1.2 Classification of emotions

Each emotion is unique in its sources, experiences, external manifestations and methods of regulation. Man most emotional creature, he has a highly differentiated means of external expression of emotions and a wide variety of internal experiences. There are many classifications of emotions. In addition to the fact that they are divided into positive and negative, using the criterion of mobilization of the body's resources, sthenic and asthenic emotions (from the Greek "stenos"). Sthenic emotions increase activity, causing a surge of energy and uplift, while asthenic emotions act in the opposite way. According to the needs, the lower emotions associated with the satisfaction of organic needs, the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.) are distinguished from the higher emotions (feelings), socially conditioned, associated with social relations. According to the strength and duration of manifestations, several types of emotions are distinguished: affects, passions, emotions proper, moods, feelings and stress.

K. Izard singled out the main, “fundamental emotions”. Interest (as an emotion) is a positive state that promotes the development of skills and abilities, the acquisition of knowledge, and motivates learning.

Joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to fully satisfy an urgent need, the probability of which up to this point was not great.

Surprise is an emotional response to unexpected circumstances. Surprise inhibits all previous emotions, directing attention to the object that caused it, and can turn into interest.

Suffering is a negative emotional state associated with the information received about the impossibility of satisfying the most important vital needs, which until that time seemed more or less likely. Most often takes the form emotional stress.

Anger is a negative emotional state that proceeds in the form of an affect, caused by an obstacle to satisfying an extremely important need for the subject.

Disgust is a negative emotional state caused by objects, contact with which comes into sharp conflict with the ideological, moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes of the subject.

Contempt is a negative emotional state that occurs in interpersonal relationships and is generated by the inconsistency of life positions, attitudes and behavior with the positions of the object of feelings.

Fear is a negative emotion that appears when the subject receives information about a possible threat to his life well-being, about a real or imagined danger.

Shame is a negative emotional state, expressed in the awareness of the inconsistency of one's own thoughts, actions and appearance not only with the expectations of others, but also with one's own ideas about appropriate behavior and appearance.

From the combination of fundamental emotions arise such complex emotional states as, for example, anxiety, which can combine fear, anger, guilt and interest. Each of these emotions underlies a whole range of states that differ in degree of expression (for example, joy, satisfaction, delight, exultation, ecstasy, and so on). Emotional experiences are ambiguous. The same object can cause inconsistent, conflicting emotional relationships. This phenomenon is called ambivalence (duality) of feelings. The ambivalence is usually caused by the fact that individual features a complex object affects the needs and values ​​​​of a person in different ways (for example, you can respect someone for their ability to work and at the same time condemn them for their temper). Ambivalence can also be generated by a contradiction between stable feelings towards an object and situational emotions developing from them (for example, love and hate are combined in jealousy).

Affect is the most powerful emotional reaction that completely captures the human psyche. This emotion usually occurs in extreme conditions when a person is unable to cope with the situation. Distinctive features: situational, generalized, short duration and high intensity. There is a mobilization of the body, movements are impulsive nature. Affect is practically uncontrollable and is not subject to volitional control. A distinctive feature of affect is the weakening of conscious control, the narrowness of consciousness. The affect is accompanied by a strong and erratic motor activity, there is a kind of discharge in action. In an affect, a person, as it were, loses his head, his actions are not reasonable, they are performed without taking into account the situation. Extremely strong excitation, having crossed the limit of the efficiency of nerve cells, is replaced by unconditional inhibition, there is an emotional shock. As a result, the affect ends with a breakdown, fatigue, and even stupor. Impaired consciousness can lead to an inability to later recall individual episodes and even complete amnesia for events. Passion is a strong, persistent, long-lasting feeling that captures a person and owns him. In strength it approaches affect, and in duration it is closer to feelings. A person can become an object of passion. S.L. Rubinstein wrote that “passion is always expressed in concentration, concentration of thoughts and forces, their focus on a single goal ... Passion means impulse, passion, orientation of all aspirations and forces of the individual in a single direction, focusing them on a single goal.” Actually, emotions are situational in nature, they express evaluative attitude to emerging or possible situations, and may be weakly manifested in external behavior, especially if a person skillfully hides his emotions. Feelings are the most stable emotional states. They are objective in nature: it is always a feeling for something or for someone. They are sometimes referred to as "higher" emotions because they arise from the satisfaction of higher order needs. In the individual development of a person, feelings play an important socializing role. Based on positive emotional experiences type of feelings, the needs and interests of a person appear and are fixed. Feelings, one might say, are a product of the cultural and historical development of man. They are associated with certain objects, activities and people surrounding a person. In relation to the surrounding world, a person seeks to act in such a way as to reinforce and strengthen his positive feelings. They are always associated with the work of consciousness, they can be arbitrarily regulated. Feelings are the attitudes of a person experienced in various forms to objects and phenomena of reality. Human feelings are a positive value. Human life is unbearable without experiences, many feelings are attractive in themselves, and if a person is deprived of the opportunity to experience feelings, then the so-called “emotional hunger” sets in, which he seeks to satisfy by listening to his favorite music, reading an action-packed book, and so on. Moreover, emotional saturation requires not only positive feelings, but also feelings associated with suffering. Moods are the state that colors our feelings, the overall emotional state for a significant amount of time. Unlike emotions and feelings, mood is not objective, but personal; it is not situational, but extended over time. Mood is an emotional reaction not to the immediate consequences of certain events, but to their implications for a person's life in the context of his general life plans, interests and expectations. Noting the peculiarities of the mood, S.L. Rubinshtein pointed out, firstly, that it is not objective, but personal, and, secondly, this is not a special experience dedicated to some particular event, but a diffuse, general state.

The mood significantly depends on the general state of health, on the work of the endocrine glands, and especially on the tone of the nervous system. The reasons for this or that mood are not always clear to the person experiencing them, and even more so to the people around him. No wonder they talk about unaccountable sadness, causeless joy, and in this sense, mood is an unconscious assessment by a person of how favorable circumstances are for her. This reason may be surrounding nature, events, activities performed, and of course people.

Moods can vary in duration. The stability of mood depends on many reasons: the age of a person, the individual characteristics of his character and temperament, willpower, the level of development of the leading motives of behavior. Mood stimulates or inhibits human activity. One and the same work in different moods can seem either easy and pleasant, or hard and depressing. A person works well when he is alert, calm, cheerful, and much worse when he is alarmed, irritated, dissatisfied. A person must control his behavior, and for this you can use images and situations that are pleasant to a person. With the dominance of a positive, cheerful mood, a person easily experiences temporary failures and grief. In addition to changes occurring in the nervous, endocrine and other systems of the body, and conscious subjective experiences, emotions are expressed in the expressive behavior of a person. Emotions are manifested in the so-called expressive movements of the face - facial expressions, expressive movements of the whole body - pantomime, and "vocal facial expressions" - the expression of emotions in the intonation and timbre of the voice. To date, it is customary to distinguish several basic functions of emotions: regulatory, reflective, signaling, stimulating, reinforcing, switching, adaptive and communicative. Emotions reflect the importance and appreciation of a person various situations, therefore, the same stimuli can cause the most dissimilar reactions in different people. It is in emotional manifestations that the depth of a person's inner life is expressed. Personality is largely formed under the influence of lived experiences. Emotional reactions, in turn, are due to individual characteristics emotional sphere of a person. One of the most important is the communicative function of emotions, since it is difficult to imagine the interaction between people without emotional manifestations. By expressing his emotions, a person shows his attitude to reality and, above all, to other people. Mimic and pantomimic expressive movements allow a person to convey their experiences to other people, to inform them about their attitude towards something or someone. Facial expressions, gestures, postures, expressive sighs, changes in intonation - are the "language" human feelings means of communication not so much thoughts as emotions. Purchasing with early childhood a certain experience of communicating with people, each person can, with varying degrees of certainty, determine the emotional states of others by their expressive movements and, above all, by facial expressions. During a person's life, a certain system of standards is formed, with the help of which he evaluates other people. Recent studies in the field of emotion recognition have shown that a number of factors affect a person's ability to understand others: gender, age, personality, professional characteristics, as well as a person's belonging to a particular culture. A number of professions require a person to be able to manage his emotions and adequately determine the expressive movements of the people around him. Understanding the reactions of other people and the correct response to them in a collaborative environment is an integral part of success in many professions. Failure to agree, understand another person, enter into his position can lead to complete professional incompetence. This quality is especially important for people in whose professions communication occupies an important place. The ability to understand the numerous nuances of emotional manifestations and reproduce them is necessary for people who have devoted themselves to art. Understanding and ability to reproduce milestone teaching actors the art of intonation, facial expressions, gestures. Turning to psychological research various authors, and even to our own observations, we can say that most information in the process of communication, a person receives through non-verbal means of communication. With the help of a verbal or verbal component, a person transmits a small percentage of information, the main load in the transfer of meaning lies with the so-called "extralinguistic" means of communication.

Classification of emotions

By sign:

Emotions are divided into positive and negative . An example of the first is joy and interest, an example of the second is fear, anger, rage.

By intensity and duration:

Mood- a stable emotional state of a person, coloring for some time all his experiences. Unlike feelings, moods do not have a clear focus on some object.

Emotion(in the narrow sense of the word) - an experience that arises in a person in the course of satisfying an urgent need.

Feeling- the highest, culturally determined human emotion associated with a particular object. Feeling plays a motivating role, directing a person's activity in a certain direction.

higher feelings people are divided into:

intellectual feelings - feelings associated with human cognitive activity. They arise in the process of learning and scientific work, as well as creative activities in various types arts, science and technology.

Moral feelings - feelings that reflect a person's attitude to the requirements of public morality. They are associated with the worldview of a person, his thoughts, ideas, principles and traditions (sense of duty, patriotism, love for the Motherland).

aesthetic feelings are feelings that arise in a person in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his aesthetic needs. These include feelings of the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the base, etc.

Passion - purely human emotional state. This is an alloy of emotions, motives and feelings, concentrated around a certain type of activity or subject.

Affect- intense, but short-term emotional outburst, capturing the entire human psyche. The affect leads to the loss of a person's sense of reality, imposing on him the need to perform certain actions, which is accompanied by visible changes in his behavior. Most often, these are negative states that lead to violent emotional discharge and entail a feeling of fatigue, depression, depression.

According to the degree of mobilization of the body:

Emotions according to the effect on the body are divided into sthenic , which activate the body and cheer up (anger, rage, delight), and asthenic (longing, sadness, sadness, shame), relaxing a person and suppressing the activity of the body.

By specific content (modality):

Joy – a positive emotional state associated with the ability to fully satisfy an urgent need. It is based on the experience of sensual pleasure. In humans, joy is a social feeling, the manifestation of which is a smile. The emotion of joy is important for mental and physical health person.

Astonishment – without a clearly defined positive or negative sign emotional reaction to sudden circumstances. It is called abrupt change environment and may cause subsequent positive emotions- if the circumstances were favorable, or negative.

Suffering- negative emotional state associated with the information received about the impossibility of meeting the most important vital needs.

sadness – negative emotion associated with the experience of a negative fact (death, separation, disappointment).

Anger – a negative emotional state, negative in sign, as a rule, proceeding in the form of an affect, and caused by the sudden appearance of a serious obstacle in the way of meeting important needs for the subject.

Disgust – a negative emotional state caused by objects, contact with which comes into sharp conflict with the moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes of the subject.

Contempt– a negative emotional state that occurs in interpersonal relationships and is generated by a mismatch of life positions, views and behavior of the subject with life positions, views and behavior of the object of feeling.

Emotions are positive and negative. This is known to those who have experienced emotions at least once, i.e. all. But the concepts of positivity and negativity of emotions require some clarification in terms of their gradation. For example, the emotions of anger, fear, shame cannot be unconditionally categorized as negative, negative, but may arise in a state of so-called mixed feelings.

simple emotions allow you to establish the significance of the conditions for meeting actual needs, caused by both real and imaginary situations.

Joy- a positive state associated with the ability to fully satisfy the current need.

Astonishment - a state caused by a strong impression, striking surprise, unusualness, strangeness.

Fear arises as a result of a real or imaginary danger that threatens the life of the organism, the person, the values ​​\u200b\u200bprotected by it (ideals, goals, principles, etc.).

Anger - dissatisfaction, indignation, irritation that occurs when needs or expectations are not satisfied.

Pleasure - satisfaction from pleasant sensations, from satisfying experiences.

Shame arises in a person when he commits acts that are contrary to the requirements of morality, degrading the dignity of the individual.

Disgust - sharp hostility, combined with disgust.

Contempt - the attitude caused by the recognition of someone or something unworthy, not deserving of respect, vile, morally low, insignificant.

Suffering - negative emotional state, the cause of which is the possession of true or apparent information that the ability to meet the most important needs of life is absent or difficult.

Feelings - complex, well-established attitudes of the individual to what she learns and does are associated with the work of consciousness, can be arbitrarily regulated, and play a motivating role in human life and activity.

No less popular is the classification by content.

Moral - one of the ways of normative regulation of human actions in society. These include: approval and condemnation.

Moral - duty, humanity, benevolence, love, friendship, patriotism, sympathy, etc.

Immoral - greed, selfishness, cruelty, etc.

intellectual appear in the process cognitive activity while solving new, difficult problems. These include: curiosity, curiosity, surprise, bewilderment, satisfaction with the solution found, doubt.

aesthetic human experiences arise when perceiving works of art, beautiful objects, natural phenomena, etc., stimulate the social activity of a person, have a regulatory influence on his behavior and influence the formation of personality ideals.

These include: beautiful, sublime, delight, pleasure, etc.

Passion - having a strong and sustained positive feeling for something or someone.

Mood - stable states of medium or very low strength, which act for a long time.

affects- rapidly flowing, short-term emotional states, accompanied by pronounced organic and motor reactions.

Frustration - a state that occurs when faced with unexpected obstacles and obstacles on the way to achieving a goal, which interferes with the satisfaction of needs.

Stress- a state of psychological overstrain that occurs when the nervous system is emotionally overloaded.

Inspiration occurs when the purpose of the activity is clear, and the results are accurately presented, moreover, as necessary and valuable.

From duration and intensity flowing emotional states are divided into weak and strong (rapidly flowing).

Weak - mood - a long emotional state that does not reach significant intensity, captivating a person for some time and affecting the activity and behavior of a person.

Strong - affect. An important specific feature of affects is their occurrence in response to an accomplished event.

S.L. Rubinstein identified two main features that distinguish the mood.

• 1. They are not subject, but personal.
• 2. This is not a specific and concrete experience, but a general state that is related to one specific situation or fact.

Classifications according to the effect on the body are also known:

sthenic - raising the activity, vigor and activity of a person;

asthenic- Decreasing activity, weakening energy.

By duration:

short-term; long.

Flow form:

sentiments;

affects;

passions;

Classification according to V.I. Slobodchikov, E.I. Isaev:

• ? affects;
• ? passions;
• ? stress;
• ? feelings;
• ? specific emotions;
• ? moods.

Important to remember!

The processes of emotional perception, awareness and the development of behavioral reactions are performed by many parts of the brain.

limbic system. J.-W. Parets proposed that the singular cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and thalamus form a circle that is involved in the mechanisms of motivation and emotions. And the psychologist P.-D. McLean (MacLean, 1949), including the amygdala in this system, called it limbic.

Hypothalamus. Scientists Aldous and Fobes (Olds, Fobs, 1981) discovered the pleasure center. When stimulated, a person experiences pleasure. Two types of neurons have been identified in the lateral hypothalamus, in various ways responsive to emotional situations. The first type is motivational (maximum activity in motivational behavior was found). The second type is reinforcing, since these cells are activated upon reaching the desired (on reaching the goal).

Tonsil (amygdala) plays a role in several types of emotional behavior: aggression, fear, disgust, maternal behavior. This structure is responsible for the behavioral, autonomic and hormonal components of the conditioned emotional response by activating the neural circles located in the hypothalamus and brain stem.

Sensory association cortex analyzes complex complex stimuli and transmits information to the amygdala.

Orbitofrontal cortex included in the assessment of action sequences. It is not directly involved in the decision-making process, but translates these decisions into practice, in relation to a specific situation. Her central connections to diencephanol and the temporal region provide her with information about the emotional significance of the signal. Dorsal connections with the singular cortex allow it to influence both behavior and autonomic changes.

Singular bark provides a link between the decision-making structures in the frontal cortex, the emotional structures of the limbic system, and the brain mechanisms that control movement. It is the focus of sensory and efficient systems.

• Stolyarenko LD. Fundamentals of psychology. 3rd ed., revised. and additional Rostov-na/D.: Phoenix, 2000.
• Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human Psychology: An Introduction to the Psychology of Subjectivity. M.: School-Press, 1995.

Depending on the conditions and external circumstances, the properties of the influencing stimuli and many personality traits, she has a variety of emotions that are classified and described by different authors, in different terminology and for different reasons. In psychology, there is no (and it is hardly possible to have) a single and generally accepted classification emotions (like many other higher psychological formations). Therefore, we only designate some well-known approaches and theoretical positions.

S. L. Rubinstein identified three main levels of manifestations and development of the emotional sphere of the personality:

• organic affective-emotional sensitivity (non-objective physiological or organic feelings, emotional background, general coloring, sensual tone);
• objective feelings (intellectual, aesthetic, moral);
• generalized worldview feelings.

In addition, S. L. Rubinshtein additionally singled out affects, passions and moods.

According to the classification P. A. Rudika There are three emotions: mood, feeling and affect. They are characterized on four scales: intensity, duration, awareness, diffuseness.

P. M. Jacobson singled out such expressions of feelings: mood, emotions, affects, sensual tone and stress.

A fairly common basis for classifying and describing the quality of emotions is (as mentioned earlier) their modality, which usually boils down to three basic qualities: pleasure(or joy) fear(phobias) and fury(or anger, aggressiveness).

However, in real life, such modalities merge, intersect, and therefore often there is a simultaneous existence and interaction of experiences that are formally opposite in sign, for example, love and hate or joy and sadness. This manifests the ambivalence (polymodality) of real emotions as a result of a complex, multidimensional, changeable and, as a rule, ambiguous attitude of a person to an object or subject that causes experience.

example

With all the variety of experiences, in almost everyone there is a peculiar expression of one of the three classical emotions or their complex combination. Suppose the feeling of nostalgia is both bright and sad, anxious and calm, sharp and tender, etc. An author's, individual experience of the past, which cannot be expressed in words, arises, and such an emotion cannot be purely trace, i.e. repetition, reproduction of what has been experienced before. A person clearly remembers, for example, as a fact that he was happy or unhappy once and somewhere, he is aware of past events and objects of his past emotions, but he is unlikely to be able to deeply feel, re-experience his past state.

In Russian there is no synonym for the capacious word "love", but there is an abundance of adjectives to denote shades of this multifaceted feeling: unrequited, cordial, insidious, tender, unhappy, compassionate, etc. In such definitions, the most diverse combinations of the qualities of this polymodal feeling seek their expression.

Emotions are also characterized by strength, duration and awareness.

• The range of differences in strength internal experience and expressiveness of external manifestations is very large for emotions of any modality. Perhaps, for example, Yesenin's "violence of eyes and a flood of feelings", or perhaps a sluggish, unexpressed mood. Joy can manifest as a mild, mild emotion, such as when a person experiences a calm sense of satisfaction. Delight is an emotion of greater strength, brightness and expressiveness. Anger ranges from petty irritability and restrained indignation to fierce hatred and undisguised aggression and rage; fear - from mild anxiety and vague, poorly objectified anxiety to pronounced phobias, panic and an acute experience of horror.
• By duration The existence of emotions is divided into short-term, unexpected and, as a rule, acute (lasting a few seconds or minutes) and relatively long, or chronic (lasting many hours, days, and even years).
• Degree awareness emotions can also be different and changeable. Sometimes it is difficult for a person to understand what emotion he is experiencing and why it arises. It happens that special emotional questions and problems are actualized in our minds, which are not always easily or unambiguously solved by a person.

Basic forms or types of emotions. The qualities that characterize each specific emotion can be combined in various ways, which creates an innumerable variety of forms of their possible existence and expression. For convenience and brevity of presentation of this huge (and debatable) material, we will use common logic A. N. Leontieva, who subdivided all emotions into three major subclasses(according to the implemented functions and in the direction of development from simple and lower to higher and complex): affects, emotions proper, feelings.

1. affects as a subclass of emotional phenomena they belong to the most ancient (phylogenetically) experiences that are not subject to conscious control and are extremely strong in the sense of their inadequate, often destructive, impact on the general mental state and behavior of a person.

Affect- this is a sharp, explosive, stormy experience that occurs at the end of any emotional event and does not depend on the person's consciousness.

The evolutionist K. Buhler assumed that in the course of the development of the behavior and psyche of animals, the psychological phenomenon of pleasure moved from the end, from the completion of the action (at the level of innate instincts) to the process of action itself (the stage of skills or individually variable behavior) and further to the emotional anticipation of activity and its result (the stage of intellectual behavior of animals) (see Chap. 3).

Note that the term "affect" to this day has a broader meaning when it is used as a synonym for any emotions, experiences in general, for example, in the designation affective sphere personality, in the name of affective speech, etc.

Affects arise in acute conflict situations, often associated with the dissatisfaction of a person's vital needs, although in today's tense society, affect can also have a purely sociogenic origin if the events affect something deeply significant for the individual, something socially important, urgently needed or unacceptable or even forbidden.

Unlike emotions and feelings, affect occurs only after the completion of a certain event. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish, for example, the uncontrollable affect of fear (say, after a soldier leaves the battle) from the anticipatory emotion or feeling of fear of a possible affect (the upcoming battle). Affect does not lend itself direct control consciousness. It can be "deceived", distracted from affect, soften affective expressions, but it cannot be completely subordinated to one's own consciousness or will. The presence of an accused person in a state of passion during the commission of a crime is a mitigating circumstance for judicial practice. Usually affects have a destructive, disorganizing effect on the behavior, consciousness and activity of a person, although the individual sometimes can neither realize this nor remember it afterwards. However, it is also possible positive influence affect, leading to overmobilization of the psyche and behavior of a person.

In experimental psychology, some laws of affect dynamics:

• fixation of an affective state on the situation that caused it, trace formation, which creates a certain affective barrier (complex) for the individual, leaves a strong emotional trace in the psyche, indirectly (not always consciously) warning a person from an affective situation for him. This is the psychological function of affect (regulating, protective, signaling and evaluative at the same time);
• the obsession of the affective trace, the tendency to restore it, emerge;
• inhibition as a process opposite to restoration, preventing a breakthrough, an immediate exit of affect;
• repression as a possibility of suppression, expulsion of affect from the memory and psyche by the type of its self-defense;
• "sewerage" of affect as the possibility of its discharge, exit, elimination;
• accumulation, i.e. accumulation, summation of affects, to which a person does not get used, and therefore a psychological outlet adequate to the affect is necessary as a discharge, fraught with negative consequences for the psyche and personality.

example

In a vast pilot study A. R. Luria (1931) found that against the background of an affective experience or its traces (from the past), objective, irremovable, unconscious motor and vegetative reactions organism, by the presence of which it is possible to judge with high certainty the presence of personally significant emotions, even if a person hides them. The so-called lie detector (or polygraph) is built on this principle, which is widely used in the United States to diagnose the truthfulness or "reliability" of a person (judicial and managerial practice).

AT last years this psychophysiological technique is also gaining ground in domestic psychodiagnostics.

2. Subclass proper emotions is the most extensive, widespread and diverse in the structure of the integral emotional sphere of the personality, as it includes an innumerable list of types, forms and shades of human experiences.

Sensual tone characterized by the fact that it has an unobjectified character and is manifested in the fact that many mental images(sensations, perceptions, memories, imaginations, dreams, etc.) have not always a certain, but subjectively emphasized emotional coloring. This is a blurry, wide, background emotional state that has not taken shape in a clear and specific objective experience. We do not just feel any sound, smell or taste, but accept it, evaluate it as subjectively pleasant or unpleasant. Feeling hot or cold, we simultaneously experience some kind of pleasure or displeasure, and so on. The emotional background does not have a specific subject carrier, it surrounds, as it were, a distinguished "figure" (in the terminology of Gestalt psychology), which in this case is an emotion as an experience related to a more or less formed, discrete object, phenomenon or event.

Emotions are an extensive type (subclass) of human experiences that are directly related to everyday objects, situations, phenomena and circumstances of the life and being of a person. A characteristic feature of our emotions is their indispensable sociality, i.e. the presence of not only (and not so much) physiological, but also social, cultural, traditional and personal conditioning.

example

People of different nationalities, religions, cultures experience death equally hard loved one, but the objective manifestations, expressions, emotional nuances of such grief are quite different. Someone hires mourners for funerals, someone organizes orchestras, fireworks and banquets, someone sings a funeral service in a church, someone is proud of the departure of the deceased into another endless and bright world etc. They also celebrate weddings, the birth of children, various holidays and anniversaries in different ways. It should be emphasized that the means of expressing emotions will certainly modify (strengthen or weaken) the experience itself.

The subclass of emotions also has the following peculiarities:

• experience is shifted to the course of the active process itself (phenomena, events) and to anticipation, foresight of its beginning (ideotor processes);
• emotions are capable of generalization, i.e. to the formation of a special emotional experience of the individual as one of its most important psychological features;
• emotions are signified, i.e. expressed through specific objective signs, symbols, words, gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes, resulting in an objective, readable language human emotions;
• experience can be transferred to other people and accepted by them, emotions are communicable: co-emotions, empathies are possible, on which all art is built and very much in interpersonal communication and interaction of people;
• emotions are educable, i.e. are the result of the acceptance and assimilation of social experience, the result of ontogeny and continuous socialization of the individual;
• emotions are objective, but to some extent situational, i.e. related to certain, specific and current circumstances, and therefore changeable, mobile in accordance with changing situations (external and internal).

example

One and the same music, one's own clothes, appearance, room, picture or poem can cause very different experiences in an individual depending on the situation of listening or seeing, on the characteristics of the environment, on one's own physical or internal state. Let us suppose that a person is late for something, and therefore is excited, anxious, preoccupied, and everything around him seems to him to be obstacles to the necessary rapid movement. But then he got to right place without being late. Tension and anxiety were gone, the person relaxed, and the world around him changed, becoming friendly and calm again.

The term "mood" is widely used in everyday colloquial practice and gives a certain qualitative assessment of the general emotional state of a person. The mood is not related to a separate object or object, but to a certain holistic, relatively long-term and well-established situation for a person. The mood is bad and good, heavy, normal, spoiled, upbeat, etc. The mood is relatively stable, but at the same time, it is necessarily changeable for each person, since it depends on many external and internal factors that form the situation. It is also possible that certain qualities of mood predominate in the personality, a characteristic individual flow or "system" of moods is possible. Then the mood goes into the category of chronic emotions and important personality traits.

Mood- this is a generalized situational emotional state of a person that does not have a specific and definite subject.

The generalized nature of the mood is also manifested in the breadth of its influences on human behavior, on the entire current worldview. The mood provides emotional preparation and support for activities, creates a mood, a person’s emotional attitude to the perception of everything that happens.

example

If you have good mood, everything around and life itself is perceived lightly and joyfully, the upcoming work seems easy and pleasant. With a drooping, gloomy mood, everything seems to a person gloomy, unnecessary and sad, and the same work is perceived as heavy, forced and uninteresting. For example, the following daily mood dynamics is also possible: "A decent person becomes melancholic in the evening" (E. M. Remarque). "And in it nothing - neither close nor far - can satisfy the gnawing sadness" (Goethe).

A person's mood is made up of many diverse and often polar emotions. Not only other experiences take part in it, but the whole human psyche: needs and motives, temperament and character, intellect, activity, consciousness and self-consciousness. In this regard, the strength of expression and the duration of the mood can be very different both in different people and in the same person. Mood refers to a specific time, but carries projections of the past, present, and expected future. Therefore, it can be difficult for a person to understand the reasons for his own mood, which can be events or deeds large and small, yesterday or today, pleasant and unpleasant, conscious and unconscious. The main thing is that such events are in some way very significant for the subject, and therefore cause an underlined personal attitude and its experience.

In especially difficult, tense conditions, in conflict or extreme situations emotions can take the form of stress.

Stress- this is a general non-specific (emotional and physiological) reaction of the body to an intense external emotional impact.

The understanding of stress as an inevitable adaptation syndrome in human life and its main stages - adaptation diseases - was first described by the Canadian physician and biologist Hans Selye (1907–1982). With the help of stress, the body mobilizes itself as much as possible to adapt to a situation that cannot be dealt with by conventional (specific) means. To live means to be in constant danger. Dangerous situations are becoming more and more typical, everyday for modern society: a way of life in a giant metropolis, intense social competition, life's troubles, natural and man-made disasters, terrorist attacks, military operations, social restructuring, revolutions, reforms and economic crises- all these phenomena act for our psyche as powerful and irremovable, sometimes even chronic, stressors. Modern man lives in a protracted, time-stretched "extreme", adequate adaptation (adaptation) to which is associated with significant psychological effort and overload.

Stages of development of stress

At the first stage of adaptation (optimal activation of the sympathetic nervous system), the changes that occur in the body have a generally positive, tonic effect on the psyche and behavior. This is manifested in the intensification of the work of internal organs, in an increase in the level of working capacity. A person is internally ready to overcome obstacles, he is characterized by faith in success. At the second stage (the stage of struggle), all body systems are mobilized and function at a limiting level that exceeds the usual capabilities. But such an overactivated struggle cannot last indefinitely, and if the effect of stress factors continues, the third stage sets in - exhaustion or distress, which leads to imbalance and disruption of all mental activity, to destructive personality changes, to frequent nervous and somatic diseases.

The state of stress can be associated not only with real, but also with supposed, mental circumstances. For example, a severe negative experience occurs when there is a pronounced fear of losing a job, in anxious anticipation of a forced break in marital relations, on the eve of a serious exam, when imagining the possible tragic consequences of a flight on an airliner, predicted global warming, the death of the planet, nuclear war, alien invasion, etc.

Emotions that arise in connection with the breakdown of a person’s plans, in connection with losses, deprivations, conflicts, with insurmountable difficulties, in the absence of opportunities or in the presence of a threat to the realization of personal plans, are also commonly called frustrations. Formally, they can be attributed to ideotor emotional phenomena that occur before the accomplishment, on the eve of real events, but in the real life of emotions, a clear separation of the past, present and future is extremely difficult.

Behavior in a stressful situation differs from affective behavior, since a person can control his emotions, analyze the situation, and make adequate decisions. However, if the problem is not resolved for too long, stress can seriously affect not only behavior, but also physical and mental health personality.

No one manages to live and work without experiencing stress. Severe life losses, failures, conflicts, increased stress when performing responsible work, etc. come to everyone from time to time. If a person copes with stress more easily and successfully than others, he is considered stress-resistant. This is psychological quality is necessary for many professions, including teachers, managers of all levels, teachers, doctors, military personnel, rescuers, athletes and many other specialties related to working with people, with complex equipment, with extreme incidents.

A person's behavior in a stressful situation can change in two directions (L.A. Kitaev-Smyk): passive-emotional (according to mud "wait", "endure") and active-emotional (the desire to overcome the situation, to remove the stressor). It is believed that the second way is psychologically preferable - overcoming the negative effects of stress. Although in this case it is also necessary to provide some combination of external (objective) and internal (subjective) that is optimal for each individual, the presence of harmony, a dynamic balance of her aspirations, ideals, values ​​and real opportunities (physical and psychological) to achieve them.

The state of stress can also be caused by the excessive development of positive personal experiences (marriage, childbirth, unexpected major success, etc.), which is another confirmation of the previously described Yerkes-Dodson law, according to which any emotion can become destructively super-strong .

An emotional state similar to stress (in its third destructive stage) is "emotional burnout". It occurs in a situation of prolonged mental or physical tension and the constant presence of strong emotions (not necessarily negative ones). A person gets bored with everything around (at work, in public and at home), he quickly gets tired at his usual work, which has become uninteresting and forced for him. The general emotional background is simplified, dulled, self-attitude, self-esteem and self-regulation are distorted, the level of empathy decreases, indifference and a sense of loneliness increase, manifestations of selfishness, aggressiveness, emptiness, depression, and sometimes cynicism of a person. Not only the emotional sphere is deformed, but also the whole psychology, the behavior of the individual. Emotional burnout is especially characteristic of people in creative and stressful professions, as well as everyone who constantly works with people. With a significant development of this emotional phenomenon, a person can become professionally unsuitable.

Passion- this is a strong, persistent, long-term experience that captures the entire personality and subordinates its behavior exclusively to the achievement of the desired goal.

The object of passion can be another person or a social group (status in it), material objects or actions (money, things, fishing, savings, hunting, football, computer, collecting, etc.), all kinds of ideal or ethical, moral or moral ideas and values ​​(revolution, victory, freedom, career, religion, independence, power, etc.).

The quality of the object (i.e., direction) of passion, the form of its manifestation, the degree to which a person is subject to it, the means used to satisfy it, depend on the integral mental image of the individual. Motivation and meaning formation, consciousness, will, character, intellect, morality are involved in the passion and passionate behavior of a person. Passion makes some people selfless, generous, inspired, capable of achieving great and humane goals, others destroys and blindly subjugates, prompts them to asocial, immoral, and sometimes even criminal actions.

example

Undoubtedly passionate, although quite different feelings of love and hatred, all world fiction is filled: "Othello", "Romeo and Juliet", "Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Notre Dame Cathedral", "Anna Karenina" and others. life, the existence and functioning of human passions does not require special proof. Passionate hobbies and desires are the cause of many discoveries, outstanding achievements in science, art, and in any creative activity. Passionate people are obsessed with their goal, idea, and do for their realization what individuals who are socially and emotionally moderate, calmly and pragmatically reasonable will not do. Passion does not give rise to simple, generally accepted and routine actions, but non-standard actions, decisions and life moves. We can assume that "the world is ruled by passions." widely known and Negative influence passions on behavior and the general state of the individual. Orthodoxy is a staunch opponent of (carnal) passions and a supporter of humble calmness. “It is not money that is to blame, but addiction to it,” wrote the venerable Elder Joseph of Optina (1837–1911). In reality, everything depends on the subject of a person’s passionate (powerful, all-encompassing) experience and on his psychological, most of all moral, characteristics. Developed personality can to a certain extent manage his passions (as opposed to affects), subject them to conscious analysis, measure his actions and deeds (especially in the field of interpersonal relations) with existing social norms and rules.

3. The third subclass of emotions is feelings, which are the highest form of human experiences, when they are combined, generalized, psychologically merge, intersect with the orientation of the personality, with its ideals and values, with thinking and consciousness, with the entire psyche.

Feeling- this is the highest type of experience, the result of psychological generalization, fixation (crystallization) of situational emotions on a certain subject.

One and the same object (let's say it's a child), depending on specific circumstances, can evoke a variety of situational emotions in a person: joy, surprise, sadness, anger, bewilderment, admiration, etc. Over time, in the course of various interactions and communications between people, these situational experiences are generalized, transient, random "evaporates" from them and a complex, multidimensional feeling is formed. It is the result of settling, crystallization of changeable experiences ("emotional solution") on specific subject and therefore more stable and stable than emotions. The degree and quality of the generalization of experiences embodied in a feeling can vary considerably. In reality, the connections between feelings and emotions are not linear, but ring-shaped. The formed feeling changes situational emotions, but also changes itself from the generalization of new and new private experiences. Feelings are born, change, develop or disappear, perish.

According to experimental psychology, a person is able to confidently distinguish such experiences (emotional zones): joy, fear, tenderness, surprise, indifference, anger, sadness, contempt, respect, shame, resentment. In fact, the list of human feelings and their shades is truly inexhaustibly diverse, dynamic, rich and is the main subject of all art forms.

The classification of the types of feelings can be made on different (and dissimilar) grounds, therefore, we will give only the most famous, generalized and widespread.

Depending on the origin, on the connection with the needs, feelings are usually divided into higher and lower.

Higher feelings they name those that are associated with the so-called higher, i.e. socially conditioned (sociogenic) needs. Note that such a division of human needs is not entirely justified and correct, since all human needs to some extent socialized (see Ch. 5). This fully applies to feelings, although the level of socialization of human experiences can (and should) vary significantly between people (and cultures). A personality is (by definition) a biosocial being (see Chapter 4), and therefore, in the entire human psyche, an organic unity exists and functions, an integral and indissoluble fusion of biological and social (see Chapter 1), bodily and spiritual. Numerous (sometimes subtly hidden) attempts to belittle, materialize human feelings, equating them with purely biological or physiological experiences of animals, have always existed not only in psychology. But such models and theoretical constructions are always erroneous and even flawed methodologically, since they do not at all prove the equality of the feelings of man and animals. They only illustrate the fact that feelings (and the entire human psyche) can be "dehumanized", deprived of a scientifically elusive soul and spirituality, if the subject is placed in abnormal, anti-human conditions of existence. Yes, and this "dehumanization" is not always possible and not for every person.

intellectual feelings have knowledge of the world as their object and arise in the process of human cognition, especially in the course of its higher form- thinking and creativity. In these feelings, the subject of thought (question, problem, unknown) and subjective experience merge, which is therefore capable of a special, emotional regulation of human thinking, consciousness and comprehension.

example

Plato believed that all knowledge begins with surprise, curiosity and inquisitiveness. Archimedes, according to legend, cried out: "Eureka!" at the discovery of his law, and great Newton, was probably angry with an apple that fell on his head, which contributed to the discovery of the law of universal gravitation.

Feelings and intellect are not opposed in our psyche, but exist and function only in a multidimensional unity. The joy of knowledge is known to every person and is especially expressive in childhood, when the world of emotions overwhelms, overwhelms the child's psyche. Never-ending children's "why?" and the joyful discoveries of the world are unceasing and emotionally contagious. And indeed, the human psyche itself begins in ontogeny with direct emotional communication, with the formation of an emotional connection and contacts of the child with the cognizable world (see Chapter 28).

Praxic feelings arise in connection with the activity of a person, with the course and effectiveness of his practical action and activity.

example

The self-exclamation of the great classic is well known: "Ah yes Pushkin! Aw yes son of a bitch!"

Children's play, in which the basic psychological characteristics (new formations) of a preschooler are formed, is motivated not by the result, but by the process itself (see Chapter 30). In the psychology of labor, it is recommended, when selecting people for work, to give preference to the applicant who is interested in the very content of the work, its subject and process. Depending on the motivation, content and results of the work done, the feeling of fatigue from it can be ordinary, even pleasant, or, on the contrary, heavy and hopeless.

aesthetic feelings are aimed at awareness, acceptance by the personality of the many-sided beauty of the world, the person himself, the entire universe.

example

Yesenin's sky is beautiful when "the blue sucks the eyes"; the sculptures of Rodin, the music of Verdi or Rachmaninoff, other beauties in abstract mathematical or chemical formulas, in theoretical scientific constructions, in an ordinary pine cone, in the paintings of great artists, etc. are beautiful in a different way. A person who does not feel beauty, does not experience the presence of beauty, or has inadequate, false ideas about it, significantly impoverishes his psyche, life and being.

Moral(or moral) feelings are the subject of interpersonal relations of people, when moral (situational) and moral (universal) norms, values, ideals, categories and principles are not only accepted by the mind and externally observed, but deeply experienced personally.

example

The sense of honor that led A. S. Pushkin to a tragic duel seems inappropriate, relic, and even harmful in modern society. Moral categories of conscience, shame, etc. become more and more foreign to the multitude people XXI century, and therefore do not enter into their consciousness, life and emotional experience. The presence of a conscience in a person means the presence of it as personal experience, which, under any life circumstances, will not allow a person to do otherwise, "not according to conscience." "Yes, pitiful is the one in whom the conscience is not clear" (A. S. Pushkin). A person either has a conscience or they don't. There is no half conscience. For an honest man psychologically unbearable deceit, hypocrisy, theft, betrayal, bribery, bribery and much more, "sinful". In the absence of a person's feelings of honor and conscience, everything becomes possible and permissible for him, all boundaries between good and evil are erased, when, for example, "the end justifies the means." The community of such people is doomed to moral degradation and degeneration.

Feeling of patriotism, i.e. a conscious experience by a person of his individual belonging to the country as the only Motherland or Fatherland includes all the distinguished components: intellectual, aesthetic, praxic, moral, etc. This feeling should be balanced in a person with the presence of tolerance as a calm, restrained tolerance for other states and nations, to other views and ideologies. The extreme, grotesque poles of this bundle - patriotism (as nationalism) and tolerance (as cosmopolitanism) - are equally unacceptable for a cultured individual and a civilized society. Here, as in the whole universe, dynamic stability (stability), optimal interaction of all functioning qualities and factors is necessary. Ovid also wrote: "You will pass through the middle unharmed."

A special position in the emotional sphere of personality is occupied by the feeling of love. The complexity and diversity of this feeling is truly amazing. A child, for example, "loves mom, dad and ice cream." Pedagogy often calls love for children the most important quality of a teacher. Christ calls from each icon: "Yes, love one another." Love for the Motherland has led and is leading warriors to exploits and heroic death. Possible love for nature, profession, adventure, etc. The role of love is great in interpersonal relationships, in the institution of the family, in the eternal emotional search by each person for his other half. Here, for example, are the reflections of S. A. Yesenin: "Do not call this ardor fate. A quick-tempered connection is frivolous." It is clear that the common and popular word "love" denotes very vivid, personally significant, deep and subtle, but very different experiences that have long deserved systematic psychological research.

S. L. Rubinshtein singled out worldview feelings that can be considered integral part moral, since broad worldview categories (man, world, good, evil, ideal, etc.) are included in the content of human morality, in the composition of one ideology or another.

example

The feeling of love for the Motherland, for example, refers not just to the geographical place of birth or growing up of a person, but to experiencing all the complex relationships with fellow countrymen, with the moral, cultural and historical customs and traditions of both the country as a whole and numerous, closer and narrower social entities: relatives and friends, yard, neighbors, school, street, place of work, district, village or city, etc. Here intersect in a single emotional formation (in different ways for every personality) all possible types and shades of feelings and experiences: from the emotional background to the worldview.

In a living human psyche, all feelings and emotions exist, of course, not separately, but in the desired unity, in personal integrity. Intellectual, aesthetic and other experiences in reality are inseparable from one another, and their artificial division in scientific schemes is intended only to describe as fully as possible the motley, lively, dynamic and multi-level world of human emotions.

Thus, the development and complication of emotions and the emotional sphere of the personality is carried out in two main directions. On the one hand, there is an increasingly subtle objectification, differentiation of human experiences: from a diffuse emotional tone to feelings, generalized, crystallized on their subject. The quantity increases and changes, the quality of these objects, which include social phenomena, abstract concepts, ethical categories, principles, values. On the other hand, there is an ever closer interaction (mediation, expansion of interfunctional connections) of experiences with all other psychological phenomena, with thinking, consciousness, self-awareness and personality as a whole.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Vladimir State University

named after Alexander Grigorievich and Nikolai Grigorievich Stoletovs(VlSU)

Institute (Faculty) of Small and Medium Business

abstract

by discipline: "Psychology"

on the topic: "Emotions. Classification of emotions»

Performed:

Art. gr. EKb-210

S. V. Matryoshkina

Vladimir 2013

Introduction

Chapter I. Definition of "emotion". Their properties and functions

1.1 Defining emotions

1.2 Functions of emotions

Chapter II. Classification of emotions

2.1 Classification of emotions of foreign scientists

2.2 Classification of emotions of domestic scientists

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

The question of the number and types of emotional reactions has been discussed for a long time. Even Aristotle singled out love and hatred, desire and disgust, hope and despair, timidity and courage, joy and sadness, anger.

In fact, emotions and feelings have an independent value for the individual, they are important for a person in and of themselves. Each of us has independent needs for emotional experiences, for emotional saturation. After all, emotional saturation requires not only positive emotions, but also emotions associated with suffering, dissatisfaction. At the same time, an “emotional pendulum” acts in us, as it were: Without experiencing any bitterness, you will not feel sweetness. It happens that in one experience the pleasant and the unpleasant emotions, positive and negative, such experiences are called ambivalent. This is relevance consideration of this topic.

For example, remember the relationship with friends, parents, teachers. After all, it happens that your best friend or a friend causes you anger, annoyance, shame, but this is not just anger, but feelings that are combined with love. Moreover, love dictates the desire to be proud of a loved one, which explains the mental pain that occurs when a loved one is not “on top”. Exactly the same behavior of a person to whom you do not feel this feeling will cause completely different experiences or leave you completely indifferent.

main goal work is to consider the definition of emotions, as well as their classification.

object studies are all human emotions as well subject study their characteristics, properties and functions.

This essay consists of an introduction, 2 chapters, a conclusion and a list of sources used.

ChapterI. Definition of "emotion". Their properties and functions

1.1 Definition of emotions

emotion psychological scientist

Emotions are a special class of subjective psychological states, reflecting in the form of direct experiences, sensations of pleasant or unpleasant, a person’s relationship to the world and people, the process and results of it. practical activities Vartanyan G.A., Petrov E.S. Emotions and behavior. - L.: Nauka, 2009. - p. 12 . The class of emotions includes moods, feelings, affects, passions, stresses. These are the so-called "pure" emotions. They are included in everything mental processes and the human condition. Any manifestations of his activity are accompanied by emotional experiences.

In humans, the purpose of emotions is that, thanks to emotions, we better understand each other, we can, without using speech, judge each other's states and better re-adjust to joint activities and communication. Remarkable, for example, is the fact that people belonging to different cultures are able to accurately perceive and evaluate the expressions of a human face, to determine from it such emotional states as joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise. This, in particular, applies to those peoples who have never been in contact with each other at all.

This fact not only convincingly proves the innate nature of the main emotions and their expression on the face, but also the presence of a genotypically determined ability to understand them in living beings. This, as we have already seen, refers to the communication of living beings not only of the same species with each other, but also of different species with each other. It is well known that higher animals and humans are capable of perceiving and evaluating each other's emotional states by facial expressions.

Relatively recent studies have shown that anthropoids, just like humans, are able not only to “read” the emotional states of their relatives in the face, but also to empathize with them, probably experiencing the same emotions as the animal they are receiving. empathize. In one experiment that tested this hypothesis, a great ape was forced to watch another monkey being punished in front of its eyes, which at the same time experienced an outwardly pronounced state of neurosis. Subsequently, it turned out that similar physiological functional changes were also found in the body of the "observer" - the monkey who simply watched another being punished in her presence.

However, not all emotionally expressive expressions are innate. Some of them have been found to be acquired in a lifetime as a result of training and education. First of all, this conclusion refers to gestures as a way of culturally conditioned external expression of emotional states and affective attitudes of a person to something.

Life without emotions is just as impossible as life without sensations. Emotions, argued the famous naturalist C. Darwin, arose in the process of evolution as a means by which living beings establish the significance of certain conditions to meet their urgent needs. Emotional and expressive movements of a person - facial expressions, gestures, pantomime - are necessary for communication, i.e. reporting to a person information about the state of the speaker and his attitude to what is currently happening, as well as impact - exerting a certain influence on who is the subject of perception of emotional and expressive movements. The interpretation of such movements by the perceiving person occurs on the basis of the correlation of the movement with the context in which the communication takes place.

In higher animals, and especially in humans, expressive movements have become a finely differentiated language with which living beings exchange information about their states and about what is happening around. They are also the most important factor in the regulation of cognitive processes.

Emotions act as an internal language, as a system of signals through which the subject learns about the needful significance of what is happening. The peculiarity of emotions is that they directly reflect the relationship between motives and the implementation of activities that correspond to these motives. Emotions in human activity perform the function of evaluating its course and results. They organize activity, stimulating and directing it.

In critical conditions, when the subject is unable to find a quick and reasonable way out of a dangerous situation, special kind emotional processes - affect. One of the essential manifestations of affect is that, “by imposing stereotyped actions on the subject, it is a certain way of “emergency” resolution of situations that has been entrenched in evolution: flight, stupor, aggression, etc.”

P. K. Anokhin once pointed out the important mobilization, integrative-protective role of emotions. He wrote: “Producing almost instantaneous integration (unification into a single whole) of all functions of the body, emotions in themselves and in the first place can be an absolute signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body, often even before the localization of effects and the specific mechanism of response are determined. organism" Gromova E.A. Emotional memory and its mechanisms. - M.: Nauka, 2000. - p. 87 . Thanks to the emotion that has arisen in time, the body has the opportunity to adapt extremely favorably to the surrounding conditions. He is able to quickly, with great speed, respond to external influences without having yet determined its type, form, and other private specific parameters.

Emotional sensations are biologically, in the process of evolution, fixed as a kind of way to maintain the life process to its optimal boundaries and warn of the destructive nature of the lack or excess of any factors.

The more complex a living being is organized, the more high step on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer is the range of all kinds of emotional states that it is able to experience. The quantity and quality of human needs, in general, corresponds to the number and variety of emotional experiences and feelings characteristic of him, and the higher the need in terms of its social and moral significance, the higher the feeling associated with it.

The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common form of emotional experiences among living beings is the pleasure derived from the satisfaction of organic needs, and the displeasure associated with the impossibility of doing this when the corresponding need is exacerbated. Almost all elementary organic sensations have their own emotional tone. O close connection, which exists between emotions and the activity of the body, says the fact that any emotional state is accompanied by many physiological changes in the body.

Attempts to connect these changes with specific emotions have been made repeatedly and were aimed at proving that the complexes of organic changes that accompany various subjectively experienced emotional states are different. However, it was not possible to clearly establish which of the subjectively given to us as unequal emotional experiences, which organic changes are accompanied, and failed.

This circumstance is essential for understanding vital role emotions. It says that our subjective experiences are not direct, direct reflections of our own organic processes. The characteristics of the emotional states we experience are probably connected not so much with the organic changes that accompany them, but with the sensations that arise during this. However, a certain relationship between the specifics emotional sensations and organic reactions still exist. It is expressed in the form of the following connection, which has received experimental confirmation: the closer to the central nervous system is the source of organic changes associated with emotions, and the fewer sensitive nerve endings in it, the weaker the resulting subjective emotional experience. In addition, an artificial decrease in organic sensitivity leads to a weakening of the strength of emotional experiences.

The main emotional states that a person experiences are divided into emotions proper, feelings and affects. Emotions and feelings anticipate the process aimed at meeting the needs, have an ideational character and are, as it were, at the beginning of it. Emotions and feelings express the meaning of the situation for a person from the point of view of the current need at the moment, the significance of the upcoming action or activity for its satisfaction. Emotions can be triggered by both real and imagined situations.

Emotions are relatively weakly manifested in external behavior, sometimes from the outside they are generally invisible to an outsider if a person knows how to hide his feelings well. They, accompanying this or that behavioral act, are not even always realized, although any behavior, as we found out, is associated with emotions, since it is aimed at satisfying a need. The emotional experience of a person is usually much broader than the experience of his individual experiences. Human feelings, on the contrary, are outwardly very noticeable.

1.2 Functions of emotions

Each emotion plays a certain role in the life of living beings. Therefore, scientists identify several regulatory functions emotions Abolin L.M. Psychological mechanisms of human emotional stability. - Kazan, 2007. - p. 129:

· reinforcing function. In the processes of learning and memory, it is emotions that play a decisive role. Empirically, it was found that in a state of emotional stress in animals, a conditioned reflex is very easily developed.

When classical reflexes and escape reactions are reinforced by an emotionally negative state of fear. With the successful implementation of the avoidance reaction, the mechanism of positive emotions is involved in the process. Defensive reactions of attack or flight are confined to various structures of the hypothalamus. Stimulation of the points of the medial hypothalamus, which causes defensive reactions in the rabbit, leads to an increase in the number of pairs of correlated working neurons in the visual and sensorimotor cortex. This fact can be considered as a kind of preparation of the visual area for the perception of signals significant for defensive behavior by the feedback mechanism. The influence of emotions on behavior is determined by the animal's attitude to its emotional state, and is subject to the principle of maximizing positive emotions and minimizing negative ones. This principle is implemented by the influence of the motivational-emotional structures of the hypothalamus on the information (cognitive) and movement-organizing departments. new cortex.

The totality of currently available data indicates that the hypothalamus is a key structure for implementing the most ancient reinforcing function of emotions, for solving the universal behavioral task of maximizing-minimizing the emerging emotional state: approaching or avoiding. After all, it is the receipt of desirable, emotionally positive stimuli or the elimination of undesirable, emotionally negative ones, and not the satisfaction of any need, that serves as a direct reinforcement in learning. For example, in this way, in rats it is impossible to develop an instrumental conditioned reflex when food is introduced, bypassing the taste buds.

· Pswitchingfunction. It lies in the fact that emotions often prompt a person to change their behavior. It is most clearly revealed in extreme situations when choosing a motivation that corresponds not only to a particular need, but also to the external conditions for its satisfaction in a given situation and at a given moment.

The amygdala plays a decisive role in the implementation of this function. Judging by the latest data obtained using positron emission tomography, the amygdala implements its switching function through the caudate nucleus. The amygdala is involved in the process of organizing behavior at its relatively late stages, when the actualized needs have already been compared with the prospect of their satisfaction and transformed into the corresponding emotions.

· communicative function. It consists in conveying one's emotions to others with the help of facial expressions, gestures, postures, changes in intonation, expressive sighs. According to some researchers, about 90% of emotional communication occurs at a non-verbal (non-semantic) level. When perceiving speech, regardless of its content, we can judge the emotional state of the partner (for example, the affects of melancholy or anxiety) by such indicators as the average duration of pure speech, the duration of pauses, the ratio of pauses to the total time of utterance, and the speed of articulation. Evaluation of the emotional state of a partner by his facial expressions has its own brain mechanism, which is different from the mechanism of partner identification. Thus, bilateral damage to the temporal cortex impairs recognition of a familiar face, while unilateral damage to the right temporal region is sufficient to impair recognition of emotional expression. Bilateral damage to the tonsils, on the contrary, prevents the recognition of fear facial expressions, without affecting the identification of familiar and unfamiliar faces, as well as intonation signs of fear and anger.

The emotional state of the subject is mainly reflected in the facial expressions of the left half of the face, which indicates the predominant activity of the right hemisphere. Right hemisphere(its central temporal region) also prevails in the perception of emotional facial expressions. True, a carefully performed study reveals a rather complex and dynamic picture of the interaction of the hemispheres in the recognition of emotional facial expression. With the correct recognition of expressions of joy, sadness, or emotionally neutral faces, the frontal cortex of the right hemisphere is sequentially activated, and then the frontal cortex of the left hemisphere. In misidentifications, the activation of the left hemisphere is ahead of that of the right.

· Reflective and stimulating functionand. The reflective function of emotions consists in a generalized assessment of events. Allows you to determine the usefulness and harmfulness of factors affecting a person even before the localization of the harmful effects is determined. The emotional evaluation of events differs in this case from the cognitive evaluation operations of the mind in that it is performed on a sensory level.

Predicting the probability of satisfying a need (probability of reinforcement) is realized by the "information" structures of the brain - the hippocampus and the frontal sections of the neocortex. The ability of the hippocampus to respond to signals of unlikely events allows us to consider it as key structure to implement the compensatory (replacing the lack of information) function of emotions. This function is manifested not only in the hypermobilization of vegetative changes (increased heart rate, rise in blood pressure, release of hormones into the bloodstream, etc.), which, as a rule, exceed the real needs of the body. The emergence of emotional stress is accompanied by a transition to forms of behavior other than in a calm state, mechanisms for assessing external signals and responding to them in accordance with the principle of A.A. Ukhtomsky. An emotionally excited brain responds to a wide range of supposedly significant signals, the true meaning of which is the correspondence or non-correspondence of reality. The increase in emotional stress, on the one hand, expands the range of engrams retrieved from memory, and on the other hand, reduces the criteria for "decision making" when comparing these engrams with available stimuli. The stronger the anxiety, the more often the subject responds to a neutral stimulus as aversive. The missing information is replenished by searching behavior, improving skills, mobilizing engrams stored in memory. The compensatory value of negative emotions lies in their substitutive role. As for positive emotions, their compensatory function is realized through the influence on the need that initiates behavior. AT difficult situation with a low probability of achieving the goal, even a small success (increase in probability) generates a positive emotion, which increases the need according to the rule arising from the "formula of emotions" Vasiliev I.A., Popluzhny V.L. Tikhomirov O.K. Emotions and thinking. - M., 2010. - p. 58 .

Unlike the hippocampus, the brain's second "informational" structure, the frontal neocortex, orients behavior toward signals of highly probable events. This is the motivating function of emotions. It was found that the production conditioned reflex the slower the lower the probability of reinforcement. After the destruction of the anterior parts of the neocortex, the process of formation of a conditioned reflex with a low probability of reinforcement noticeably accelerates.

ChapterII. Classification of emotions

2.1 Classification of emotions of foreign scientists

What emotions make up the base on the basis of which, like the seven notes in music or the seven colors of the rainbow, the richest palette of human feelings and emotional experiences is formed? There are many classifications of basic emotions. At the beginning of the century, the American psychologist Woodworth proposed a linear scale of emotions that reflects the entire continuum of emotional manifestations Woodworth R. Expression of emotions // experimental psychology. - M., 2000. - p. 322:

1. Love, fun, joy.

2. Surprise.

3. Fear, suffering.

4. Anger, determination.

5. Disgust.

6. Contempt.

In this scale, each emotion is something in between the two neighboring ones. Schlosberg connected the first and sixth emotions and thus obtained a circle that reflects all the transitions from one emotional experience to another, while the opposite emotions are opposite in content. The degree of expression of emotions is determined by the parameter pleasure - displeasure, which in fact is a sign of emotion.

The American psychologist K. Izard proposes to consider the following as the main or, in his terminology, fundamental emotions:

1. Interest.

2. Joy.

3. Surprise.

4. Grief, suffering and depression.

6. Disgust.

7. Contempt.

9. Shame and shyness.

Izard calls these 10 emotions fundamental because each of them has the following mandatory characteristics:

1) have distinct and specific neural substrates;

2) are manifested with the help of an expressive and specific configuration of facial muscle movements (facial expressions);

3) entail a distinct and specific experience that is recognized by a person;

4) arose as a result of evolutionary biological processes;

5) have an organizing and motivating influence on a person, serve his adaptation.

However, Izard himself admits that some emotions, classified as basic, do not have all these features. Thus, the emotion of guilt does not have a distinct mimic and pantomimic expression. On the other hand, some researchers attribute basic emotions and other characteristics.

Obviously, those emotions that have deep phylogenetic roots, i.e., are present not only in humans, but also in animals, can be called basic. Other emotions inherent only to a person (shame, guilt) do not apply to them. Interest and shyness can hardly be called emotions either.

For example, joy characterized as follows. It is a positive emotion that usually follows achievement or success as a result of effort that has not been expended. to achieve pleasure or benefit. The biological purpose of joy: it enhances social bonds, involves release from negative stimulation, facilitates attachment to objects that helped reduce unpleasant experiences. Psychological value: Provides social interaction, increases resistance to frustration, maintains confidence and courage, calms the person. Ways to achieve joy: purposeful activity, openness and sincerity, and increased social functioning. Obstacles to achieving joy: formalization of actions, the presence of control, mediocrity and monotony of life; impersonal and overly hierarchical relationships; dogmatism on the part of parents in the process of education; uncertainty of male and female roles in the family; exaggeration of the importance of material success and achievement; bodily imperfections.

R. Plutchik identifies eight basic emotions, dividing them into four pairs, each of which is associated with a certain action Borisov A.A. Emotional image of a person and psychological insight // Features of cognition and communication in the learning process. - Yaroslavl, 2002. - p. 66:

1) destruction (anger) - protection (fear);

2) acceptance (approval) - rejection (disgust);

3) reproduction (joy) - deprivation (despondency);

4) research (expectation) - orientation (surprise).

A special place among emotional phenomena is occupied by the so-called general sensations. So, P. Milner believes that, although it is customary to distinguish emotions (anger, fear, joy, etc.) from the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.), nevertheless, many in common and their division is rather conditional. One of the reasons why they are distinguished is the different degree of connection between subjective experiences and excitation of receptors. So, the experience of heat, pain is subjectively associated with the excitation of certain receptors (temperature, pain). On this basis, such states are usually referred to as sensations. The state of fear, anger is difficult to associate with the excitation of any receptor surfaces, therefore they are referred to as emotions. Another reason why emotions are opposed to general sensations is because they appear irregularly. Emotions often arise spontaneously and depend on random external Factors, while hunger, thirst, sexual desire follow at certain intervals.

VK Vilyunas (1986) divides emotions into two fundamental groups: leading and situational (derived from the former).

The first group consists of experiences generated by specific mechanisms of needs and coloring objects directly related to them. These experiences usually arise when some need is exacerbated and the object that responds to it is reflected. They precede the corresponding activity, encourage it and are responsible for its general direction. They largely determine the direction of other emotions, which is why they are called the leading ones by the author.

The second group includes situational emotional phenomena generated by universal mechanisms of motivation and aimed at circumstances that mediate the satisfaction of needs. They arise already in the presence of a leading emotion, i.e., in the process of activity (internal or external), and express the motivational significance of the conditions conducive to its implementation or hindering it (fear, anger), specific achievements in it (joy, chagrin), existing or possible situations, etc.

If leading experiences reveal to the subject the significance of the very object of need, then derivative emotions perform the same function in relation to the situation, the conditions for satisfying the need. In derivative emotions, the need is, as it were, objectified secondarily and already more widely - in relation to the conditions surrounding its object.

Analyzing situational emotions in a person, Vilyunas identifies a class of emotions of success-failure with three subgroups:

1) ascertainable success-failure;

2) anticipating success-failure;

3) generalized success-failure.

Emotions stating success or failure are responsible for changing behavior strategies; the generalized emotion of success-failure arises as a result of the evaluation of the activity as a whole; anticipatory emotions of success-failure are formed on the basis of ascertaining as a result of their association with the details of the situation. When a situation occurs again, these emotions allow you to anticipate events and encourage a person to act in a certain direction.

2.2 Classification of emotions of domestic scientists

According to the classification of emotional phenomena A.N. Leontiev distinguishes three types of emotional processes: affects, emotions proper and feelings.

Affects are strong and relatively short-term emotional experiences, accompanied by pronounced motor and visceral manifestations. In a person, affects are caused both by biologically significant factors affecting his physical existence, and by social ones, for example, the opinion of the leader, his negative assessment adopted sanctions. A distinctive feature of affects is that they arise in response to a situation that has actually occurred.

Actually, emotions, unlike affects, are more durable. Current state, sometimes only weakly manifested in external behavior.

The third type of emotional processes is the so-called objective feelings. They arise as a specific generalization of emotions and are associated with a representation or idea of ​​some object, concrete or abstract (for example, a feeling of love for a person, for the homeland, a feeling of hatred for an enemy, etc.). Objective feelings express stable emotional relationships.

I. Dodonov (1978) notes that it is generally impossible to create a universal classification of emotions, therefore, a classification suitable for solving one range of problems turns out to be ineffective when solving another range of problems Vasiliev I.A., Popluzhny V.L. Tikhomirov O.K. Emotions and thinking. - M., 2010. - p. 154 .

He proposed his own classification of emotions, and not for all, but only for those that a person most often needs and that give direct value to the very process of his activity, which, thanks to this, acquires the quality of interesting work or study, "sweet" dreams, gratifying memories, etc. For this reason, sadness was included in his classification (since there are people who love to be a little sad) and envy did not enter (since even envious people cannot be said that they like to envy). Thus, the classification proposed by Dodonov concerns only “valuable”, in his terminology, emotions. In essence, the basis of this classification are needs and goals, that is, the motives that certain emotions serve. It should be noted that the author often includes desires and aspirations in the category of “emotional tools”, i.e. signs of highlighting this group of emotions, which creates confusion. 1. Altruistic emotions. These experiences arise on the basis of the need for assistance, help, patronage of other people, in the desire to bring people joy and happiness. Altruistic emotions are manifested in the experience of a feeling of concern for the fate of someone and in caring, empathizing with the joy and good fortune of another, in feelings of tenderness, tenderness, devotion, participation, pity.

A more adequate understanding of the classification carried out by B. I. Dodonov, from my point of view, is available from E. I. Semenenko (1986). The author considers the emotions identified by Dodonov as types of emotional orientation. Students Pedagogical Institute these types according to the brightness of manifestation are arranged as follows:

when evaluating oneself: praxic, communicative, altruistic, aesthetic, gnostic, gloric, hedonistic, romantic, pugnic, acquisitive;

b when assessed by comrades: praxic, acquisitive, communicative, hedonistic, romantic, gloric, aesthetic, gnostic, altruistic, pugnic.

As can be seen from this list, a coincidence was observed in relation to only the praxic and pugnic types of emotional orientation.

The emotional orientation of the personality of athletes in accordance with the classification of B. I. Dodonov was studied by S. O. Berdnikova, Ya. Yu. Kopeyka and V. I. Lysy (2000).

The division of emotions into primary (basic) and secondary. This approach is typical for supporters of the discrete model of the human emotional sphere. However, different authors name a different number of basic emotions - from two to ten.

L. V. Kulikov (1997) divides emotions (“feelings”) into activation ones, which include cheerfulness, joy, excitement, tension (emotions of tension) - anger, fear, anxiety, and self-esteem - sadness, guilt, shame, confusion Vartanyan G.A., Petrov E.S. Emotions and behavior. - L.: Nauka, 2009. - p. 98 .

Obviously, we can not talk about some kind of comprehensive unified classification of emotional phenomena, but about their classifications, each of which emphasizes some sign by which these phenomena are combined into groups and at the same time separated from other groups. Such signs may be the mechanisms of occurrence, the causes that cause emotional reactions, a sign of experiences, their intensity and stability, the influence of emotions on human behavior and activity.

Conclusionse

So, emotions are the psychological reactions inherent in each of us to good and bad, these are our anxieties and joys, our despair and pleasure, emotions provide us with the ability to experience and empathize and maintain an interest in life, in the world around us. Emotions are part of our psychological activity, part of our "I".

Modern man in his actions often has to be guided mainly not by emotions, but by reason, but in many life situations the influence of emotions on human behavior is very large. And the general desire to maintain a positive emotional state in oneself and others is a guarantee of health, vivacity and happiness. That. the keys to health and happiness are in our own hands.

Emotional experiences reflect the vital significance of phenomena and situations affecting a person. In other words, emotions are a reflection in the form of a biased experience of the vital meaning of phenomena and situations. In general, we can say that everything that promotes or facilitates the satisfaction of needs causes positive emotional experiences, and, conversely, everything that prevents this is negative.

According to the Soviet psychophysiologist P.V. Simonov, emotion arises when there is a discrepancy between what needs to be known and in order to satisfy the need (necessary information), and what is actually known.

Nevertheless, many phenomena of emotional life do not fit into the psychological formula. And this is not surprising: life is always richer than formulas. Moreover, emotional.

Bibliography

1. Abolin L.M. Psychological mechanisms of human emotional stability. - Kazan, 2007. - 264 p. - ISBN 5-8046-0176-8

2. Borisova A.A. Emotional image of a person and psychological insight // Features of cognition and communication in the learning process. - Yaroslavl, 2002. - 96 p. - 5-7969-0061-7.

3. Vartanyan G.A., Petrov E.S. Emotions and behavior. - L.: Nauka, 2009. - 144 p. - ISBN 5-02-025662-5

4. Vasiliev I.A., Popluzhny V.L. Tikhomirov O.K. Emotions and thinking. - M., 2010. - 288 p. - ISBN 5-211-01031-0

5. Woodworth R. Expression of emotions // Experimental psychology. - M., 2000. - 798 p. - ISBN 5-691-00553-7

6. Gromova E.A. Emotional memory and its mechanisms. - M.: Nauka, 2000. - 311 p. - ISBN 5-318-00236-6

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