Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

NOU VPO "Ural Financial and Legal Institute"

Faculty of Law

Test

by discipline:

"Russian language and culture of speech"

On the topic: Purity, richness and expressiveness of speech

Yekaterinburg

Introduction

Purity of speech

Richness of speech

Expressiveness of speech

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. National language represents a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons.

Supreme form The national Russian language is the Russian literary language.

The concept of culture of speech is closely connected with the literary language. The ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners, possession of a culture of speech is a peculiar characteristic of professional suitability for people of various professions: lawyers, politicians, journalists, teachers of schools and universities, radio and television workers, managers, journalists.

The culture of speech is understood as the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out, which allow, in a certain situation of communication and while observing the ethics of communication, to ensure the necessary effect of achieving the goals of communication.

The culture of speech contains three components:

1.normative ( language norm(literary norm) - rules of use speech means a certain period of development of the literary language);

2.communicative (skills of selection and use of language means in the process of speech communication);

.ethnic (knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations).

Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, so it is important to know the basic, communicative qualities of speech:

the accuracy of speech is the use of words and expressions in full accordance with its linguistic meaning;

intelligibility of speech - is mainly due to the totality of the listener's knowledge in the area to which the interlocutor's speech belongs in its content;

purity of speech - the absence in it of elements that are alien to the literary language for moral and ethical reasons, the social aspects of the issue of purity of speech;

the richness and diversity of speech is the wide and free use of language units in speech, allowing you to optimally express information;

expressiveness of speech is a quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive possibilities inherent in the language.

All of the listed communicative qualities of speech must be taken into account in the process of speech interaction. In my work, I chose to study such communicative qualities of speech as purity, richness and expressiveness.

In the works of B.N. Golovin, including in his textbook for universities "Fundamentals of the Culture of Speech", it is argued that for the culture of speech, in general, only one communicative aspect is significant, in terms of which normativity should also be considered. The culture of speech is defined as a set of communicative qualities of good speech. These qualities are revealed on the basis of the correlation of speech with separate, as B. N. Golovin puts it, non-speech structures. Non-speech structures include: language as a certain basis that produces speech; thinking; consciousness; reality; the person is the addressee of the speech; communication conditions. This complex of non-speech structures requires the following good qualities from speech, that is, corresponding to these structures: the correctness of speech (in other words, normativity), its purity (the absence of dialectisms, jargon, etc., which also applies to the introduction regulatory aspect), accuracy, consistency, expressiveness, figurativeness, accessibility, effectiveness and relevance. There is no doubt that all these qualities are really important for the evaluation of many specific texts in a communicative aspect. And the task of determining the text on a scale of "bad - good" in the communicative aspect could be considered solved if for this it would be enough to attach these nine features to any text.

Language performs different communicative tasks, serves different areas of communication. It is one thing the language of science and quite another ordinary colloquial speech. Each sphere of communication, in accordance with the communicative tasks that are set "in it, makes its own requirements for the language. Therefore, it is impossible to speak in a communicative plan about the culture of language proficiency in general. We should talk about the culture of proficiency in different functional varieties of the language. What is good in one functional variety language, it turns out to be completely unacceptable in another.

Purity of speech

Purity of speech implies consistent observance of stylistic and ethical norms. Purity is the quality of speech that, if not observed, is the most noticeable to listeners. It is interesting that the “contaminated” speech of others is noticed even by those who themselves do not comply with this requirement. The need for careful attention to the purity of speech in the language of means mass media due to huge influence, which renders the printed, and even more so the word spoken from the television screen, to a mass audience. Publicistic speech forms the speech culture of the whole society. Why do weed words appear in our speech? This is the excitement during speaking, and the inability to think publicly, to choose the right words to frame their thoughts, and, of course, the poverty of the speaker's individual vocabulary. Care for the purity of speech improves quality speech activity.

Richness of speech

Wealth is the wide and free use of language units in speech, allowing you to optimally express information. The richness and diversity, the originality of the speech of the speaker or writer largely depends on how much he realizes what the originality of the native language is, its richness.

The Russian language is one of the most developed and processed languages ​​in the world, with the richest book and written tradition. What is the richness of the Russian language, what are the properties of the lexical composition, grammatical structure, sound side language create its positive qualities?

The richness of any language is determined, first of all, by the richness of the dictionary. Lexical wealth Russian language is reflected in various linguistic dictionaries. Thus, the "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language", published in 1847, contains about 115 thousand words. V. I. Dal included more than 200 thousand words in the “Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, D. N. Ushakov in “ Dictionary Russian language” - about 90 thousand words.

"Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" in 17 volumes consists of more than 120 thousand words. The speaker needs to have a sufficient vocabulary to express his thoughts clearly and clearly. It is important to constantly take care of expanding this stock, to try to use the riches of the native language. The richness of the language is also determined by the semantic richness of the word, i.e. ambiguity. Is it important whether the word is chosen to express the thought? Does the listener understand what is being said, what does the speaker mean? Most often in speech one of the meanings is used polysemantic word. However, polysemy can also be used as a method of enriching the content of speech. This allows you to make the content more capacious and expressive.

Our language is very rich in synonyms, that is, close in meaning. Synonyms make our speech more colorful, more diverse, help to avoid repeating the same words, allow us to figuratively express a thought. Often, synonyms, differing in a shade of meanings, single out one particular feature of the quality of an object, a phenomenon or some kind of sign of an action and contribute to a deeper comprehensive description of the phenomena of reality.

There are many words in the Russian language that convey the positive or negative attitude of the speaker to the subject of thought. The presence of emotionally colored words is explained by the fact that our language is rich in various suffixes that convey human feelings: affection, irony, neglect, contempt. M.V. Lomonosov wrote about this feature of the Russian language in the following way: “... derogatory names, like a courtyard, are paid, girl, not in every language equal contentment. Russian and Italian are very rich in them, German is poor, French is even poorer.

The Russian language is unusually rich in figurative phraseology. How much subtle folk humor, irony, richest history Russian people is enclosed in them. Russian phraseology is presented in " phraseological dictionary Russian language” edited by A.N. Molotkov. It contains four thousand dictionary entries. It is impossible not to pay attention to the amazing proverbs and sayings that the Russian language contains. So in the collection of proverbs of the Russian people, V.I. Dal’s five hundred sayings are devoted to the topic “Motherland” alone.

The Russian language compares favorably with other languages ​​in terms of diversity and quantity and the formation of new words. New words are created with the help of prefixes, suffixes, alternation of sounds in the root, addition of two or more words, by rethinking, splitting words into homonyms. The most productive is morphological way education, with the help of which dozens of new words are created from the same root. As a result, the dictionary of the Russian language is constantly enriched with new words.

Wretched, poor language speech is perceived as negative characteristic person, testifies to his superficial knowledge, low speech culture, insufficient vocabulary. But the main thing: poverty, dullness, monotony of language is associated with poverty, dullness and not originality of thought.

Expressiveness of speech

culture speech communicative russian

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. It should be noted that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonational, stylistic.

A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. B.N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:

independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;

good knowledge language, its expressive possibilities;

good knowledge of properties and features language styles;

systematic and conscious training of speech skills;

the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;

Before talking about visual means language, which helps to make speech figurative, emotional, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, what possibilities it contains. Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, etc. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, the action of a quality, but also to create figurative representation about them. The word makes it possible to use it in its direct meaning, directly connecting with certain objects, the names of which it is. And in figurative meaning denoting the facts of reality not directly, but through relation to the corresponding direct concepts. The concept of figurative use of the word is associated with such artistic means expressiveness of speech as a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, widely used in public speaking and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of names by similarity. Metaphor is formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Different parts of speech can act as metaphors: verb, noun, adjective. To give expressiveness to speech, metaphors must be original, unusual, and evoke emotional associations. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two identically named objects or phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then when using metonymy, words that have received the same name should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broadly closely related to each other. An example of metonymy is the use of the words audience, class, plant, collective farmto refer to people. Synecdochatrope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

The means of figurativeness and expressiveness of the language should also include comparison - a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature, epithets - artistic definitions, inversion - a change in the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose.

Increases the expressiveness of speech such a stylistic figure as repetitions, the use of question-answer moves, the use of direct and indirect speech, rhetorical questions, phraseological units as well as proverbs and sayings.

All the listed paths, figures, techniques are far from exhausting the whole variety means of expression Russian speech, but resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “zests of the language” are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener, they come at the right time and place. It makes no sense to memorize them, but it is necessary to absorb them into oneself, developing and improving speech culture, taste and flair.

Conclusion

In the modern world, in today's realities of our country, the question of preserving the uniqueness of the Russian language is particularly acute. The apparent effectiveness of reducing and simplifying the language for the exchange of information is the philosophy of the "Cannibal Ellochka" from the immortal work of I. Ilf, E. Petrov.

We must appreciate all the diversity of our native language. The correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of visual and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, winged words, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual vocabulary, is the key to the effectiveness of communication, which determines the demand for a person in society, his competitiveness, prospects and opportunities.

Bibliography

1.B.N. Golovin "Fundamentals of speech culture". 2nd ed. - M., 1988.

indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of listeners. It should be borne in mind that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". There are different approaches to describing this quality of speech. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonational, stylistic *
A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. So, A. N. Vasilyeva writes:
Obviously, the expressiveness of the proof of the theorem and the expressiveness of the advertisement are essentially different both in content and in form. Therefore, one should first of all distinguish between informational expressiveness (object-logical, logical-conceptual) and expressiveness of sensory expression and influence. Moreover, both of these types can have subspecies: open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression. The ratio of these species AND SUB-TYPES according to the main styles is different.
B. N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:
independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;
indifference, the interest of the author of the speech to what he speaks or writes about, and to those for whom he speaks or writes;
good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;
good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles. lei;
systematic and conscious training of speech skills;
the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;
the conscious intention of the author of the speech to speak and write expressively, the psychological target setting for expressiveness.
Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional.
Before analyzing various visual means of language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main building material, what possibilities does yo include?
Words serve as names of objects, phenomena, actions
that is, everything that surrounds a person * However, the word also has an aesthetic function * it is able not only to name an object, action, quality * but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is associated with the phenomenon of ambiguity * It is known that Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous (pavement, sidewalk, trolley bus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality * - ambiguous * Polysemy in some then the degree reflects those complex relationships that exist in reality * So * if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become a name and another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind*
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are *
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “cover with varnish” and figurative - “embellish, represent something in a better way than it actually is” * The figurative use of the word is most often associated with the concept of the figurative meaning of the word. For example, in the word splinter, a direct meaning is distinguished - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person” * The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious. Speaking of in large numbers something, you can use the word a lot in the literal sense, or you can use other words in a figurative sense - a forest of pipes, a hail of blows, an abyss of books, a cloud of mosquitoes, an abyss of affairs and g * d *
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphors are often used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it's raining, watch steel, iron character, warm relationship, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. Here, for example, what metaphors were used in the farewell speech to freshmen by the outstanding physiologist Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky:
Every year, new waves of young people come from different condos to the university to replace their predecessors. What a powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply.
There are several metaphors in this passage: waves of youth, what a powerful wind drives these waves here, breaking through barriers, to these treasured walls. They create a certain emotional mood listeners are made to feel the significance of what is happening.
A special effect is achieved when the direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide in speech. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” In this sentence, the verb shocked has a direct meaning (“make tremble, shake, hesitate”) and figurative (“strongly excite, make a great impression”).
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors, "Too shiny
syllable, - wrote Aristotle, - makes imperceptible both characters and thoughts.
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.
Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat wider - closely bound friend with friend.
In K. M. Simonov, in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and it is easy to breathe in the hall.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory, collective farm to refer to people.
The word can be called the material and products from this material (Sgold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense / For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. place names refer to the people living in the area. So, Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M. A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.
Good name Ivan!
Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is compared (“object”), secondly, what is compared with (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ).
So, A. V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the I All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about organic connection all levels of education, about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:
Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.
In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When a book or an article is read, then an incomprehensible place can be re-read, returned to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.
Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in
originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing together objects, phenomena or actions that, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other, P * Sergeyich in the book "The Art of Speech in Court" writes:
The greater the differences in the objects of comparison, the more unexpected the similarities, the better the comparison.
Originally, for example, I. P. Pavlov showed the role of facts in science, referring to young scientists:
Accustom yourself to restraint and patience * Learn to do the dirty work in science * Study, compare, accumulate facts.
No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air.
Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off* Without them, your "theories" are empty attempts*
But in studying, experimenting, observing, try not to remain at the surface of the facts. Don't become archivists of facts. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin* Persistently seek the laws that govern them.
In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation * To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison that allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to better understand the topic of conversation *
Bright, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; "go through the red thread", etc. It is bad when false comparisons are used in speech * Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of ​​the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech *
Epithets - artistic definitions * They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement * Pay attention to what expressive epithets he finds
A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled (emphasized by us. - Auth.).
As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of its clarity and intelligibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov may be useful in this respect. In one of his letters he noted:
... when reading proofs, cross out, where possible, definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and ps delays attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians, sat silently, looking around timidly and timidly.” It does not immediately fit into the brain.
A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. There is no common understanding of the content of the term epithet. AT scientific literature usually there are three types of epithets: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: crackling frost, quiet evening, fast run); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red maiden, open field, wolf earrings); individually-author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev).
Great help in the selection of fresh epithets and their successful use can be provided by the Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language by K. S. Gorbachevich, E. P. Khablo (L., 1979).
For clarity, we will cite materials from the dictionary entry for the word authority, omitting the examples of the use of epithets in works of art given there.
Authority, With a positive assessment. Boundless, big, important (outdated *), universal, high, enormous, - deserved, healthy, exceptional, unshakable, unshakable, unlimited, irrefutable, indisputable, infallible, adamant, indisputable, universally recognized, huge, justified, recognized, lasting, holy (obsolete), solid, stable, good*
With a negative rating. Penny (colloquial), cheap (colloquial *), exaggerated (colloquial), fake (spacious), low, unjustified, soaked (colloquial), undermined, staggering, doubtful, shaky.
Rare epithets - Gothy, doctoral, fiery.
To enliven speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc. *
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. * For example, Marcus Tullius Cicero delivered several speeches against Lucius Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites (as full-fledged Roman citizens were officially called in ancient Rome), Cicero said:
... A sense of honor is fighting on our side, on that - impudence; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here is valor, there is crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, justice, moderation, courage, prudence, all virtues fight against injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all kinds of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes- with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - impudence, shame - depravity, loyalty - deceit, valor - crime, steadfastness - furious
good name - disgrace, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of listeners, arouses in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. Such a technique, based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called antithesis. As P. Sergeyevich said:
... the main advantages of this figure are that both parts of the antithesis mutually illuminate one another; thought wins in strength; at the same time, the thought is expressed in a compressed form, and this also increases its expressiveness.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: “The courageous one blames himself, the cowardly blames his comrade”; “Great in body, but small in deed”, “Labor always gives, but laziness only takes”; "It's thick on the head, but the head is empty." To compare two phenomena, proverbs use antonyms - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, labor - laziness, thick - empty. Many lines from artistic, journalistic, poetic works are built on this principle. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
Here is an excerpt from A. Solzhenitsyn's Nobel lecture. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposite concepts allowed the writer to express main idea more vividly and emotionally, more precisely express your attitude to the described phenomena:
What, according to one scale, seems from a distance an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible prosperity, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for elemental. disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. There are different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile and a move away are humiliating, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk - staggers the imagination, fills the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and easier -
us - and prison terms of twenty-five years * and punishment cells, where
walls of ice, where people are stripped to their underwear, and lunatic asylums for the healthy, and frontier executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere.
A valuable means of expression in a speech is inversion, i.e., changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose * So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject . Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality that is constantly evolving, with reality forever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to declarative sentence the predicate at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even if it consists of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades * Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which is translated from Greek means unity. Here is how this technique was used by L. I * Leonov in a report dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the birth of A. S. Griboyedov:
There are books that are read; there are books that are studied patient people; there are books that are kept in the heart of the nation. My liberated people highly appreciated the noble wrath of "Woe from Wit" and, setting off on a long and difficult journey, took this book with them ***
The writer repeated the combination three times there are books in the same syntactic constructions and thus prepared the listeners for the idea that the work of A, S, Griboyedov “Woe from Wit” occupies a special place in the hearts of Russian people.
Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. Repeating, they perform an expressive function* Here is an excerpt from A* E* Fersman's lecture "Stone in the Culture of the Future". repeating over and over interrogative particle does the scientist enhance the intonational coloring of speech, creates a special emotional mood;
And when we try to characterize the future of technology in this way, you involuntarily guess the role that our precious stone will play in whom.
Does it not, more than anything else, meet precisely these qualities? Is it yourself gems are not the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can match the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?
*..Aren't corundum in its numerous modifications, topaz and garnet the main grinding materials, and only new artificial products of human genius can be compared with them?
Are not quartz, zircon, diamond and corundum one of the most stable chemical groupings of nature, and are not the fire resistance and immutability of many of them under high temperatures do not far exceed the fire resistance of the vast majority of other bodies?
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, make more visual the core thought contained in them,
In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. Here is an example of an epiphora from an article by V. G. Belinsky:
For such poets, it is most unprofitable to appear in transitional epochs in the development of societies; but the true ruin of their talent lies in the false conviction that feeling is enough for a poet.*. This is especially harmful for the poets of our time: now all poets, even the great ones, must also be thinkers, otherwise talent will not help either.*. Science, living, modern science, has now become the tutor of art, and without it, inspiration is weak, talent is powerless!*.
If you ask the question: “What form of speech does a lecture, report, speech at a meeting refer to? Is it a dialogue or a monologue?”, no one will think for a long time. Everyone will say: “Of course, a monologue * Only one person speaks, his speech is not designed for the verbal reaction of the interlocutor. The performance, moreover, can be long. But is it good? After all, listeners also want to say something: to object to the speaker or agree with him, ask to clarify some thought, clarify something, explain an incomprehensible word. How to proceed in such a case? There is an exit*
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and engages them in a scientific search for truth.
Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-answer move is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques. The proof of this is the lecture "Cold Light", read by the largest master of popularization of scientific knowledge S. I. Vavilov:
The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not completely black for all colors* Only yellow absorbed nm to a greater extent, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum, the alcohol flame behaves like a warm emitter with the properties of a black body.
As explains new physics amazing properties cold light? The tremendous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in in general terms understand and explain luminescence.
How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? Reasons in various occasions substantially different.
The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.
The question-answer move is used not only to make speech expressive and emotional, but also used as an effective tool in hidden polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubt among the audience, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-answer technique.
The lecture is also enlivened by the replicas of the audience supposed by the speaker, with whom he either agrees or argues. These lines also introduce elements of dialogue into the monologue. Thus, the well-known Russian historian V.O. Let us quote the passages from his lecture:
Except for the rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to seem to ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say: this is vanity, vanity, pretense* So, absolutely so. Let me just draw your attention to two very nice impulses.<..>
And look how she (the noblewoman Fedosya Prokofievna Morozova * - Auth.), Left a young widow, in a "pacified manner", in our mourning, left the house: she was put into an expensive carriage, decorated with silver and mosaics, at six or twelve horses with rattling chains; She was followed by servants, slaves and slaves of a hundred people, and with a particularly solemn train from two hundred and three hundred, protecting the honor and health of their empress mother. The queen of Assyria, and only, you will say, is a slave of a superstitious and conceited magnificent age. Good*
In excerpts, V. O. Klyuchevsky highlights the opinion of the audience with the words you will say and then formulates his attitude to this: So, absolutely so. Good.
Techniques of dialogization of a monologue, characteristic of oratory, have become widespread in journalism and fiction.
In addition to the question-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Addressing the audience with a question is an effective technique.
The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman's lecture "Green Stones of Russia":
What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between deep laws of distribution of chemical elements in earth's crust and the spread in it of its inanimate flowers - a precious stone?!
The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.
The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
The means of expression include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. Sometimes it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides that need to be taken into account. For example, some people build their speech on some quotes. Such speeches cause bewilderment, that is, listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, the abundance of quotations tires the audience, since it is difficult to hear by ear what is said belongs to the author, and what to those whom he quotes . Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, informative, original or least known from the quotations chosen for the presentation.
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Speakers do not always skillfully introduce a quote, do not take into account how it is perceived by ear.
It is necessary to present the quotation in such a way that it is easy to catch where it begins and ends.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in the context.
It is impossible to arbitrarily change the text, i.e., rearrange words, enter another instead of one word, change the grammatical form of words.
The quotation must be accurate.
It is necessary to know who the quoted words belong to, what source they are taken from, what the output of the source is. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the literature used is called, or when questions from the audience are answered if anyone present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which one has to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about people's feelings, approximate (or fictional) direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, attracts the attention of listeners. The introduction of direct speech helps to dialogize the statement. Successfully, for example, used direct speech in the lecture "Scientific and technological progress and mathematics" Academician B. V. Gnedenko;
After we demonstrated the machine and our guests worked with it themselves, Professor Ivanov, whom I told you about, said: “Come work with us, we can diagnose well, with us you will be able to create a machine that will diagnose no worse world's best diagnostician.
The general practitioner, a specialist in the diagnosis of diseases of the digestive tract, said differently: “Why did you take on such a difficult task as diagnosing heart diseases. Let's work together and we will create a machine that will diagnose with virtually no errors.
Finally, psychiatrists reacted like this: “Well, why did you take up the diagnosis of heart disease,” they said. - Every engineer will tell you that the heart is a simple pump that drives fluid through the pipes. But no one knows the human psyche. Let's work with us. Things cannot go on here without mathematicians. And any step in the study of higher nervous activity for humanity will be the greatest boon. Not only human diseases are associated with the psyche. All daily human activity depends on it. We do not know the possibilities of the human psyche, we do not know how much we can contaminate it. We do not know whether we are teaching people correctly, whether we are treating them correctly.”
Experienced speakers not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, determine their attitude to it, and sometimes enter into a debate with a specific (or fictional) person whose speech is quoted. Let us give an example of the use of this technique in the lecture "On the most important subjects of education", read by the professor of Moscow University P * S, Alexandrov:
Yesterday, the statement of one of the largest modern physicists, the old Göttingen professor Max Born: “The future of science depends on whether this need, impulse and desire for creativity can be harmonized and harmonized with the conditions of social life and ethics” *
To these words one can only add that not only the fate of science, but, perhaps, the fate of mankind depends on this.
As a form of transferring someone else's statements into speeches, indirect speech is also used, which conveys someone's words from a third person. An example of the introduction of indirect speech is found in the above-mentioned lecture by P. S. Aleksandrov;
Tchaikovsky spoke of music as a special means of communication between people, which cannot be replaced by any other means of communication. I remember one concert at the conservatory: they gave Beethoven's First Symphony* I noticed the expression on the faces of our students.
Indirect speech, compared to direct speech, is less expressive and expressive * As rightly noted by P * Sergeicht
... to convey in a completely understandable way someone else's feeling, someone else's thought is incomparably more difficult in descriptive expressions than in those words in which this feeling or thought is expressed directly. * * The last way of expression is both more precise and understandable, and, most importantly, more convincing for listeners.
A good effect is given by a skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the speech * On the one hand, this avoids abundant quoting, and on the other hand, it makes the statement more diverse and vivid. As an example, we use an excerpt from a lecture on the work of N, A * Nekrasov:
We are convinced that truly innovative creations always cause conflicting opinions, ambiguous assessments of contemporaries. Remember the critics' rejection of The Thunderstorm, the struggle and controversy surrounding the novel Fathers to Sons*, * The same fate befell Nekrasov's lyrics. The opinions and assessments of readers and critics are sharply divided *
So, a connoisseur of elegance, a well-known esthete critic Vasily Botkin, argued that Nekrasov’s poems cannot “truly excite - what a rude syllable, clumsy phrases.*, as if it were not a sculptor who sculpted from noble marble, but a peasant chopped a log with an ax”,
At the same time, Belinsky "gave his head to cut off that Nekrasov has talent", that he is "a poet - and a true poet." Turgenev "in a moment of irritation assured that "poetry did not spend the night in Nekrasov's verses," but he also admitted that the poem "I'm going at night ..." he "completely lost my mind": "I repeat this amazing work and have already learned by heart.
Nekrasov himself exclaimed contritely: “You have no poetry of your own. but my stern, clumsy verse"* And Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov called him "the only fine hope of our literature*," the most beloved Russian poet*.
Which of them is right? How to reconcile the seemingly irreconcilable? Where is the truth?
The work that we will do today will allow us to approach the solution of this issue.
Rich presentation material contains oral folk art* A real treasure for the speaker - proverbs and sayings. These are apt figurative folk expressions with instructive meaning, summarizing the various phenomena of life* In brief sayings, the people expressed knowledge of reality, attitude to its various manifestations* They help to understand the history of our people, teach to love the Motherland, to be honest and fair. Proverbs magnify labor, condemn laziness, ridicule greed, strengthen faith in goodness and justice, call to respect knowledge and books. “And what a luxury, what a meaning, what is the use of every saying of ours! What a gold!” - this is how A. S. Pushkin spoke about Russian proverbs *
Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the creator people, the experience of many generations. “The proverb is not said in vain,” says folk wisdom. They express joy and sorrow, anger and sadness, love and hate, irony and humor. Therefore, in speech, proverbs and sayings acquire special significance * They not only enhance the expressiveness of speech, give sharpness, deepen the content of speeches, but also help find a way to the hearts of listeners, win their respect and location.
What attracts proverbs and sayings? Why are they recommended for use in oral presentations?
The generalizing nature of proverbs and sayings allows in a figurative and extremely short form express the essence of the statement. Popular sayings are also given to formulate individual provisions of the statement.
Often proverbs and sayings serve as a starting point for starting a speech, developing a topic, revealing a position, or they are the final chord, a conclusion, they are used to summarize what has been said * Here, for example, how A. Solzhenitsyn ended the Nobel lecture:
In Russian, proverbs about truth are favorite * They persistently express a considerable difficult folk experience, and sometimes amazingly:
ONE WORD OF TRUTH WILL DRAW THE WHOLE WORLD*
It is on such an imaginary violation of the law of conservation of mass and energy that my own activity and my appeal to writers all over the world are based*
Proverbs and sayings are also given as illustrations, figurative parallels to what is being said. This use of proverbs and sayings allows you to express the idea more vividly and convincingly. Figurative illustrations are remembered for a long time by listeners. Interestingly, M. A. Sholokhov beat a folk saying in one of his speeches:
old folk saying, long born where swift mountain streams seethe, says: "Only small rivers are noisy."
The meetings of regional and regional writers' organizations, meetings filled with sharp polemics and fervent speeches, died down. Republican conventions were held at a more restrained level.
An example of the use of proverbs as figurative parallels that reinforce an idea is contained in the speech of G. E. Nikolaeva:
“A fisherman brings a fisherman from afar,” there is such a proverb. Talent from afar will see talent. The mind from afar recognizes the mind and reaches out to it. Principledness recognizes principles from afar and is drawn to it. Limitedness and unscrupulousness also from afar recognize limitedness and unscrupulousness and are also drawn to each other. Therefore, it is dangerous when people who are in charge of a creative organization are mediocre and unprincipled, who do not know the value of genuine ascetic writing work, are limited in their convictions and are not capable of a masterly, objective view of literature.
In this speech, the proverb is not only an illustration. The subsequent sentences have the same syntactic structure, close to that of the proverb. A slightly different word order creates a greater contrast and is explained by the fact that nouns have talent, intelligence, adherence to principles, limitedness, unscrupulousness in spelling and sounding of the form of the nominative and accusative cases. Compare: "A fisherman sees a fisherman from afar", but "Talent from afar will see talent." The closeness of the structure of the folk proverb and the author's sentences makes the latter aphoristic, authentic. The meaning of the proverb extends to other phenomena of life, at the same time expanding and concretizing.
Proverbs and sayings enliven the statement, attract the attention of listeners, creating a certain psychological mood.
Sometimes proverbs and sayings are attracted to give the statement a playful-ironic connotation. In this sense
In addition, the proverb is found in the speech of S. V * Mikhalkov at the congress of writers, in which he speaks of satirical and comedic genres:
Too often we have to listen to such arguments: “Where have you seen such fools in our reality? Such official balls are not typical for our state apparatus*. But after all, we know that there are such fools, and that they spoil our whole life in order, and if the viewer laughs heartily at them, then this is exactly what is required. After all, it’s not for nothing that the popular proverb says: “Fear the cow in front, the horse in the back, and the fool on all sides” *
The above proverb gives the words an ironic connotation, enlivens the performance and arouses the approval of people.
The success of using proverbs and sayings in speech depends on how well the necessary proverbs and sayings are chosen * No wonder it says: "A proverb is good in harmony and in color."
The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech. It is unusually rich and diverse in its composition, has great stylistic possibilities, due to its internal properties, which make up the specifics of phraseological units * This is semantic capacity, emotionally expressive coloring, a variety of associative links * Expression of an emotional, subjective beginning in speech * appraisal, semantic saturation of phraseological units act constantly, regardless of the will of the speaker *
Phraseological units help to say a lot with a few words, since they define not only the subject, but also its attribute, not only the action, but also its circumstances * The complexity of the semantics of phraseological units distinguishes them from single-word synonyms * So, a stable combination in a big way means not just “rich” , but "richly, luxuriously, not embarrassed by means." Phraseologism to cover up traces means not just “destroy, eliminate something”, but “eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something” *
Phraseology attracts speakers with its expressiveness, the potential ability to positively or negatively evaluate the phenomenon, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude towards it. This is especially pronounced in the so-called phraseological units-characteristics, for example: white crow, decoy duck, prodigal son, intimidating dozen, one field of a berry, a dog in the manger.
Phraseologisms deserve special attention, the evaluation of which is due to their origin. Indeed, in order to understand the accusatory nature of phraseological units, for example, the gifts of the Danes, the scapegoat, one must know the history of the emergence of a stable phrase. Why are the gifts of the Danaans "insidious gifts that bring death to those who receive them", what is the history of the appearance of this phraseological unit? The expression is taken from the Greek legends about the Trojan War. “The Danes, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to a trick: they built a huge wooden horse, left him at the walls of Troy, and they themselves pretended to be sailing away from the coast of Troas. The priest Laocoon, seeing this horse and knowing the tricks of the Danaans, exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoön and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the city out. At night, the Danaans, who hid inside the horse, went out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who returned on ships, and thus captured Troy.
The origin of the expression scapegoat is also noteworthy. It is found in the Bible and is associated with a special rite among the ancient Jews to lay the sins of the whole people on a living goat, which is why they call a person who is blamed for someone else's fault, responsible for others.
Phraseologisms, originating from ancient mythology, are quite diverse. Each such phraseological unit causes certain associative links, honeycomb refers to the images of the heroes of antiquity, which determines their semantic richness and expressiveness. So, set phrase the sword of Damocles in the meaning of "imminent, threatening danger" is associated with the ancient Greek legend of Damocles, who was one of the close associates of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder and enviously spoke of him as the happiest of people. Dionysius decided to teach the envious man a lesson and seated him in his place during the feast. And here Damocles saw a sharp sword hanging over his head, hanging on a horsehair. Dionysius explained* that this is a symbol those dangers to which he, as a ruler, is constantly exposed, despite the seeming happy life *
Phraseologism Procrustean bed comes from the nickname of the robber Polypemon. In Greek mythology, it is said that Procrustes laid all those he caught on his bed and chopped off the legs of those * who did not fit, and for those for whom the bed was long, he extended his legs * The Procrustean bed means “that which is a measure for something, to which something is forcibly adjusted or adapted.
Ancient phraseological units serve as an excellent means for conveying the author's irony, ridicule. Such a function is performed by the revolutions of the exploits of Hercules, the Trojan horse, Sisyphean labor, Pandora's box, between Scylya and Charybdis, Pyrrhic victory, Aesopian language, Babylonian pandemonium.
The stylistic use of many emotionally expressive phraseological units is determined by the peculiarity of the relationship between the general meaning of a phraseological unit and the meaning of its components. Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of the visibility, “pictureness” contained in the freest phrase * on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, “picturesqueness”, which “by inheritance” is transmitted to homonymous phraseological units: roll up your sleeves - “diligently, diligently * vigorously do something”; with open arms - "friendly, cordial (to receive, meet someone)"; count on fingers - "very little, little."
The picturesqueness of a phraseological unit, due to the visibility of a free phrase homonymous to it * becomes especially visible when the direct and figurative meaning is played out at the same time. This is one of the stylistic devices. Let us give an example of such use of a phraseological unit in one of the journalistic articles; "Emergency Exit" - advice to company owners facing takeovers, mergers and other digestive functions competition. True, an emergency exit does not guarantee against disappearance in the element of competition. You pull yourself together, and they take you by the throat. Breathing stops, hands drop.
You pull yourself together - a phraseological unit with the meaning “to achieve complete self-control”, and take it by the throat means “oppress, force you to act in a certain way”. In the cited text, a phraseological unit is used, but the direct meaning of the free phrase “take by the throat” shines through it. The phrase “hands down” has a direct meaning, but the meaning of a phraseological unit pulsates in it - “to lose the ability or desire to act, to do something”.
This chapter contains only some of the tropes, figures, techniques that help make speech figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means. mother tongue. When resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “flowers of eloquence”, as the prominent master of Russian judicial eloquence P.S. Porohovshchikov (P.Sergeich) called them, are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener. They cannot, and do not need to be memorized, they can only be absorbed into oneself along with folk speech, developing and improving speech culture, speech taste and flair.
The culture of speech is not only a sign high culture human, but also due to the latter, so it is important to systematically engage in self-education. Great importance to improve speech culture, work with reference literature, familiarity with various linguistic dictionaries has. An invaluable service will be rendered by an appeal to domestic literature, especially to poetry.
With great writers, every single word is chosen consciously, with purpose- P. S. Porokhovshikov taught young speakers, - each individual turnover is deliberately created for a given thought.<..>We<...>must know Pushkin by heart; whether we like poetry or not, it doesn't matter; are obliged to know their native language in all its abundance. Try to get rich daily.
It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording - the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increase the effectiveness of communication, increase the effectiveness spoken word*

Expressiveness of speech

Expressiveness of speech- this is a quality that can maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader, influence not only the mind, but also feelings, imagination. expressive speech enhances the effectiveness of the impact of the speech on the addressee.

There are different approaches to describing this quality. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. First of all, the phonetic side of speech contributes to the creation of expressiveness: diction (clear pronunciation of sounds), voice (strength, tempo, timbre), intonation (pitch, pauses).

The traditional linguistic basis of expressiveness is the presence in the language of figurative and expressive means of the lexical level (tropes) and the syntactic level (stylistic figures).

trails- these are words and turns of speech used in a figurative sense, naming one object (phenomenon, process, property) to designate another.

The main types of trails: epithet, comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbola, litotes, personification, allegory, paraphrase.

Epithet(from Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, type of trail. cheerful wind, dead silence, gray-haired antiquity, black melancholy. With a broad interpretation, an epithet is called not only an adjective that defines a noun, but also a noun-application, as well as an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb. Frost-voivode, tramp-wind, old man-ocean; proudly flies Petrel(Bitter); Petrograd lived in these January nights tensely, agitatedly, viciously, furiously.(A.N. Tolstoy). Permanent epithet. An epithet often found in folk poetry passing from one work to another. The sea is blue, the field is clear, the sun is red, the clouds are black, good fellow, green grass, red maiden.

Comparison. Trope, consisting in the likening of one object to another on the basis of a common feature they have. Comparison is expressed: a) instrumental case. Snow dust is in the air(Gorbatov);

b) shape comparative degree adjective or adverb. You are sweeter than everyone, dearer than everyone, Russian, loamy, hard earth(Surkov); c) turnovers with comparative unions. Below, like a steel mirror, lakes of jets turn blue(Tyutchev). Whiter, there are snowy mountains, clouds go to the west(Lermontov). The moon rose very crimson and gloomy, as if sick(Chekhov); d) lexically (using words similar, similar etc.). Her love for her son was like madness(Bitter). pyramidal poplars look like mourning cypresses(Serafimovich).

Metaphor(gr. metaphor - transfer). The use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. "Noble Nest"(direct meaning of the word nest- “bird dwelling”, figuratively - “human community”), aircraft wing(cf.: bird wing), golden autumn(cf.: gold chain). Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness of the use of words. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects or phenomena can be based on a variety of features. The prow of a ship, the leg of a table, the dawn of life, the flow of speech, a steel pen, a clock hand, a doorknob, a piece of paper.

Metonymy(gr. metonymia - renaming). The use of the name of one object instead of the name of another object on the basis of an external or internal connection between them; kind of trail. The connection can be: a) between the object and the material from which the object is made. Not on silver- ate on gold(Griboyedov); b) between content and containing. Well, eat another plate, my dear(Krylov); c) between the action and the instrument of this action. The pen of his revenge breathes(A.K. Tolstoy); d) between the author and his work. I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(Pushkin); e) between a place and people in that place. But our open bivouac was quiet(Lermontov).

Synecdoche(gr. synekdoche - connotation). One of the tropes, a type of metonymy (see this term in alphabetical order), consisting in the transfer of meaning from one subject to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The following types of synecdoche are most commonly used:

a) a part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door

jackets,

overcoats,

Sheeps...

(Mayakovsky);

b) the whole in the meaning of the part:

- Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet? Well, isn't it mean people! (Twardowski);

c) the singular in the meaning of the general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

(Lermontov);

d) replacement of a number by a set:

Millions of us. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness. (Block);

e) replacement of a specific concept by a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"(Mayakovsky).

Hyperbola. A figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, value, etc. of any object, phenomenon. By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. AT artistic speech hyperbole is often intertwined with other means - metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc. In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned(Mayakovsky).

Litotes(gr. litotes - simplicity, smallness, moderation). Trope opposite hyperbole(cm.). Litota is a figurative expression, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. The litote is in folk tales: a boy with a finger, a little man with a fingernail. Below a thin bylinochka, you need to bow your head(Nekrasov).

personification (gr. prosopopoieia, from prosopon - face + poieo - I do). The trope, consisting in the fact that qualities or actions are attributed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, a living being not endowed with consciousness, human, - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel. Personification is one of the oldest tropes, owing its origin to the animalistic worldview and all kinds of religious beliefs; occupies a large place in mythology, in folklore: the phenomena of nature, everyday life are personified; fantastic and zoological characters of epics, fairy tales, legends. AT modern period most often found in the language of fiction: more - in poetry, in lesser degree- in prose. Do you howl about him, night wind, do you lament so madly about him? Tyutchev ). Her nurse lay down beside her in the bedchamber- silence(Block). When, raging in the stormy darkness, the sea played with the shores...(Pushkin).

Allegory(Greek allegoria - allegory). Trope, which consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. For example, in fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed is shown in the form of a wolf, deceit is shown in the form of a snake, etc.

Paraphrase and paraphrase. Same as paraphrase and paraphrase (from gren. paraphrasis - descriptive phrase, description). 1. An expression that is a descriptive transfer of the meaning of another expression or word. Who writes these lines(instead of "I" in the author's speech). 2. Trope, consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of them essential features or pointing to them character traits. King of beasts(instead of "lion"). Foggy Albion(instead of "England"). Wed from Pushkin: singer Giaura and Juan(Byron) Lithuanian singer(Mickiewicz), creator of Macbeth(Shakespeare).

Paths perform the following functions: they make speech attractive, emotional, visual, allow you to better understand the internal state of a person, and contribute to the original reflection of reality.

Figures of speech- special shapes syntactic constructions that enhance the impact of speech on the addressee.

There are the following types of stylistic figures: anaphora, epiphora, inversion, parallelism, antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, parceling. In the practice of oratory, special figures have also been developed that are used to dialogize monologue speech, attracting the attention of the listener: rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, question-answer move.

Anaphora(Greek anaphora - bringing up). A stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose passage): Repetition of the same combinations of sounds: Thunderstorm demolished bridges, Coffins from a blurry cemetery.

(Pushkin). Repetition of the same morphemes or parts compound words: ... Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse!(Lermontov). Repetition of the same words: Not in vain the winds were blowing, the storm was not in vain.(Yesenin). Repetition of the same syntactic constructions: Do I wander along the noisy streets, Do I enter a crowded temple, I'm sitting between foolish youths; I surrender to my dreams.

(Pushkin). Anaphora is widely used when constructing a period whose members (sentences that are part of an increase or decrease) begin with the same official words. For example: Few Togo that I am condemned to such a terrible fate; little of that before her end she must see how her father and mother will die in inexpressible torment, for the salvation of which she would be ready to give her life twenty times,- little of everything this: it is necessary that before my end I should have a chance to see and hear words and love, which I have not seen(Gogol).

Epiphora(gr. epiphora from epi - after + phoros - bearing). A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.). I would like to know why I titular adviser? Why exactly titular councilor ? (Gogol).

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me.

Can't find a place for me quiet house

Near peaceful fire!(Block)

Inversion(lat. inversio - permutation, reversal). The arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Inversion is one of the stylistic figures. Bear hunting is dangerous, a wounded beast is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers from childhood, swept away(Koptyaeva) (inversion of the main members of the sentence). The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages.(Neverov) (inversion of agreed definitions). At first I was very upset(Pushkin) (inversion of the circumstance of measure and degree). Inversion is associated not only with a change in the position of the correlative members of the sentence between them, but also with the place of the word in the sentence. The most advantageous position is that member of the sentence that is brought to its beginning (unless this place is usual for him) or, on the contrary, is moved to the end of the sentence, especially if something new is reported at the absolute end of the sentence. Helped them pure chance(subject inverted). I don't hope I'm on his neatness(predicate inverted). Behind Motherland partisan heroes fought(complement inverted). The story he wrote great (definition inverted). With joy received this message(the circumstance of the mode of action is inverted).

Inversion is widely used in the language of fiction as expressive stylistic device. Compare the inversion of the subject, predicate, object, definition and circumstance in the sentences below. Seahorses are much more interesting.(Kataev). His sharpness and subtlety of instinct struck me.(Pushkin). It was annoying, they were waiting for the battle(Lermontov). A dazzlingly bright flame escaped from the furnace(Gladkov). They all agreed to behave kindly with her in the presence of Stepan Mikhailovich.(Aksakov). Yes, we were very friendly.(L. Tolstoy). Here my friend burned with shame(Turgenev).

Parallelism(from Greek parallelos - next to walking). the same syntactic construction(the same arrangement of similar members of the sentence) of adjacent sentences or segments of speech. Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains(Bryusov). When you walk along the snowy ridges, When you enter the clouds up to your chest, - Know how to look at the earth from a height! Don't you dare look down on the ground! (Island)

Parallelism is negative. Parallelism based on negative comparison. Not a flock of ravens flew On piles of smoldering bones, Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights The remote gang was going.(Pushkin)

Antithesis (gr. antithesis - opposition). A stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, images. Where the table was food, there is a coffin(Derzhavin). Antithesis is often built on antonyms. Rich and feasts on weekdays, and the poor grieves on a holiday(proverb).

gradation(lat. gradatio - gradual increase). A stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of parts of a statement (words, segments of a sentence), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase (less often weakening) of the impression they produce is created. I defeated him, crushed him, destroyed him.

Oxymoron(gr. oxymoron - witty-stupid). A stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another, as a result of which a new semantic quality arises. An oxymoron always contains an element of surprise. Bitter joy, ringing silence, eloquent silence, sweet grief, sad joy. The title of the work is often built on an oxymoron: L. Tolstoy "Living Dead", Y. Bondarev "Hot Snow".

Parceling(goes back to French parceile from lat. particuia - particle). Such a division of a sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. He soon quarreled with the girl. And that's why(Ch. Uspensky). Elena is in trouble. Big(Panferov). Flerov - he can do everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too(Bitter). Mitrofanov chuckled and stirred the coffee. squinted(N. Ilyina). Parceling is widely used in modern fiction as a means of figurativeness, a special stylistic device that allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings. Parceling differs from attachment in that the parceled parts are always outside the main sentence, while the connecting constructions can be both within the main sentence and outside it (in the latter case, parceling and attachment are actually the same).

Rhetorical question. The same as an interrogative-rhetorical sentence (used as a stylistic figure). A sentence containing an affirmation or negation in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered. Who is not affected by novelty?(Chekhov).

Rhetorical appeal. A stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Dreams Dreams! Where is your sweetness? (Pushkin).

It should be borne in mind that the mentioned tropes and stylistic figures, which help to make speech expressive, figurative, emotional, are good only if they are appropriate in specific situation, skillfully used, allow you to achieve the goals of communication, increase the effectiveness of communication.

Polyunion (polysyndeton)- a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, due to which the role of each of them is emphasized, the unity of the enumeration is created, and the expressiveness of speech is enhanced. For example: The ocean was moving before my eyes, and it swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.

Ellipsis(from the Greek elleipsis - omission, lack) - a stylistic figure, consisting in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of the sentence (language unit) and giving speech dynamism, liveliness. For example: An order was given to him to the west, to her in the other direction.; Tanya - 5, and Valya - 3; My mother is a doctor.

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. It should be noted that in science there is no single a certain concept"expressiveness of speech". Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, word-formation, morphological, syntactic, intonational and stylistic.

A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. B. N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:

independence of thinking, activity of creating the author of speech;

good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;

good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles;

systematic and conscious training of speech skills;

the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;

Before talking about the visual means of language, which helps to make speech figurative, emotional, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, what possibilities it contains. Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, etc. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name the object, the action of quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them. The word makes it possible to use it in its direct meaning, directly connecting with certain objects, the names of which it is. And in a figurative sense, denoting the facts of reality not directly, but through relation to the corresponding direct concepts. The concept of figurative use of a word is associated with such artistic means of expressive speech as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of names by similarity. Metaphor is formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Different parts of speech can act as metaphors: verb, noun, adjective. To give expressiveness to speech, metaphors must be original, unusual, and evoke emotional associations. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two identically named objects or phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then when using metonymy, words that have received the same name should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. An example of metonymy is the use of the words audience, class, plant, collective farm to refer to people. Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

The means of figurativeness and expressiveness of the language should also include comparison - a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that has a common feature, epithets - artistic definitions, inversion - a change in the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose.

The expressiveness of speech is increased by such a stylistic figure as repetitions, the use of question-answer techniques, the use of direct and indirect speech, rhetorical questions, phraseological turns, as well as proverbs and sayings.

All of the listed paths, figures, techniques are far from exhausting the whole variety of expressive means of Russian speech, but resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “highlights of the language” are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener, they come at the right time and place. . It makes no sense to memorize them, but it is necessary to absorb them into oneself, developing and improving speech culture, taste and flair.

Exercise

Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement famous linguist V.V. Vinogradova: "All means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them." Arguing your answer, give 2 (two) examples from the read text.

Option 1

The Russian language has a whole arsenal of expressive means, and the skill of the writer lies precisely in their skillful use.

Let us find in the text of O. Pavlova the arguments to this statement.

Thus, Annushka's experiences and sensations are recreated with the help of various means of expression.

For example, the repetition of the future tense verbs “I will go look for”, “I will know” in sentences 18, 20, 24 helps to understand: Annushka wants to prove to Grishka that if one day she does not see him in the playroom, she will not be inactive, and the boy will certainly be found in hospital. And the extended metaphor in sentence 29 makes it possible to feel how close the girl took the boy's experiences to her heart.

The linguist V.V. was right. Vinogradov, who argued that "all means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them."

Option 2

“All the means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them,” the linguist V.V. Vinogradov.

I understand this statement as follows: the richness of the Russian language lies in the fact that linguistic means can significantly expand the narrative and tell a lot about the character of the characters, and this depends only on the skill of the writer.

I will try to prove this idea by referring to the text of O. Pavlova.

It is interesting to see how Annushka's mood changes in the dialogue with the boy: her confidence and optimism disappear as he asks her questions. This is illustrated by the punctuation marks at the end of her answers: the exclamation point (proposition 18) turns into a dot (proposition 20) and then into an ellipsis (proposition 24), conveying the girl's confusion.

At the end of the story, we see again exclamation points, completing each sentence (33-36) and reflecting Annushka's unshakable confidence that the boy will certainly recover, and the lexical repetition "no one ever disappears for good" reinforces this idea (propositions 35, 36) and emphasizes the girl's excitement.

The examples given are evidence of the validity of the assertion of the scientist V.V. Vinogradov.

Option 3

Famous linguist Vinogradov V.V. believed that "all means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them."

Indeed, evidence of the richness of the expressive means of the Russian language can be found in any literary text.

Let us turn to the story of O. Pavlova. In it, the fragility of the boy is conveyed with the help of morphemic means: diminutive-petting suffixes draw the image of the main character: “weak body”, “thin shoulders-Ki”. But the personification of “creeping ... terrible darkness” (proposition 31) reinforces the image of an invisible threat, which a defenseless child cannot oppose.

Thus, the skillful use of these linguistic means helped the author convey his sympathetic attitude towards the main character.

Text for work

(1) Annushka worked as a hospital clown; once a week, she and other volunteers came to the hospital and entertained seriously ill children who lived there for months. (2) She played with them, learned funny poems, and the kids, with all their hearts attached to her, were looking forward to their Nyusha, as she introduced herself to them.

(3) Parents and doctors did not allow all children to play with clowns: many children were forbidden to worry, to experience strong, even joyful emotions, because illnesses could cause complications.

(4) Fortunately, there were very few patients in November. (5) So this time only five came to the game room.

(6) Among them, as always, was Grishka - a thin and pale boy of ten years old in appearance. (7) 0n could not play outdoor games, because he was always forced to carry an iron stand with a dropper, from which life flowed drop by drop into his weak body. (8) Grishka called the rack a “giraffe” and tied his yellow checkered scarf on it, probably so that the “giraffe” would not catch a cold. (9) The boy always kept aloof and never laughed. (Yu) The head nurse, sighing sadly, once said to Nyusha: “He is unlikely to play with you, and don’t try to cheer him up: (11) The boy is seven spans in the forehead, and it would be great if he was also happy , but Grishenka is somehow on his own. (12) It will be easy to observe from the outside.

(13) That's why Nyusha was surprised when the boy approached her during a break between games and asked her to go out into the corridor with him for a while - "to learn something important."

(14) They left the playroom, closing the door behind them, and stood at the window.

(15) - Nyusha, aren't you scared?

(16) - Why should I be afraid?

(17) - That you will come one day, and I will not be with the children.

(18) - So, I will go to your room to look for you!

(19) - And I won't be in the ward either.

(20) - Then I'll go look for you to the big window near the dining room, where you like to stand.

(21) - And the window will not. (22) And it won't be in the other playroom. (23) Aren't you afraid that one day you will come, but I'm gone for good?

(24) - So, I will know that you have been discharged ... "

(25) - With a giraffe, - Grishka nodded at the stand with a dropper, - they won’t be discharged anymore.

(26) Grishka looked at Nyusha without blinking, and she, unable to withstand the gaze of those waiting only for an honest answer

eye, backed away to the window, sat on the windowsill and, gently pulling the boy to her, gently hugged him.

(27) - Grisha...

(28) They were alone in the empty cool corridor, and the light of the cooling, weakening November sun penetrated the corridor only a couple of meters. (29) Nyusha imagined: if the hospital building were suddenly cut in two, then in the very middle of the resulting cut, all people would see them - Nyusha, Grishka and a giraffe escaping from a long corridor of darkness in a narrowing sunbeam. (30) And Nyusha suddenly dunyal: and the sun is about to leave, and she is about to leave, and all the people will leave, but Grishka will remain. (31) One on one with terrible darkness creeping up on his thin shoulders.

(32) And then Nyusha began to speak firmly and loudly so that her voice could be heard even in the farthest and darkest corner of the corridor:

(33) - Such a day when I come, and you will not be for good, will never come! (34) Because you will always be! (Zb) Nobody ever, listen! (Zb) No one ever disappears for good, until ... until ... until he laughs in someone's heart!

(37) A treacherous lump in the throat made Nyusha sob unexpectedly loudly, which made Grishka shudder and frightened away from her. (38) The girl turned away, hastily, childishly - with her palms - wiped her tears and looked at him.

(39) - Oh-ee-oh-oh! (40) What are you ... - the boy seemed unable to find the words. (41) - What are you! (42) Like... a raccoon!

(43) And then Grishka laughed. (44) 3 was hit by no one before in the hospital with the first sonorous laughter not heard. (45) The hand with which he held on to the giraffe was shaking, and the giraffe was shaking with it, ringing subtly, as if echoing the boy's fervent laughter.

(46) Understanding nothing, Nyusha looked at her reflection in the window glass. (47) Wiping her tears, she smeared the leaking mascara with identical stripes from her eyes somewhere to her ears and really looked like a desperate raccoon who had just won a fight with the most predatory beast.

(48) The playroom door opened, and the head nurse appeared in the opening. (49) She probably wanted to ask something, but did not have time. (50) 0na saw the funny Nyusha the raccoon, saw Grishka and the giraffe shaking with laughter next to her, and - “Grishka is laughing!” - burst into happy laughter. (51) Everyone who was in the room poured into the corridor. (52) And laughter swept like a bright whirlwind in all corners, picking up the dumbfounded Nyusha.

(53) And Grishka laughed heartily and could not think of anything.

(54) All he wanted was to laugh and laugh further, just as easily, just as contagiously and loudly, and he was glad that other children were laughing with him. (55) And now he was not at all afraid. (56) Because he laughed in everyone's heart, and they laughed in his heart. (57) And this meant that none of them from now on will ever disappear for good ...

(According to O. Pavlova)