I must say right away that I have not taken any of this yet and am trying to figure it out based on reviews and exam samples.

Why is it needed, because visa problems are solved by level B1? B2 level exams may be needed to study not at the university, but at educational institutions of a lower rank. Exam B2-C1 "Medicine" is needed for physicians. Exams for C1 are a more specific level, it is needed mainly only for admission to universities (or for some particularly corrosive employer who is trying to cut off unwanted applicants for workplace, demanding a piece of paper with C1). I would say that even if a piece of paper is not really needed, passing the exam is useful because the preparation structures knowledge well.
In Germany, they mostly take tests from the Goethe-Institut B2 or C1 or Telc tests. Those who want to study at universities take either DSH or TestDaF - other certificates are usually not accepted. AT recent times these two are actively trying to get in new exam from Tels C1 Hochschule, but its "acceptance" by universities is questionable.

As already discussed Deusch Test für Zuwanderer (DTZ, ), part of the exams for more high levels are also stepped: depending on the results shown, you can get both the B2 level and the C1 level, or something in between. The Goethe-Institut tests follow individual levels, Telc tests are both single and graded (Beruf, Medizin), DSH and TestDaF are graded. Each exam has its own characteristics and easy / difficult tasks and its own grading system. Therefore, one person can pass one test and fail another at the same level.

The average opinion for the hospital is that at level B2 Telk is easier than Goethe (as well as at level B1), and at level C1 the complexity is distributed in ascending order as follows: Goethe, Telk, DSH, DaF. In the Volkshochschule and the courses from the Arbeitsamt, they usually give Telk, but sometimes also Goethe.
Differences in levels (again, the average opinion of the hospital). B2 differs from B1 by doubling the required vocabulary, there are not so many new topics in terms of grammar - those topics that were previously covered "in general" and superficially are deepened (much attention different types complex sentences, adjective, passive). C1 differs by digging in style (you need to know synonyms for words), requirements for use formal expressions(typical phrases for discussions, descriptions of graphs and tables) and the need to apply complex structures literary language (subjunctive, passive in different forms and alternative passive structures, nominal constructions - the ability to convert them into verbs and vice versa, indirect speech).

Goethe B2 and Telk B2

Goethe B2 changes from next year 2019. The old exam will be accepted until the end of the year or until the middle of the next - depending on the place of delivery. Apparently, there will be problems with books for preparation, as publishers will not have time to react so quickly. Data for the new exam.
Telk can be retaken in parts, Goethe, perhaps, too.

Telk B2 and Telk B2 + Beruf

The parts come in a different order - see numbering. All texts and tasks of the second exam are related to business.

Telc B2-C1 Beruf

The texts and tasks of the test are business-oriented (the word Beruf means generally professional activity, but the tasks are such that not every working person can cope, since he has nothing to do with this at all, i.e. I would define the exam as being for business - sales, marketing, etc.).

1. Listening 40 minutes

Ordinary situations at work, extended statements, working discussion - choosing the right answers, correlating statements and people.

2. Reading 50 minutes

Match the statements with talking people(1 page of text). Text comprehension (2 pages), informative text comprehension (1 page) - selection of correct answers.

3. Grammar 20 minutes

The first part is to insert words into the text (the words are given). The second part is to insert expressions into the text (choose from those offered).

4. Writing (after a pause) 60 minutes

You need to write three texts: an informal email, a formal email (for example, to a client) and a formal letter within the organization.

5. Oral part

Smoltok on the picture - 4 minutes.
Presentation prepared at home, at work or school - 5 minutes.
Discussion (the picture shows two different opinions) - 6 minutes.

Goethe-Zertifikat C1 and Telc C1

According to reviews, C1 at the Goethe Institute is easier to pass than B2 there. Both tests can be retaken in parts (written and oral). The transfer period is limited.

DHS

This test is prepared and conducted by universities, focusing on the general structure and rules of the exam. Therefore, there may be universities that do not accept the results of a test taken at another university, although recently the universities seem to have agreed on the mutual recognition of test results. The complexity of the test differs from university to university. In some places the number of retakes is limited. Not everyone is allowed to take the exam - each university has its own access rules. Many universities post samples of their tests online. Convenient option- enroll in the semester of preparation for the test, which makes it possible to be considered a student and the oral part can be counted.
The exam is considered to be easier than the DaF in the "speaking" part, as you need to communicate with the examiner. On the other hand, it has grammar part, which is not in DaF.
Test level - B2 - C1, for admission to a university you need to get an average level of DHS 2. Points are calculated for the entire exam on average, and not separately in parts, but some universities do not allow the second part of the exam if the first is not passed to level 2, or do not issue a certificate if the second part fails.

Test example.
1. Reading and grammar 90 minutes (60 and 30 minutes respectively)

Leseverstein. This is a text on 3 A4 pages followed by a block of tasks (add sentences, answer questions in full sentences, choose a title).
Grammatik or Wissenschaftssprachliche Strukturen. Consists of 5 blocks, each with 2-3 questions. For example:

Formen Sie das erweiterte Partizip in einen Relativsatz um oder umgekehrt!
Formen Sie die direkte in die indirekte Rede um. Benutzen Sie den Konjunktiv!
Setzen Sie den Aktivsatz ins Passiv / Passiversatz oder umgekehrt!
Formen Sie die Nominalkonstruktion in einen Nebensatz um oder umgekehrt!
Ersetzen Sie das passende Modalverb!

2. Listening (after a pause) for about 70-80 minutes.
The text is read 2 times.

3. Writing (after a pause) 70 minutes.

Description of a graph or chart, explanation of a quote, essay on keywords(250 words).

TestDaF (Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache)

This is an old, stable test that has many reviews, preparation books, and examples. Test results are accepted at all universities. Compared to the DSH test, many consider this test more difficult, since the oral part is slandered on the computer microphone at the same time as other examiners in the same room and each part of the exam is scored separately, and not output average rating. Some universities in Germany are guided by the average score of this test, others do not accept its results if at least one part has a grade of 3. On the other hand, the test is standard, it is taken more often than the DHS, it is not tied to a particular university and is taken not only in Germany but also beyond.
The test covers the material of levels B2 - C1. A person who has received TDN3 (TestDaF-Niveaustufe 3) is considered to have a level of B2, TDN4 - between B2 and C1, TDN5 - full C1.
The test can be repeated any number of times. The certificate is not limited in time, but universities may have their own opinion on this if the student does not live in a German-speaking country.

1. Reading 60 minutes

2. Listening 40 minutes

Listen to the text once (taking notes), write answers to the questions. Listen to the second task 1 time, answer yes / no. The third text - twice, write the answers to the questions.

3. Writing 60 minutes

Description of a graph or diagram, expressing your opinion on this issue.

4. Oral part 30 minutes

Answers to questions on situations are dictated to the microphone (7 situations, from everyday ones (recording somewhere, answering a friend on a certain topic) to the need to speak out on a discussion topic).

Telc C1 Hochschule

A new exam that claims to be recognized for study at universities (which must be checked at each individual university). The structure is the same as in the Telk C1 exam, but selected scientific topics and topics related to student life. In the "Letter" part, you need to speak on quotes. In the oral part, a short report (preparation on one of the proposed topics - 20 minutes) and a discussion on a quote.

The artillery of Russia and the world, along with other states, has introduced the most significant innovations - the transformation of a smooth-bore gun loaded from the muzzle into a rifled one loaded from the breech (lock). The use of streamlined projectiles and various types fuses with adjustable time setting; more powerful gunpowders, such as cordite, which appeared in Britain before the First World War; the development of rolling systems, which made it possible to increase the rate of fire and relieved the gun crew from the hard work of rolling into the firing position after each shot; connection in one assembly of the projectile, propellant charge and fuse; the use of shrapnel shells, after the explosion, scattering small steel particles in all directions.

Russian artillery, capable of firing large projectiles, sharply highlighted the problem of weapon durability. In 1854, during the Crimean War, Sir William Armstrong, a British hydraulic engineer, proposed the wrought iron gun barrel method of first twisting iron bars and then welding them together by forging. The gun barrel was additionally strengthened with wrought iron rings. Armstrong set up a business that made guns of several sizes. One of the most famous was his 12-pounder rifled gun with a 7.6 cm (3 in) bore and a screw lock mechanism.

Artillery of the Second World War (WWII), in particular Soviet Union, probably had the largest potential among European armies. At the same time, the Red Army experienced the purges of the commander-in-chief Joseph Stalin and withstood a difficult winter war with Finland at the end of the decade. During this period the Soviet design bureaus took a conservative approach to technology.
The first modernization effort came with the improvement of the 76.2 mm M00/02 field gun in 1930, which included improved ammunition and the replacement of barrels for parts of the gun fleet, new version the guns were named M02/30. Six years later, the 76.2 mm M1936 field gun appeared, with a carriage from the 107 mm.

Heavy artilleryof all armies, and rather rare materials from the time of Hitler's blitzkrieg, whose army debugged and without delay crossed Polish border. german army was the most modern and best equipped army in the world. Wehrmacht artillery operated in close cooperation with infantry and aviation, trying to quickly occupy the territory and deprive Polish army ways of communication. The world shuddered upon learning of a new armed conflict in Europe.

Artillery of the USSR in the positional conduct of hostilities on the Western Front in last war and horror in the trenches of the military leaders of some countries created new priorities in the tactics of using artillery. They believed that in the second global conflict XX century decisive factors become mobile firepower and accuracy of fire.

AT " orange book» ranking approaches are defined information systems according to the degree of reliability (safety).

For the first time, four levels of confidence have been introduced in the criteria - D, C, B and BUT, which are divided into classes. There are only six security classes - C1, С2, В1, В2, ВЗ, А1(listed in order of severity).

Level A has the highest security. Each class expands or supplements the requirements specified in the previous class and represents a significant difference in the trust of individual users or organizations.

As you move from level With to BUT ever more stringent requirements are placed on the reliability of systems. Levels C and B are subdivided into classes ( С1, С2, В1, В2, ВЗ) with a gradual increase in reliability. Thus, in total, six safety classes are practically used - С1, С2, В1, В2, ВЗ, А1. In order for a system to be assigned to a certain class as a result of the certification procedure, its security policy and warranty must satisfy the following requirements. Since the requirements are only added during the transition to each next class, only new ones are additionally entered, which is inherent in this class, grouping the requirements in accordance with the previous presentation.

Each security class includes a set of requirements, taking into account security policy elements and assurance requirements.

Level D

This level is intended for systems that are considered unsatisfactory.

Level C

Otherwise, arbitrary access control.

Class C1

The security policy and level of assurance for a given class must meet the following critical requirements:

the trusted computing base must manage the access of named users to named objects;

users must identify themselves, and authentication information must be protected from unauthorized access;

the trusted computing base must maintain an area for its own execution, protected from external influences;

hardware or software must be available to periodically check the correct functioning of the hardware and firmware components of the trusted computing base;

protection mechanisms must be tested (there are no ways to bypass or destroy the protections of the trusted computing base);

the approach to security and its application in the implementation of a trusted computing base should be described.

Class C2

(in addition to C1):

access rights must be granular to the user. All objects must be subject to access control.

When a stored object is allocated from the resource pool of the trusted computing base, all traces of its use must be eliminated.

each user of the system must be uniquely identified. Each logged action must be associated with a specific user.

the trusted computing base must create, maintain, and protect a log of logging information relating to access to objects controlled by the base.

testing should confirm the absence of obvious weaknesses in the mechanisms for isolating resources and protecting registration information.

Level B

Also called forced access control.

Class B1

(in addition to C2):

the trusted computing base must manage the security labels associated with each subject and stored object.

the trusted computing base must ensure the implementation of forced access control of all subjects to all stored objects.

the trusted computing base must ensure the mutual isolation of processes by separating their address spaces.

a group of specialists who fully understand the implementation of a trusted computing base must subject the architecture description, source and object codes to thorough analysis and testing.

there must be an informal or formal model of the security policy supported by the trusted computing base.

Class B2

(in addition to IN 1):

all system resources should be labeled (for example, ROM), directly or indirectly available to subjects.

to the trusted computing base, a trusted communication path must be maintained for the user performing the initial identification and authentication operations.

it should be possible to register events related to the organization of secret channels of exchange with memory.

the trusted computing base must be internally structured into well-defined, relatively independent modules.

the system architect must carefully analyze the possibilities of organizing covert memory exchange channels and evaluate the maximum throughput of each identified channel.

the relative resistance of the trusted computing base to penetration attempts must be demonstrated.

the security policy model should be formal. A trusted computing base must have top-level descriptive specifications that accurately and completely define its interface.

in the process of developing and maintaining a trusted computing base, a configuration management system should be used to control changes in top-level descriptive specifications, other architectural data, implementation documentation, source code, a working version of the object code, test data and documentation.

tests should confirm the effectiveness of measures to reduce bandwidth secret channels of information transmission.

VZ class

(in addition to IN 2):

1) for arbitrary access control, access control lists indicating the allowed modes must be used.

Level A

It is called verifiable security. Class A1

(in addition to EOI): 1) testing must demonstrate that the implementation of the trusted computing base conforms to the formal top-level specifications.

in addition to descriptive, formal top-level specifications should be presented. It is necessary to use modern methods of formal specification and verification of systems.

The configuration management mechanism should cover the entire life cycle and all security related components of the system.

the correspondence between formal top-level specifications and source code must be described.

To more accurately track progress in the study of foreign languages, a certain system has been invented. This article will discuss what constitutes the B2 level (the level of English is above average).

English language proficiency levels

There is a pan-European scale that assesses the level of possession of any foreign language. English title- Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). This is a certain system of standards that allows you to determine Conditionally knowledge of the language is divided into 6 levels: from A1 to C2. Each of these steps also corresponds certain indicators other grading systems. This table shows the ratio of language proficiency levels in various assessment systems.

When can I start learning English at the Upper-Intermediate level?

The division between the levels of knowledge of any foreign language is very arbitrary, but there are certain indicators by which you can determine the current progress.

English proficiency levels B2 - C1 correspond to practically fluent written and oral speech. A higher level involves an understanding of terminology in various highly specialized areas, the ability to speak on serious topics, to conduct business meeting and read classic literature in the original. It is difficult to establish clear demarcations between the levels of knowledge. But, before deciding to overcome the level of English proficiency B2, you need to make sure that you are fluent in reading B1 literature, as well as being fluent in the basic rules of grammar, can more or less speak fluently in the target language, read the press and modern entertainment literature. And although there are still unfamiliar words, common understanding text is not affected, you catch the meaning and understand what is at stake.

According to such a system, the linguistic skills of a student studying any foreign language, including English, are evaluated. Level B2, which means "advanced stage", is above average, but at this stage there may still be some shortcomings that require further elaboration.

Knowledge of grammar rules

Of course, grammar is important place when learning any foreign language. The following are the main key topics, knowledge of which is necessary at the Upper-Intermediate level.

• Time. B2 - the level of English, at which you are already fluent in all aspects and clearly understand in which case it is necessary to use Simple, Continuous, Perfect or Perfect Continuous. Also, do you know the table? irregular verbs and put into practice.
• Understand usage (Active voice).
• You can convert direct speech into indirect speech.
• You know modal verbs and know how to use them, understanding the subtle differences between words such as may, might, can, ought,
• You know impersonal forms of the verb: participle, infinitive and gerund.

vocabulary

Considering that a good knowledge of grammar rules is already achieved at the B1 level, the B2 level of English involves the development of other skills: fluency, listening, reading literature and, of course, increasing vocabulary. At this level, attention should be paid not only to individual words, but also phraseological units, phrasal verbs and more complex constructions.

One of the most common mistakes when learning any foreign language - the desire to memorize separate lists of words, without subsequently using them in their written and oral speech.

Any new words and phrases should be included in your speech. Those lexical units that are not used will soon be simply forgotten. When reading, write down unfamiliar words and try to make sentences, dialogues, stories or articles with them.

First of all, you should learn foreign words, whose equivalents you use in Everyday life, talking about yourself, your interests, hobbies, work, goals, relatives and friends. Another common mistake is trying to memorize lists of words, most of which you probably don't have to use often.

One of the best ways is to keep a diary. From the point of view of replenishing the vocabulary, this method is useful in that you learn to use the vocabulary that is directly related to your life. Recording daily own observations, events, goals and dreams, you use exactly the words that you use in your native speech.

Idioms and phraseological units

B2 - the level of English, which assumes that you know not only simple words and constructions, but also understand and know how to use a number of idioms. This is speech turns, which are unique to given language and without a literal translation. The meaning of these phraseological units is conveyed by equivalent phrases acceptable for the target language.

Knowing these set expressions will help make speech more figurative and colorful. The table shows only a small part of all possible phraseological units. You can make your own list of phrases that you will later include in your speech.

Phrasal verbs

AT English language there is such a thing as phrasal verbs. Most often, this is a combination of a verb with a preposition or adverb, in connection with which the meaning of the original word changes. These are peculiar stable phrases that do not obey any rules, exist only as indivisible semantic units and bear semantic load only in this form.

• be about - to be nearby;
• be after - achieve something;
• be back - return;
• break out - suddenly start, break out;
• bring up - bring up;
• call for - call for someone;
• clear up - put in order;
• come about - happen;
• come across - meet unexpectedly;
• look for - look for.

Phrasal verbs are very common in English. However, they are mostly used in everyday speech.

Expanding vocabulary with synonyms

Try to replace frequently used words with synonyms. This will help to make the speech more refined, beautiful and refined.

Reading

There is a special adapted literature designed to gradually progress from the initial level (A1) to the advanced level (C2).

It is predominantly works of art famous authors. Books are adapted in such a way that a certain set of grammatical structures and vocabulary corresponds to a specific level of foreign language proficiency. The best way to understand at what level you are now is to read two or three pages and count the number of unfamiliar words. If you come across no more than 20-25 new lexical units So you might as well start reading this book. To extract maximum benefit from the reading process, it is advisable to write out all unfamiliar words and phrases, and then work them out additionally. That is, include them in your vocabulary when compiling stories, dialogues, keeping a diary and writing essays. Otherwise, the vocabulary is quickly forgotten. You can move on to the next step when you feel that the work is on given level becomes boring, and there are practically no new lexical units.

However, level B2 is the level of English, which allows you to read not only lightweight books, but also entertainment literature. contemporary authors, newspapers and magazines.

Hearing comprehension

Like reading literature, there are quite a few adapted audiobooks. If you are still experiencing some difficulty in listening, you can start with books that correspond to more low level. For example, if your grammar and vocabulary are around B1 level, but you have difficulty understanding English by ear, take A2 level books in audio format. Over time, you will get used to foreign speech.

A few tips:

• Listen to a chapter of a book without first reading the text. Understand, determine that you managed to understand how acceptable this rate of speech is for you, how many unfamiliar words.
• Write down from memory what you learned.
• Listen again.
• Read the text, write down unfamiliar words and determine their meaning in a dictionary.
• Turn recording back on.

This kind of work will help you as soon as possible get used to English speech and increase the level of knowledge.

Levels of knowledge of English B2 - C1 allow you to expand opportunities. For a change, you can include films and series in your training. It is advisable to find films with subtitles. However, throughout long period time to use the method of learning a language by watching movies with subtitles is undesirable. Otherwise, you will get used to reading the text, and not listening to the speech of the actors.

This is one of the best methods to help you learn English. Level B2 is quite sufficient for watching entertainment shows and series.

Development of written language

In order to learn how to write fluently in the target language, you need to devote time to this lesson every day. Only regular work will help you begin to speak English more fluently. Choose the most suitable method for you. This can be writing stories, essays, keeping a diary or blog, communicating on social networks. Try to enrich your daily vocabulary, including new expressions and constructions. B2 - the level of English, which corresponds to the level above the average, which means that you must have the following skills:

• you know how to build not only simple, but also complex and complex sentences;
• use different designs
• apply set expressions, idioms, phrasal verbs;
• you can write an essay, story or article on a topic familiar to you;
• you communicate quite freely with native English speakers, discussing everyday issues.

Oral speech

Upper-Intermediate or B2 - the level of English corresponds to almost fluency in oral speech, provided that you discuss simple everyday topics.

The best way to improve your speaking skills is to communicate with a native English speaker. Levels of knowledge of English B2 - C1 already allow you to communicate quite freely on everyday topics with English speakers. The easiest way is to find friends on social networks or language exchange sites. However, if this is not possible, alternative methods can be applied:

• briefly retell the books you read, the TV shows or movies you watched;
• try to describe everything you see: the landscape outside the window, the picture, various objects;
• make a list of questions, then try to give a detailed answer to each of them.

It is very difficult to establish a clear distinction between the levels of foreign language proficiency. However, this article will allow to form general idea and give approximate answers to questions about what English B2 is, what level it is and what knowledge you need to have at this stage of training.

There are several levels of knowledge in German German language(levels of the German language), speaking about the level at which a person speaks it. As you probably already know, these levels are denoted following abbreviations: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2. Consider the meaning of each of the levels:

BUT- basic language proficiency (A1 and A2)

AT- independent language proficiency (B1 and B2)

With– competent language skills (C1 - Fluency German, C2 - almost like a native language).

The following concepts are also very common:

BUT- base step (Grundstufe)

AT – middle step (Mittelstufe)

With – the highest level (Oberstufe)

These levels of German language proficiency got their start with the creation of the so-called "General European Reference Framework for Language Proficiency" (Gemeinsamer Europaeischer Referenzrahmen fuer Sprachen - GERs). For full understanding You must imagine it as pretty big book, which clearly states what kind of knowledge of the German language a German language teacher should have in its various fields ( auditory perception, Reading, Speaking, etc.).

Accurate description of the levels

Below we give an exact description of each of the levels according to GERs: