscapes is determined by many factors: the material composition and other features of the lithosphere, features of surface and groundwater, climate, the nature of the soil and vegetation cover, as well as inherited, "yesterday's" features.

At the present time, when direct impacts on the nature of human economic activity are increasing more and more, "virgin" landscapes are turning into "anthropogenic" ones.

In turn, landscapes, due to differences in microclimate, microrelief, and soil subtypes, can be subdivided into smaller ones. territorial complexes lower rank- tracts and facies - specific OBpai or their slopes, etc. . Homogeneous landscapes are made up of the same set and regularly repeating combinations of facies and tracts. At the same time, landscapes, of course, are not isolated and influence each other due to atmospheric circulation, migration of organisms, etc.

Local features of landscapes are individual and unique. But landscapes also have common zonal features that can be repeated even on different continents. For example, the Great Plains in North America resemble the steppe territories of the temperate continental parts of Eurasia. According to scrap, with some abstraction, land landscapes can be generalized, typified, which makes it possible to trace the regular distribution of zonal types of landscapes not only on each continent separately, but also on a planetary scale.

To make it easier to understand the location of geographical belts and zones on our land, imagine a hypothetical homogeneous flat land with an area equal to half the land area (let another part of the land similar in surface structure is located in another hemisphere, beyond the ocean). The outline of this continent in the northern hemisphere may resemble a cross between North America and Eurasia, and in the southern hemisphere - a cross between South America, Africa and Australia. Then applied to the boundaries of geographical zones and zones will reflect their generalized () contours on the plains of real continents.

As a result of studying the material in this chapter, the student should:

• know definition of the law of geographical zoning; names and location of geographic zones of Russia;
• be able to characterize each geographical area on the territory of Russia; explain the specifics of the configuration of the geographic zones of Russia;
• own understanding of zoning as a natural and cultural phenomenon.

Geographic zonality as a natural and cultural phenomenon

Medieval travelers, overcoming large spaces and observing landscapes, they have already noted the regular, not random nature of changes in nature and culture in space. Thus, the famous Arab geographer Al-Idrisi compiled a map of the Earth, where he showed seven climatic zones in the form of stripes. latitude zones- from the equatorial strip to the zone of the northern snowy desert.

Naturalists II half of XIX in. tried to explain the phenomenon of geographic zoning from a systemic standpoint.

Firstly, they found out that the main reason for the occurrence of this phenomenon is the spherical shape of the Earth, which is the reason for the uneven flow of heat on different geographical latitudes. On the basis of field studies carried out mainly on the Russian Plain, the outstanding Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev (he is credited with discovering the law of geographical zoning) showed that not only climate, but also other elements of natural waters, soils, vegetation, wildlife) are distributed over the earth's surface in a certain pattern. The scientist noted that "thanks to known position of our planet relative to the Sun, due to the rotation of the Earth, its sphericity, climate, vegetation and animals are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south, in a strictly defined order, with a regularity that allows the division of the globe into zones - polar, temperate, subtropical, equatorial etc." .

Secondly, scientists explained why geographic zones do not always have a latitudinal strike: if there were no oceans on the Earth and its entire surface would be flat, then the zones would encircle the entire Earth in the form of parallel stripes. But the presence, on the one hand, of the oceans, and on the other, of irregularities (mountains, hills) distorts the ideal picture. Geographic zoning is better expressed on the plains in the form of certain bands, belts or zones. It is no coincidence that the landscapes of the watershed plains and lowlands in geography are called zonal. To azonal include those landscapes that differ sharply from typical zonal landscapes. Let us recall, for example, the landscapes of the Nile River valley, which are completely different from the zonal landscapes of the surrounding tropical deserts. The most common azonal landscapes are landscapes river valleys and mountain landscapes.

However, the most important discovery made by V.V. Dokuchaev is that geographic zoning represents natural and cultural phenomenon. It affects not only nature, but also culture and human activities. According to Dokuchaev, a person is zonal in all manifestations of his life:“in customs, religion (especially in non-Christian religions), in beauty, even in sexual activity, in clothing, in all everyday situations; zonal - livestock ... cultivated vegetation, buildings, food and drink. Anyone ... who would have to travel from Arkhangelsk to Tiflis could easily see how much the buildings, dress, customs, customs of the population and their beauty change depending on the climate, animals, plants, soil characteristic of a particular area.

Under geographical area V. V. Dokuchaev understood such a system in which nature (climate, water, vegetation, wildlife) and man, his activities are interconnected, “tuned” to each other.

Obviously, the relationship between human communities and the surrounding landscapes was closer before the industrial revolution, when the technical capabilities of man were more modest, he lived closer to nature, and there were much fewer people. Nevertheless, each, even the most “technical”, people retains the memory of the “mother” (quite definite zonal or azonal) landscape, forest or wall, of the images of the Motherland associated with this landscape, not only visual, but also cultural and linguistic . The language preserves the memory of the developed landscapes and contains their characteristics.