· African History Video
South Africa
To mid-nineteenth century, British and German missionaries and merchants penetrated the territory of modern Namibia. Herero and Nama, wanting to get guns and cartridges, sold them cattle, ivory and ostrich feathers. The Germans established themselves stronger in the region and in 1884 declared the coastal region from the Orange River to Kunene a German protectorate. They pursued an aggressive policy of seizing land for white settlements, using as a means of enmity between the Nama and Herero.
The Herero entered into an alliance with the Germans, hoping to gain the upper hand over the Nama. The Germans garrisoned the capital of the Herero and began distributing land to white settlers, including those with the best pastures of the central plateau. In addition, they established a system of taxation and forced labor. The Herero and Mbanderu rebelled, but the Germans put down the uprising and the leaders were executed.
A rinderpest between 1896 and 1897 destroyed the basis of the Herero and Nama economy and slowed the advance of the whites. The Germans continued to turn Namibia into a land of white settlers, seizing land and livestock, and even trying to export the Herero to work in South Africa.
In 1904, the Herero revolted. german general Lothar von Trotha used a policy of genocide against them at the Battle of Waterberg, which forced the Herero to migrate west from the Kalahari Desert. By the end of 1905, only 16,000 out of 80 Herero had survived. Nama resistance was crushed in 1907. All the land and all the cattle of the Nama and Herero were confiscated. Due to the decrease in the population, labor began to be imported from the Ovambo.
Nguniland
Between 1815 and 1840, a turmoil reigned in southern Africa, which became known as mfekane. The process began in the northern Nguni kingdoms of Mthetwa, Ndwandwe and Swaziland due to lack of resources and famine. When Dingiswayo, the ruler of Mthetwa, died, the Zulu ruler Chaka took over. He established the state of KwaZulu, subjugating the Ndwandwe and pushing the Swazi north. Ndwandwe and Swazi migration resulted in the expansion of the Mfekane area. In the 1820s, Chaka expanded the boundaries of his possessions to the foot of the Dragon Mountains, he was paid tribute even to the area south of the Tugela River and Umzimkulu. He replaced the leaders of the conquered settlements with governors - Indians who obeyed him. Chaka organized a centralized, disciplined and dedicated army, armed with short spears, which had not yet been equal in the region.
In 1828, Chaka died at the hands of his half-brother Dingaan, who did not have such military and organizational skills. In 1938, Voortrekkers attempted to occupy Zulu lands. At first they were defeated, but then they regrouped on the Bloody River and defeated the Zulus. However, the Trekkers did not dare to settle in the Zulu lands. Dingaan was killed in 1840 during the civil war. Power took over Mpande, who managed to strengthen the possessions of the Zulus in the north. In 1879, the British invaded the lands of the Zulus, seeking to subjugate the entire southern Africa. The Zulus were victorious at the Battle of Isandlwana but were defeated at the Battle of Ulundi.
One of the largest state formations that formed after the Mfekane was Lesotho, founded on the Taba-Bosiu plateau by the chief Moshweshwe I between 1821 and 1822. It was a confederation of villages that recognized the power of Moshoeshoe over themselves. In the 1830s, Lesotho invited missionaries to come, eager to get firearms and horses from the Cape. The Orange Republic gradually reduced the holdings of the Sotho, but was not completely able to defeat them. In 1868, Moshweshwe, trying to save the remnants of the country, invited the British to annex their possessions, which became the British protectorate of Basutoland.
great track
More: great track
At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the Hottentot lands were under the control of the Boers. The Hottentots lost their economic and political independence and were absorbed into Boer society. The Boers spoke Afrikaans, which was derived from Dutch. They no longer called themselves Boers, but Afrikaners. Part of the Hottentots were used as armed militia units in raids against other Hottentots and the Xhosa. A mixed population arose, which was called "Cape colored". In colonial society, they were assigned to the lower levels.
In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape Province from the Netherlands. This led to the fact that in the 1830s the Boers went into the interior of the continent east of the Great Fish River. This process is called the Great Track. The Trekkers founded the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Republic on lands with low population density that had been depopulated by the Mfekane. The Boers were unable to subdue the Bantu-speaking tribes as they subdued the Khoisan, because high density population and unity of local tribes. In addition, the Bantu-speaking tribes began to receive weapons from the Cape through trade. As a result of the Kafr wars, the Boers had to leave part of the lands of the Xhosa (Kaffirs). Only a powerful imperial force was able to conquer the Bantu-speaking tribes. In 1901, the Boer Republics were defeated by the British in the Second Boer War. Despite the defeat, the desire of the Boers was partially satisfied - South Africa was ruled by whites. Britain placed legislative, executive and administrative power in the hands of the British and the colonialists.
European trade, geographical expeditions and conquest
More: Slave trade, Colonization of Africa, Colonial division of Africa
Between 1878 and 1898, European states divided and conquered most of Africa. For the previous four centuries, European presence had been limited to coastal trading colonies. Few dared to go into the depths of the continent, and those who, like the Portuguese, were often defeated and forced to return to the coast. Several technological innovations contributed to the change. One of them is the invention of a carbine, which was loaded much faster than a gun. Artillery began to be widely used. Hiram Stevens Maxim invented the machine gun in 1885. Europeans refused to sell the latest weapons to African leaders.
Diseases such as yellow fever, sleeping sickness, leprosy, and especially malaria were a significant obstacle to the penetration of Europeans to the continent. Since 1854, the widespread use of quinine began. This and the following medical discoveries contributed to the colonization of Africa and made it possible.
The Europeans had many incentives to conquer Africa. The continent is rich in minerals needed by European factories. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the industrial revolution, as a result of which the need for raw materials grew. An important factor was the rivalry between states. The conquest of colonies in Africa demonstrated to the opponents the power and importance of the country. All this led to the colonial division of Africa.
The body of knowledge about Africa has grown. Numerous expeditions were equipped in the depths of the continent. Mungo Park crossed the Niger River. James Bruce traveled through Ethiopia and found the source of the Blue Nile. Richard Francis Burton was the first European to reach Lake Tanganyika. Samuel White Baker explored the headwaters of the Nile. John Henning Speke determined that the Nile flows out of Lake Victoria. Other significant African explorers were Heinrich Barth, Henry Morton Stanley, Antonio Silva Porta, Alexandre di Serpa Pinto, Rene Caille, Gerard Rolfe, Gustav Nachtigal, Georg Schweinfurt, Joseph Thomson. But the most famous is David Livingston, who explored southern Africa and crossed the continent from Luanda to Atlantic coast to Quelimane on the Indian Ocean. European explorers used African guides and servants and followed long-established trade routes. Christian missionaries made their contribution to the exploration of Africa.
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 determined the rules for the division of Africa, according to which the claims of a power to a part of the continent were recognized only when it could occupy it. A series of treaties in 1890-1891 fully defined the boundaries. All of sub-Saharan Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was divided among the European powers.
The Europeans established various forms of government in Africa based on power and ambition. In some regions, for example in British West Africa, the check was superficial and aimed at extracting raw materials. In other areas, the resettlement of Europeans and the creation of states where the European minority would dominate were encouraged. Only a few colonies attracted enough settlers. To British colonies Settlers belonged to British East Africa (Kenya), Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe), South Africa, which already had a significant number of immigrants from Europe - the Boers. France planned to populate Algeria and include it in the state for equal rights with the European part. These plans were facilitated by Algeria's proximity to Europe.
Basically, the administration of the colonies did not have the human and material resources for complete control over the territories and was forced to rely on local power structures. Numerous groups in the occupied countries used this European need to further their own goals. One aspect of this struggle was what Terence Ranger called "inventing tradition." In order to legitimize their claim to power to the colonial administration and their own people, the local elite fabricated ceremonies and stories that would justify their actions. As a consequence, the new order led to disorder.
List of African colonies
Belgium- Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Ruanda-Urundi (on the land of present-day Rwanda and Burundi, existed between 1916 and 1960)
- German Cameroon (now Cameroon and part of Niger)
- German East Africa (in present-day Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda)
- German South West Africa (in present-day Namibia)
- Togoland (on the territory modern states Togo and Ghana)
- Italian North Africa (now Libya)
- Eritrea
- Italian Somalia
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According to most scientists, Africa is the cradle of mankind. The remains of the most ancient hominids, found in 1974 in Harare (), are determined by the age of up to 3 million years. Around the same time, the remains of hominids in Koobi Fora () belong. It is believed that the remains in the Olduvai Gorge (1.6 - 1.2 million years) belong to the species of hominid, which in the process of evolution led to the emergence of Homo sapiens.
The formation of ancient people took place mainly in the grass zone. Then they spread to almost the entire continent. The first found remains of African Neanderthals (the so-called Rhodesian man) date back to 60 thousand years old (sites in Libya, Ethiopia).
Earliest human remains modern look(Kenya, Ethiopia) date back to 35 thousand years. Finally, a modern man supplanted the Neanderthals about 20 thousand years ago.
About 10 thousand years ago, a highly developed society of gatherers developed in the Nile Valley, where the regular use of grains of wild cereals began. It is believed that it was there that by the 7th millennium BC. formed ancient civilization Africa. The formation of pastoralism in general in Africa ended by the middle of the 4th millennium BC. But most modern agricultural crops and domestic animals apparently came to Africa from Western Asia.
Ancient history of Africa
In the second half of the 4th millennium BC increased social differentiation in the Northern and North- East Africa and on the basis of territorial formations - nomes, two political associations arose - Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The struggle between them ended by 3000 BC. the emergence of a single (the so-called Ancient Egypt). During the reign of the 1st and 2nd dynasties (30-28 centuries BC), a unified irrigation system for the whole country was formed, the foundations of statehood were laid. In the era ancient kingdom(3-4 dynasties, 28-23 centuries BC) there was a formation of a centralized despotism headed by the pharaoh - the unlimited master of the whole country. economic basis the power of the pharaohs became diversified (royal and temple).
Simultaneously with the rise of economic life, the local nobility strengthened, which again led to the disintegration of Egypt into many nomes, to the destruction of irrigation systems. In the course of the 23rd-21st centuries BC (7th-11th dynasty) there was a struggle for a new unification of Egypt. Government especially strengthened during the 12th dynasty during the Middle Kingdom (21-18 centuries BC). But again, the discontent of the nobility led to the disintegration of the state into many independent regions (14-17 dynasty, 18-16 centuries BC).
They took advantage of the weakening of Egypt nomadic tribes Hyksos. About 1700 B.D. they took possession of Lower Egypt, and by the middle of the 17th century BC. already ruled the whole country. At the same time, the liberation struggle began, which by 1580 before A.D. finished Ahmose 1 who founded the 18th dynasty. With this began the period of the New Kingdom (rule of 18-20 dynasties). New Kingdom (16-11 centuries BC) - time the highest growth economy and cultural upsurge of the country. The centralization of power increased - local government passed from independent hereditary nomarchs into the hands of officials.
As a result, Egypt experienced invasions of the Libyans. In 945 B.D. The Libyan military leader Sheshonk (22nd dynasty) proclaimed himself pharaoh. In 525 B.D. Egypt was conquered by the Persians, in 332 by Alexander the Great. In 323 B.D. after the death of Alexander, Egypt went to his commander Ptolemy Lag, who in 305 BC. declared himself king and Egypt became the state of the Ptolemies. But endless wars undermined the country, and by the 2nd century BC. Egypt was conquered by Rome. In 395 AD, Egypt became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, from 476 - as part of the Byzantine Empire.
In the 12th-13th centuries, the crusaders also made a number of attempts to conquer, which further aggravated the economic decline. In the 12th-15th centuries, rice and cotton crops, sericulture and winemaking gradually disappeared, and the production of flax and other industrial crops fell. The population of the centers of agriculture, including the valley, reoriented to the production of cereals, as well as dates, olives and horticultural crops. Huge areas were occupied by extensive cattle breeding. The process of the so-called Bedouinization of the population proceeded exceptionally fast. At the turn of the 11th-12th centuries, most North Africa, and by the 14th century, Upper Egypt also turned into dry semi-desert. Almost all cities and thousands of villages disappeared. During the 11th-15th centuries, the population of North Africa decreased, according to Tunisian historians, by about 60-65%.
Feudal arbitrariness and tax oppression, the deteriorating environmental situation led to the fact that Islamic rulers could not simultaneously restrain the discontent of the people and withstand an external threat. Therefore, at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, many cities and territories of North Africa were captured by the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the Order of St. John.
Under these conditions, the Ottoman Empire, acting as the defenders of Islam, with the support local population overthrew the power of local sultans (Mamluks in Egypt) and raised anti-Spanish uprisings. As a result, by the end of the 16th century, almost all the territories of North Africa became provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The expulsion of the conquerors, the cessation of feudal wars and the restriction of nomadism by the Ottoman Turks led to the revival of cities, the development of crafts and agriculture, the emergence of new crops (corn, tobacco, citrus fruits).
Much less is known about the development of sub-Saharan Africa in the Middle Ages. A fairly large role was played by trade and intermediary contacts with North and Western Asia, which required great attention to the military-organizational aspects of the functioning of society to the detriment of the development of production, and this naturally led to a further lag in Tropical Africa. But on the other hand, according to most scientists, Tropical Africa did not know the slave system, that is, it was moving from the communal system to class society in early feudal form. The main centers for the development of Tropical Africa in the Middle Ages are: Central and Western, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the basin, the Great Lakes region.
New African History
As already noted, by the 17th century, the countries of North Africa (except Morocco) and Egypt were part of the Ottoman Empire. These were feudal societies with a long tradition of urban life and a highly developed handicraft industry. The peculiarity of the social and economic structure of North Africa was the coexistence of agriculture and extensive pastoralism, which was carried out by nomadic tribes who preserved the traditions of tribal relations.
Weakening of power Turkish Sultan at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries was accompanied by economic decline. The population (in Egypt) halved between 1600 and 1800. North Africa again disintegrated into a number of feudal states. These states recognized vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire, but had independence in internal and external affairs. Under the banner of protecting Islam, they waged military operations against European fleets.
But by the beginning of the 19th century, European countries had achieved superiority at sea and, since 1815, the squadrons of Great Britain, France, and began to undertake military operations off the coast of North Africa. Since 1830, France began the colonization of Algeria, part of the territories of North Africa were captured.
Thanks to the Europeans, North Africa began to be drawn into the system. The export of cotton and grain grew, banks were opened, railways and telegraph lines were built. In 1869 the Suez Canal was opened.
But such penetration of foreigners caused discontent among the Islamists. And since 1860, propaganda of the ideas of jihad (holy war) began in all Muslim countries, which led to multiple uprisings.
Tropical Africa until the end of the 19th century served as a source of supply of slaves to the slave markets of America. Moreover, local coastal states most often played the role of intermediaries in the slave trade. Feudal relations in the 17-18 centuries developed precisely in these states (the Benin region), a large family community was spread in a separate territory, although formally there were many principalities (as an almost modern example - Bafut).
From the middle of the 19th century, the French expanded their possessions along, the Portuguese held the coastal regions of modern Angola and Mozambique.
This had a strong effect on the local economy: the range of food products was reduced (Europeans imported corn and cassava from America and widely distributed), many crafts fell into decay under the influence of European competition.
Since the end of the 19th century, the Belgians (since 1879), the Portuguese, have joined the struggle for the territory of Africa (since 1884), (since 1869).
By 1900, 90% of Africa was in the hands of the colonial invaders. The colonies were turned into agricultural and raw material appendages of the metropolises. The foundations were laid for the specialization of production in export crops (cotton in Sudan, peanuts in Senegal, cocoa and oil palms in Nigeria, etc.).
The beginning of the colonization of South Africa was laid in 1652, when about 90 people (Dutch and Germans) landed on the Cape of Good Hope in order to create a transshipment base for the East India Company. This was the beginning of the creation of the Cape Colony. The result of the creation of this colony was the extermination of the local population and the appearance of a colored population (since during the first decades of the existence of the colony, mixed marriages were allowed).
In 1806, Great Britain captured the Cape Colony, which led to an influx of immigrants from Britain, the abolition of slavery in 1834 and the introduction of in English. The Boers (Dutch colonists) took this negatively and moved north while destroying the African tribes (Xhosa, Zulu, Suto, etc.).
A very important fact. By establishing arbitrary political boundaries, chaining each colony to its own market, tying it to a certain currency zone, the Metropolitans dismembered entire cultural and historical communities, disrupted traditional trade ties, suspended the normal course of ethnic processes. As a result, no colony had a more or less ethnically homogeneous population. Within the same colony, there were many ethnic groups belonging to different language families, and sometimes to different races, which naturally complicated the development of the national liberation movement (although in the 20-30s of the 20th century military actions took place in Angola, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Congo,).
During World War II, the Germans tried to include African colonies in " living space»Third Reich. The war was fought on the territory of Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Equatorial Africa. But in general, the war gave impetus to the development of the mining and manufacturing industries, Africa supplied food and strategic raw materials to the warring powers.
During the war, national-political parties and organizations began to form in most of the colonies. In the first post-war years (with the help of the USSR), communist parties began to emerge, often leading armed uprisings, and options for the development of "African socialism" arose.
Sudan liberated in 1956
1957 - Gold Coast (Ghana),
After gaining independence, they went along different paths of development: a number of countries, mostly poor in natural resources, went along the socialist path (Benin, Madagascar, Angola, Congo, Ethiopia), a number of countries, mostly rich - along the capitalist path (Morocco, Gabon, Zaire, Nigeria, Senegal, CAR, etc.). A number of countries carried out both reforms under socialist slogans (, etc.).
But in principle, there was no big difference between these countries. Both here and there nationalization of foreign property was carried out, land reforms. The only question was who paid for it - the USSR or the USA.
As a result of World War I, all of South Africa came under British rule.
In 1924, the "civilized labor" law was passed, according to which Africans were suspended from jobs requiring qualifications. In 1930, a law was passed on the distribution of land, according to which Africans were deprived of land ownership and were to be placed in 94 reserves.
In World War II, the countries of South Africa, which were part of the Empire, turned out to be on the side of the anti-fascist coalition, fought in North Africa and Ethiopia, but there were also many pro-fascist groups.
In 1948 the policy of apartheid was introduced. However, this policy led to harsh anti-colonial speeches. As a result, independence was proclaimed in 1964 and,
Africa is the second largest continent after Eurasia, washed by the Mediterranean Sea from the north, the Red Sea from the northeast, the Atlantic Ocean from the west and the Indian Ocean from the east and south. Africa is also called the part of the world, consisting of the mainland Africa and adjacent islands. The area of Africa is 29.2 million km², with islands - about 30.3 million km², thus covering 6% of the total surface area of \u200b\u200bthe Earth and 20.4% of the land surface. There are 54 states in Africa, 5 unrecognized states and 5 dependent territories(island).
The population of Africa is about a billion people. Africa is considered the ancestral home of mankind: it was here that the oldest remains of early hominids and their probable ancestors were found, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster.
The African continent crosses the equator and several climatic zones; it is the only continent that stretches from the northern subtropical climate zone to the southern subtropical one. Due to the lack of permanent rainfall and irrigation - as well as glaciers or the aquifer of mountain systems - there is practically no natural regulation of the climate anywhere except the coasts.
African Studies is the study of the cultural, economic, political and social problems of Africa.
extreme points
- North - Cape Blanco (Ben Secca, Ras Engela, El Abyad)
- South - Cape Agulhas
- Western - Cape Almadi
- Eastern - Cape Ras Hafun
origin of name
Initially, the inhabitants of ancient Carthage called the word "Afri" people who lived near the city. This name is usually attributed to the Phoenician afar, which means "dust". After the conquest of Carthage, the Romans named the province Africa (lat. Africa). Later, Africa began to be called everything famous regions this continent, and then the continent itself.
Another theory is that the name of the people "Afri" comes from the Berber ifri, "cave", referring to the cave dwellers. The Muslim province of Ifriqiya, which arose later on this place, also retained this root in its name.
According to the historian and archaeologist I. Efremov, the word "Africa" came from ancient language Ta-Kem (Egypt. "Afros" - foamy country). This is due to the collision of several types of currents that form foam when approaching the continent in the Mediterranean Sea.
There are other versions of the origin of the toponym.
- Josephus, a Jewish historian of the 1st century, argued that this name comes from the name of Abraham's grandson Ether (Gen. 25:4), whose descendants settled Libya.
- The Latin word aprica, meaning "sunny", is mentioned in Isidore of Seville's Elements, volume XIV, section 5.2 (VI century).
- The version about the origin of the name from the Greek word αφρίκη, which means "without cold", was proposed by the historian Leo Africanus. He assumed that the word φρίκη (“cold” and “horror”), combined with the negative prefix α-, denotes a country where there is neither cold nor horror.
- Gerald Massey, a self-taught poet and Egyptologist, in 1881 put forward a version about the origin of the word from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, "to turn to face the opening of the Ka." Ka is the energy double of each person, and the "hole of Ka" means the womb or birthplace. Africa, therefore, for the Egyptians means "homeland".
History of Africa
prehistoric period
At the beginning of the Mesozoic era, when Africa was part of the single continent of Pangea, and until the end of the Triassic period, theropods and primitive ornithischians dominated this region. The excavations carried out at the end of the Triassic period testify to the greater population of the south of the mainland, and not the north.
Human Origins
Africa is considered the birthplace of man. The remains of the oldest species of the genus Homo have been found here. Of the eight species of this genus, only one survived - a reasonable person, and in a small number (about 1000 individuals) began to settle in Africa about 100,000 years ago. And already from Africa, people migrated to Asia (about 60 - 40 thousand years ago), and from there to Europe (40 thousand years), Australia and America (35 -15 thousand years ago).
Africa during the Stone Age
The oldest archaeological finds that testify to the processing of grain in Africa date back to the thirteenth millennium BC. e. Pastoralism in the Sahara began c. 7500 BC e., but organized Agriculture in the Nile region appeared in the 6th millennium BC. e.
In the Sahara, which was then a fertile territory, groups of hunters-fishers lived, archaeological finds testify to this. Throughout the Sahara (present-day Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Chad, etc.), many petroglyphs and rock paintings dating from 6000 BC have been discovered. e. until the 7th century AD. e. The most famous monument of the primitive art of North Africa is the Tassilin-Adjer plateau.
In addition to the group of Saharan monuments, rock art is also found in Somalia and South Africa (the oldest drawings date back to the 25th millennium BC).
Linguistic evidence shows that Bantu-speaking ethnic groups migrated to southwest direction, displacing the Khoisan peoples (Xhosa, Zulu, etc.) from there. Bantu settlements have yielded a characteristic array of crops suitable for tropical Africa, including cassava and yams.
A small number of ethnic groups, such as the Bushmen, continue to lead a primitive way of life, hunting, gathering, like their ancestors several millennia ago.
ancient africa
North Africa
By the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. agricultural cultures (Tasian culture, Fayum culture, Merimde) were formed in the Nile Valley, on the basis of which in the 4th millennium BC. e. Ancient Egypt emerged. To the south of it, also on the Nile, under its influence, the Kerma-Kushite civilization was formed, which was replaced in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Nubian (state formation of Napata). On its ruins, Aloa, Mukurra, the Nabataean kingdom, and others were formed, which were under the cultural and political influence of Ethiopia, Coptic Egypt and Byzantium. 
In the north of the Ethiopian highlands, under the influence of the South Arabian Sabaean kingdom, the Ethiopian civilization arose: in the 5th century BC. e. people from South Arabia the Ethiopian kingdom was formed, in the II-XI centuries AD. e. there was the Aksumite kingdom, on the basis of which Christian Ethiopia was formed (XII-XVI centuries). These centers of civilization were surrounded by the pastoral tribes of the Libyans, as well as the ancestors of the modern Cushite- and Nilotic-speaking peoples.
As a result of the development of horse breeding (which appeared in the first centuries AD), as well as camel breeding and oasis agriculture, the trading cities of Telgi, Debris, Garama appeared in the Sahara, and the Libyan script arose.
On the Mediterranean coast of Africa in the XII-II centuries BC. e. the Phoenician-Carthaginian civilization flourished. The neighborhood of the Carthaginian slave-owning power had an impact on the Libyan population. By the 4th century BC e. there were large alliances of Libyan tribes - Mauretans (modern Morocco to the lower reaches of the Muluya River) and Numidians (from the Muluya River to the Carthaginian possessions). To 3rd century BC e. there were conditions for the formation of states (see Numidia and Mauretania).
After the defeat of Carthage by Rome, its territory became the Roman province of Africa. Eastern Numidia in 46 BC was turned into a Roman province New Africa, and in 27 BC. e. both provinces were united into one, ruled by proconsuls. The Mauretanian kings became vassals of Rome, and in 42 the country was divided into two provinces: Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesarea.
The weakening of the Roman Empire in the III century caused a crisis in the provinces of North Africa, which contributed to the success of the invasions of the barbarians (Berbers, Goths, Vandals). With the support of the local population, the barbarians overthrew the power of Rome and formed several states in North Africa: the kingdom of the Vandals, the Berber kingdom of Jedar (between Muluya and Ores) and a number of smaller Berber principalities. 
In the VI century, North Africa was conquered by Byzantium, but the position of the central government was fragile. The African provincial nobility often entered into allied relations with the barbarians and other external enemies of the empire. In 647, the Carthaginian exarch Gregory (cousin-nephew of Emperor Heraclius I), taking advantage of the weakening of imperial power due to the blows of the Arabs, broke away from Constantinople and proclaimed himself emperor of Africa. One of the manifestations of the dissatisfaction of the population with the policy of Byzantium was the widespread dissemination of heresies (Arianism, Donatism, Monophysitism). Muslim Arabs became an ally of heretical movements. In 647, the Arab troops defeated the army of Gregory in the battle of Sufetul, which led to the rejection of Egypt from Byzantium. In 665, the Arabs repeated the invasion of North Africa, and by 709, all the African provinces of Byzantium became part of the Arab Caliphate (for more details, see Arab conquests).
Africa south of the Sahara
Africa south of the Sahara in the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread throughout the world. This contributed to the development of new territories, primarily tropical forests, and became one of the reasons for the settlement of most of Tropical and South Africa by the Bantu-speaking peoples, who displaced representatives of the Ethiopian and capoid races to the north and south.
The centers of civilizations in Tropical Africa spread from north to south (in the eastern part of the continent) and partly from east to west (especially in the western part).
The Arabs, who penetrated North Africa in the 7th century, until the advent of Europeans, became the main intermediaries between Tropical Africa and the rest of the world, including through the Indian Ocean. The cultures of Western and Central Sudan formed a single West African, or Sudanese, cultural zone that stretched from Senegal to modern Republic Sudan. In the II millennium, most of this zone was part of the large state formations of Ghana, Kanem-Borno Mali (XIII-XV centuries), Songhai.
South of the Sudanese civilizations in the 7th-9th centuries AD. e. the Ife state formation was formed, which became the cradle of the Yoruba and Bini civilization (Benin, Oyo); neighboring nations also experienced their influence. To the west of it, in the 2nd millennium, the Akano-Ashanti proto-civilization was formed, which flourished in XVII-early XIX century.
In the region of Central Africa during the XV-XIX centuries. various state formations gradually arose - Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi, etc.
Since the 10th century, Swahili Muslim culture has flourished in East Africa (the city-states of Kilwa, Pate, Mombasa, Lamu, Malindi, Sofala, and others, the Zanzibar Sultanate).
In Southeast Africa, the Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe, Monomotapa) proto-civilization (X-XIX centuries), in Madagascar, the process of state formation ended at the beginning of the XIX century with the unification of all the early political formations of the island around Imerin.
The arrival of Europeans in Africa
The penetration of Europeans into Africa began in the 15th-16th centuries; largest contribution in the development of the continent at the first stage, the Spaniards and the Portuguese made after the completion of the Reconquista. Already at the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese actually controlled the western coast of Africa and launched an active slave trade in the 16th century. Following them, almost all Western European powers rushed to Africa: Holland, Spain, Denmark, France, England, Germany.
The slave trade with Zanzibar gradually led to the colonization of East Africa; Morocco's attempts to seize the Sahel failed.
All North Africa (except Morocco) early XVII century became part of Ottoman Empire. With the final division of Africa between the European powers (1880s), the colonial period began, forcibly introducing Africans to industrial civilization.
Colonization of Africa
The process of colonization took on a large scale in the second half of the 19th century, especially after 1885 with the start of the so-called race or fight for Africa. Almost the entire continent (except for Ethiopia and Liberia, which remained independent) by 1900 was divided between a number of European states: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal retained and somewhat expanded their old colonies.
The most extensive and richest were the possessions of Great Britain. In the southern and central part of the continent:
- cape colony,
- Natal,
- Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
- Basutoland (Lesotho),
- swaziland,
- Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe),
- Northern Rhodesia (Zambia).
East:
- Kenya,
- Uganda,
- Zanzibar,
- British Somalia.
In the north-east:
- Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, formally considered a co-ownership of England and Egypt.
In the West:
- Nigeria,
- Sierra Leone,
- Gambia
- Golden shore.
In the Indian Ocean
- Mauritius (island)
- Seychelles.
The colonial empire of France was not inferior in size to the British, but the population of its colonies was several times smaller, and the natural resources were poorer. Most of the French possessions were located in West and Equatorial Africa, and a large part of their territory fell on the Sahara, the adjacent semi-desert Sahel region and tropical forests:
- French Guinea (now the Republic of Guinea),
- Shore Ivory(Cote d'Ivoire),
- Upper Volta (Burkina Faso),
- Dahomey (Benin),
- Mauritania,
- Niger,
- Senegal,
- French Sudan (Mali),
- Gabon,
- Middle Congo (Republic of the Congo),
- Ubangi-Shari (Central African Republic),
- French coast of Somalia (Djibouti),
- Madagascar,
- Comoros,
- Reunion.
Portugal owned Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau), which included the Cape Verde Islands (Republic of Cape Verde), Sao Tome and Principe.
Belgium owned the Belgian Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo, and in 1971-1997 - Zaire), Italy - Eritrea and Italian Somalia, Spain - Spanish Sahara (Western Sahara), Northern Morocco, Equatorial Guinea th, Canary Islands; Germany - German East Africa (now - the continental part of Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi), Cameroon, Togo and German South-West Africa (Namibia).
The main incentives that led to the heated battle between the European powers for Africa are considered to be economic ones. Indeed, the desire to exploit the natural wealth and population of Africa was of paramount importance. But it cannot be said that these hopes were immediately justified. The south of the continent, where the world's largest deposits of gold and diamonds were discovered, began to give huge profits. But before generating income, large investments were first needed to explore natural resources, create communications, adapt the local economy to the needs of the metropolis, to suppress the protests of the indigenous people and find effective ways to make them work for the colonial system. All this took time. Another argument of the ideologues of colonialism was not immediately justified either. They argued that the acquisition of colonies would create many jobs in the metropolises themselves and eliminate unemployment, since Africa would become a capacious market for European products and huge construction of railways, ports, industrial enterprises. If these plans were implemented, then more slowly than expected, and on a smaller scale. The argument that the surplus population of Europe would move to Africa turned out to be untenable. The resettlement flows turned out to be less than expected, and were mainly limited to the south of the continent, Angola, Mozambique, Kenya - countries where the climate and other natural conditions were suitable for Europeans. The countries of the Gulf of Guinea, dubbed "the white man's grave," seduced few.
Period of colonial rule
African Theater of World War I
First World War was a fight for the redistribution of Africa, but on the life of the majority African countries She didn't have much of an impact. Military operations covered the territories of the German colonies. They were conquered by the Entente troops and after the war, by decision of the League of Nations, they were transferred to the Entente countries as mandated territories: Togo and Cameroon were divided between Great Britain and France, German South-West Africa went to the Union of South Africa (SA), part of German East Africa - Rwanda and Burundi - was transferred to Belgium, the other - Tanganyika - to Great Britain.
With the acquisition of Tanganyika, an old dream of the British came true. ruling circles: there was a continuous strip of British possessions from Cape Town to Cairo. After the end of the war, the process of colonial development of Africa accelerated. The colonies were increasingly turning into agricultural and raw material appendages of the metropolises. Agriculture is increasingly export-oriented.
Interwar period
In the interwar period, the composition of agricultural crops grown by Africans changed dramatically - the production of export crops increased sharply: coffee - 11 times, tea - 10, cocoa beans - 6, peanuts - more than 4, tobacco - 3 times, etc. E. An increasing number of colonies became countries of monocultural economy. On the eve of the Second World War, in many countries from two-thirds to 98% of the value of all exports came from any one crop. In the Gambia and Senegal, peanuts became such a crop, in Zanzibar - cloves, in Uganda - cotton, on the Gold Coast - cocoa beans, in French Guinea - bananas and pineapples, in Southern Rhodesia - tobacco. In some countries there were two export crops: on the Ivory Coast and in Togo - coffee and cocoa, in Kenya - coffee and tea, etc. In Gabon and some other countries, valuable forest species became a monoculture.
The emerging industry - mainly mining - was designed for export to an even greater extent. She developed quickly. In the Belgian Congo, for example, copper mining increased more than 20 times between 1913 and 1937. By 1937, Africa occupied an impressive place in the capitalist world in the production of mineral raw materials. It accounted for 97% of all mined diamonds, 92% of cobalt, more than 40% of gold, chromites, lithium minerals, manganese ore, phosphorites and more than a third of all platinum production. In West Africa, as well as in most parts of East and Central Africa, export products were produced mainly on the farms of the Africans themselves. European plantation production did not take root there because of the difficult climatic conditions for Europeans. The main exploiters of the African manufacturer were foreign companies. Export agricultural products were produced on farms owned by Europeans located in the Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, part of Northern Rhodesia, Kenya, South West Africa.
African Theater of World War II
The fighting during the Second World War on the African continent is divided into two areas: the North African campaign, which affected Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and was an integral part of the most important Mediterranean theater of operations, as well as an autonomous african theater military operations, the battles on which were of secondary importance.
During the Second World War, military operations in Tropical Africa were conducted only in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. In 1941, British troops, along with Ethiopian partisans and active participation Somalis occupied the territories of these countries. In other countries of Tropical and South Africa, military operations were not conducted (with the exception of Madagascar). But hundreds of thousands of Africans were mobilized in the armies of the mother countries. More more people had to serve the troops, work for military needs. Africans fought in North Africa, Western Europe, the Middle East, Burma, Malaya. On the territory of the French colonies, there was a struggle between the Vichy and supporters of the "Free France", which, as a rule, did not lead to military clashes.
Decolonization of Africa
After the Second World War, the process of decolonization of Africa quickly began. 1960 was declared the Year of Africa - the year of the liberation of the largest number of colonies. In this year, 17 states gained independence. Most of them are French colonies and UN trust territories administered by France: Cameroon, Togo, Malagasy Republic, Congo (former French Congo), Dahomey, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Chad, Central African Republic, Gabon, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Mali. The most independent were proclaimed large country Africa in terms of population - Nigeria, which belonged to Great Britain, and the largest in terms of territory - the Belgian Congo. British Somalia and the Italian-administered Trust Somalia were merged to become the Somali Democratic Republic.
1960 changed the whole situation on the African continent. The dismantling of the rest of the colonial regimes has already become inevitable. Sovereign states were proclaimed:
- in 1961 the British possessions of Sierra Leone and Tanganyika;
- in 1962 - Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda;
- in 1963 - Kenya and Zanzibar;
- in 1964 - Northern Rhodesia (which called itself the Republic of Zambia, after the name of the Zambezi River) and Nyasaland (Malawi); in the same year, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the Republic of Tanzania;
- in 1965 - Gambia;
- in 1966 - Bechuanaland became the Republic of Botswana and Basutoland became the Kingdom of Lesotho;
- in 1968 - Mauritius, Equatorial Guinea and Swaziland;
- in 1973 - Guinea-Bissau;
- in 1975 (after the revolution in Portugal) - Angola, Mozambique, the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome and Principe, as well as 3 of the 4 Comoros (Mayotte remained the possession of France);
- in 1977 - the Seychelles, and French Somalia became the Republic of Djibouti;
- in 1980 - Southern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zimbabwe;
- in 1990 - Trust Territory of South West Africa - Republic of Namibia.
The declaration of independence of Kenya, Zimbabwe, Angola, Mozambique and Namibia was preceded by wars, uprisings, guerrilla struggle. But for most African countries, the final stage of the journey was passed without major bloodshed, it was the result of mass demonstrations and strikes, the negotiation process, and, in relation to the trust territories, the decisions of the United Nations.
Due to the fact that the borders of African states during the “race for Africa” were drawn artificially, without taking into account the resettlement of various peoples and tribes, as well as the fact that the traditional African society was not ready for democracy, civil wars began in many African countries after gaining independence. war. Dictators came to power in many countries. The resulting regimes are characterized by disregard for human rights, bureaucracy, totalitarianism, which in turn leads to economic crisis and growing poverty.
Currently under the control of European countries are:
- Spanish enclaves in Morocco Ceuta and Melilla, Canary Islands (Spain),
- St. Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha and Chagos Archipelago (UK),
- Reunion, Eparse and Mayotte Islands (France),
- Madeira (Portugal).
Change of state names
During the period of African countries gaining independence, many of them changed their names for various reasons. These could be secessions, unifications, regime changes or the acquisition of sovereignty by the country. The phenomenon of renaming African proper names (names of countries, personal names of people) in order to reflect African identity has been called Africanization.
| Previous name | Year | Current title |
| Portuguese South West Africa | 1975 | Republic of Angola |
| Dahomey | 1975 | Republic of Benin |
| Bechuanaland Protectorate | 1966 | Republic of Botswana |
| Republic of Upper Volta | 1984 | Republic of Burkina Faso |
| Ubangi Shari | 1960 | Central African Republic |
| Republic of Zaire | 1997 | Democratic Republic of the Congo |
| Middle Congo | 1960 | Republic of the Congo |
| Ivory Coast | 1985 | Republic of Ivory Coast* |
| French territory of the Afars and Issas | 1977 | Republic of Djibouti |
| Spanish Guinea | 1968 | Republic of Equatorial Guinea |
| Abyssinia | 1941 | Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia |
| Golden shore | 1957 | Republic of Ghana |
| part of French West Africa | 1958 | Republic of Guinea |
| Portuguese Guinea | 1974 | Republic of Guinea-Bissau |
| Basutoland Protectorate | 1966 | Kingdom of Lesotho |
| Nyasaland Protectorate | 1964 | Republic of Malawi |
| French Sudan | 1960 | Republic of Mali |
| German South West Africa | 1990 | Republic of Namibia |
| German East Africa / Ruanda-Urundi | 1962 | Republic of Rwanda / Republic of Burundi |
| British Somaliland / Italian Somaliland | 1960 | Republic of Somalia |
| Zanzibar / Tanganyika | 1964 | United Republic of Tanzania |
| Buganda | 1962 | Republic of Uganda |
| Northern Rhodesia | 1964 | Republic of Zambia |
| Southern Rhodesia | 1980 | Republic of Zimbabwe |
* The Republic of Côte d'Ivoire did not change its name as such, but required that other languages use French name countries (fr. Côte d’Ivoire), and not its literal translation into other languages (Ivory Coast, Ivory Coast, Elfenbeinküste, etc.).
Geographic research
David Livingston
David Livingston decided to study the rivers of South Africa and find natural passages deep into the mainland. He sailed the Zambezi, discovered the Victoria Falls, defined the watershed of Lake Nyasa, Taganika and the Lualaba River. In 1849, he was the first European to cross the Kalahari Desert and explore Lake Ngami. During his last trip he tried to find the source of the Nile.
Heinrich Barth
Heinrich Barth established that Lake Chad is drainless, was the first European to study the rock paintings of the ancient inhabitants of the Sahara and expressed his assumptions about climate change in North Africa.
Russian explorers
Mining engineer, traveler Egor Petrovich Kovalevsky helped the Egyptians in search of gold deposits, studied the tributaries of the Blue Nile. Vasily Vasilyevich Junker explored the watershed of the main African rivers - the Nile, the Congo and the Niger.
Geography of Africa
Africa covers an area of 30.3 million km². The length from north to south is 8 thousand km, from west to east in the northern part - 7.5 thousand km. 
Relief
For the most part - flat, in the north-west are the Atlas Mountains, in the Sahara - the highlands of Ahaggar and Tibesti. In the east - the Ethiopian Highlands, to the south of it the East African Plateau, where the volcano Kilimanjaro (5895 m) is located - the highest point on the mainland. To the south are the Cape and Dragon Mountains. The most low point(157 meters below sea level) is located in Djibouti, this salt Lake Assal. The deepest cave is Anu Ifflis, located in the north of Algeria in the Tel Atlas mountains.
Minerals
Africa is known primarily for its richest deposits of diamonds (South Africa, Zimbabwe) and gold (South Africa, Ghana, Mali, Republic of the Congo). There are large oil fields in Nigeria and Algeria. Bauxites are mined in Guinea and Ghana. The resources of phosphorites, as well as manganese, iron and lead-zinc ores are concentrated in the zone of the northern coast of Africa.
Inland waters
Africa has one of the longest rivers in the world - the Nile (6852 km), flowing from south to north. Other major rivers are the Niger in the west, the Congo in central Africa, and the Zambezi, Limpopo and Orange rivers in the south.
The largest lake is Victoria. Other large lakes are Nyasa and Tanganyika, located in lithospheric faults. One of the largest salt lakes is Lake Chad, located on the territory of the state of the same name.
Climate
Africa is the hottest continent on the planet. The reason for this is in geographical location mainland: the entire territory of Africa is located in hot climatic zones and the mainland is crossed by the equator line. It is in Africa that the hottest place on Earth is located - Dallol, and the highest temperature on Earth (+58.4 ° C) was recorded.
Central Africa and the coastal regions of the Gulf of Guinea belong to the equatorial belt, where heavy rainfall occurs throughout the year and there is no change of seasons. North and south of equatorial belt subequatorial belts are located. Humid conditions dominate here in summer. equatorial masses air (rainy season), and in winter - the dry air of tropical trade winds (dry season). To the north and south of the subequatorial belts are the northern and southern tropical belts. They are characterized by high temperatures with low rainfall, which leads to the formation of deserts.
To the north is the largest desert on Earth, the Sahara Desert, to the south, the Kalahari Desert. Northern and southern tip mainland are included in the corresponding subtropical belts.
Fauna of Africa, Flora of Africa
The flora of the tropical, equatorial and subequatorial zones is diverse. Ceiba, pipdatenia, terminalia, combretum, brachistegia, isoberlinia, pandanus, tamarind, sundew, pemphigus, palm trees and many others grow everywhere. The savannas are dominated by low trees and thorny shrubs (acacia, terminalia, bush).
Desert vegetation, on the other hand, is sparse, consisting of small communities of grasses, shrubs, and trees growing in oases, highlands, and along waters. Salt-resistant halophyte plants are found in the depressions. On the least watered plains and plateaus grow species of grasses, small shrubs and trees that are resistant to drought and heat. The flora of the desert regions is well adapted to the irregularity of rainfall. This is reflected in a wide variety of physiological adaptations, habitat preferences, the creation of dependent and related communities, and reproduction strategies. Perennial drought-resistant grasses and shrubs have an extensive and deep (up to 15-20 m) root system. Many of the herbaceous plants are ephemera, which can produce seeds three days after sufficient moisture and sow them within 10-15 days after that.
AT mountainous areas In the Sahara desert, there is a relic Neogene flora, often related to the Mediterranean one, and many endemics. Among the relic woody plants growing in mountainous areas are some types of olive, cypress and mastic tree. There are also species of acacia, tamarisks and wormwood, doom palm, oleander, date palm, thyme, ephedra. Dates, figs, olive and fruit trees, some citrus fruits, and various vegetables are cultivated in the oases. Herbal plants that grow in many parts of the desert are represented by the genera triostnitsa, field grass and millet. Coastal grasses and other salt-tolerant grasses grow along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Various combinations of ephemera form seasonal pastures called ashebs. Algae are found in water bodies.
In many desert areas (rivers, hamads, partially accumulations of sand, etc.), there is no vegetation cover at all. The vegetation of almost all areas was strongly affected by human activities (grazing, gathering useful plants, fuel procurement, etc.).
A remarkable plant of the Namib Desert is tumboa, or Welwitschia (Welwitschia mirabilis). It grows two giant leaves slowly growing all its life (over 1000 years), which can exceed 3 meters in length. The leaves are attached to a stem that resembles a huge cone-shaped radish with a diameter of 60 to 120 centimeters, and sticks out of the ground for 30 centimeters. Welwitschia roots go down to a depth of 3 m. Welwitschia is known for its ability to grow in extremely dry conditions, using dew and fog as its main source of moisture. Welwitschia - endemic to the northern Namib - depicted on state emblem Namibia.
In slightly wetter areas of the desert, another well-known Namibian plant is found - nara (Acanthosicyos horridus), (endemic), which grows on sand dunes. Its fruits constitute a food base and a source of moisture for many animals, African elephants, antelopes, porcupines, etc.
From prehistoric times in Africa preserved the largest number members of the megafauna. The tropical equatorial and subequatorial zones are inhabited by a variety of mammals: okapi, antelopes (duikers, bongos), pygmy hippopotamus, brush-eared pig, warthog, galago, monkeys, flying squirrels (spine-tailed), lemurs (on the island of Madagascar), viverras, chimpanzees, gorillas, etc. Nowhere in the world is there such an abundance of large animals as in the African savanna: elephants, hippos, lions, giraffes, leopards, cheetahs, antelopes (cannes), zebras, monkeys, secretary bird, hyenas, African ostrich, meerkats. Some elephants, Kaffa buffaloes and white rhinoceroses live only in reserves. 
Birds are dominated by jaco, turaco, guinea fowl, hornbill (kalao), cockatoo, marabou.
Reptiles and amphibians of the tropical equatorial and subequatorial zones - mamba (one of the most poisonous snakes in the world), crocodile, python, tree frogs, poison dart frogs and marble frogs.
In wet climatic zones the malarial mosquito and the tsetse fly are common, causing sleeping sickness in both humans and mammals.
Ecology
In November 2009, GreenPeace published a report indicating that two villages in Niger near the uranium mines of the French multinational company Areva have dangerous high level radiation. The main environmental problems of Africa: Desertification is a problem of the northern part, deforestation rainforest-in central part.
Political division
There are 55 countries and 5 self-proclaimed and unrecognized states in Africa. Most of them were colonies of European states for a long time and gained independence only in the 50-60s of the XX century. Before that, only Egypt (since 1922), Ethiopia (since the Middle Ages), Liberia (since 1847) and South Africa (since 1910) were independent; in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), until the 80-90s of the 20th century, the apartheid regime, which discriminated against the indigenous (black) population, continued. Currently, many African countries are ruled by regimes that discriminate against the white population. According to the data research organization Freedom House, in recent years in many African countries (for example, in Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Congo (Kinshasa) and Equatorial Guinea), there has been a trend of retreat from democratic achievements towards authoritarianism.
In the north of the continent are the territories of Spain (Ceuta, Melilla, Canary Islands) and Portugal (Madeira).
| Countries and territories |
Area (km²) |
Population |
Population density |
|
| Algeria | ||||
| Egypt | ||||
| West Sahara | ||||
| Libya | ||||
| Mauritania | ||||
| Mali | ||||
| Morocco | ||||
| Niger | 13 957 000 | |||
| Sudan | ||||
| Tunisia | ||||
| Chad |
Ndjamena |
Spanish and Portuguese territories in North Africa:
| Countries and territories |
Area (km²) |
Population |
Population density |
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| Canary Islands (Spain) |
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife |
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| Madeira (Portugal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melilla (Spain) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ceuta (Spain) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Lesser Sovereign Territories (Spain) |
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It was in Africa that the remains of the oldest species of the human race were found, which suggests that the African continent is the birthplace of the first people and civilizations. For this reason, Africa is sometimes called the cradle of mankind.
The earliest history of the continent is connected with the Nile Valley, where the famous civilization of the ancient Egyptians developed. The Egyptians had well-planned cities and a developed culture, in addition, they also invented a writing system - hieroglyphs, through which they recorded their daily life. All this happened around 3000 BC.
Most of the time, the peoples of Africa were represented by kingdoms united according to a tribal type. Each tribe spoke its own language. Even today, a similar social order persists.
Middle Ages
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islamic warriors repeatedly raided different areas continent, capturing most of North Africa by 711 AD. This was followed by a series of internal strife, because of the question of the successor of the prophet. These disagreements led to constant wars for power, and at different times different regions of Africa were led by different leaders. By the 11th century, Islam had spread to the southern part of the continent, as a result of which one third of the entire population of Africa became Muslims.
Contact with Europe
Throughout the 19th century, various African kingdoms began to establish contact with Europe. It was during this period that there was a significant increase in the rate of colonization of Africa, and slaves from different regions were sent to work in the colonies and plantations, in particular, in America. For the most part, Europeans controlled only the coastal regions of Africa, while in the interior regions of the continent, control remained with local rulers and Islamists.
The peoples of Africa took part in both world wars. After the Second World War, the power of Europeans weakened, and the African colonies began to demand freedom. a strong catalyst in this issue was the successful struggle of India for its independence. But even after many states achieved freedom, more severe tests awaited them in the form of mass famine, civil wars, epidemics, and political instability. Even today, many African countries are experiencing the same difficulties.
