Part I. Introduction to general psychology 2 page

A huge role in understanding human development as biological species plays comparative psychology, which combines zoopsychology and general psychology person. Start experimental research primates in zoopsychology were put scientific works such scientists as V. Koehler and N. N. Ladygina-Kots. Thanks to the successes of animal psychology, many mechanisms of human behavior and the patterns of its behavior have become clear. mental development.

There are sciences that do not directly come into contact with the doctrine of anthropogenesis, but play significant role in its development. These include genetics and archaeology. A special place is occupied by paleolinguistics, which studies the origin of language, its sound means and control mechanisms. The origin of language is one of the central moments of sociogenesis, and the origin of speech is the central moment of anthropogenesis, since articulate speech is one of the main differences between humans and animals.

Due to the fact that we touched upon the problems of sociogenesis, we should note the social sciences, which are most closely related to the problem of anthropogenesis. These include paleosociology, which studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture.

Thus, man, as a representative of a biological species, is the object of study of many sciences, including psychology. In Fig. 1.5 presents B. G. Ananyev’s classification of the main problems and sciences about Homo sapiens. Anthropology occupies a central place among the sciences that study the origin and development of man as an independent biological species. The main conclusion that allows us to make current state anthropology in relation to human development can be formulated as follows: at some stage biological development there was a separation of man from the animal world (the borderline stage of “anthropogenesis-sociogenesis”) and in the evolution of man the action of natural selection, based on the biological expediency and survival of the individuals and species most adapted to the natural environment. With the transition of man from the animal world to the social world, with his transformation into biosocial being the laws of natural selection were replaced by qualitatively different laws of development.

The question of why and how man’s transition from the animal to the social world occurred is central to the sciences studying anthropogenesis, and to date there is no clear answer to it. There are several points of view on this problem. One of them is based on the following assumption: as a result of mutation, the human brain turned into a superbrain, which allowed man to stand out from the animal world and create a society. This point of view is shared by P. Chauchard. According to this point of view, in historical time organic development of the brain is impossible due to its mutational origin.

There is another point of view, which is based on the assumption that the organic development of the brain and the development of man as a species led to the quality

natural structural changes in the brain, after which development began to be carried out according to other laws that differed from the laws of natural selection. But just because the body and brain remain essentially the same doesn't mean no development occurs. Research by I. A. Stankevich indicates that in the human brain there are structural changes, progressive development of various parts of the hemisphere, separation of new convolutions, and formation of new furrows are observed. Therefore, the question of whether a person will change can be answered in the affirmative. However, these evolutionary changes are mainly

will concern social conditions life of a person and his personal development, and biological changes in the species Homo sapiens will be of secondary importance.

Thus, man as a social being, as a member of society, is no less interesting for science, because modern development human development as a species of Homo sapiens is no longer carried out according to the laws of biological survival, but according to the laws of social development.

The problem of sociogenesis cannot be considered outside the social sciences. The list of these sciences is very long. They can be divided into several groups depending on the phenomena they study or are associated with. For example, sciences related to art, with technical progress, with education.

In turn, according to the degree of generalization of the approach to the study of human society, these sciences can be divided into two groups: sciences that consider the development of society as a whole, in the interaction of all its elements, and sciences that study individual aspects of the development of human society. From the point of view of this classification of sciences, humanity is a holistic entity, developing according to its own laws, and at the same time a multitude of individual people. Therefore everything social Sciences can be attributed either to the sciences of human society, or to the sciences about man as an element of society. It should be borne in mind that in this classification there is not a sufficiently clear line between different sciences, since many social sciences can be associated both with the study of society as a whole and with the study of an individual person.

Ananyev believes that the system of sciences about humanity (human society) as holistic phenomenon should include sciences about the productive forces of society, sciences about the settlement and composition of humanity, sciences about production and social relations, about culture, art and science itself as a system of knowledge, science about the forms of society at various stages of its development.

It is necessary to highlight the sciences that study the interaction of man with nature and humanity with the natural environment. An interesting point of view was held on this issue by V.I. Vernadsky, the creator of the biogeochemical doctrine, in which he identified two opposing biogeochemical functions that interact and are associated with the history of free oxygen - the 0 2 molecule. These are the functions of oxidation and reduction. On the one hand, they are associated with ensuring respiration and reproduction, and on the other, with the destruction of dead organisms. As Vernadsky believes, man and humanity are inextricably linked with the biosphere - certain part planet on which they live, since they are geologically naturally connected with the material and energetic structure of the Earth.

Man is inseparable from nature, but unlike animals, he has activity aimed at transforming the natural environment in order to ensure optimal conditions life and activity. IN in this case we're talking about about the emergence of the noosphere.

The concept of “noosphere” was introduced by Le Roy together with Teilhard de Chardin in 1927. They were based on the biogeochemical theory outlined by Vernadsky in 1922-1923. at the Sorbonne. According to Vernadsky's definition, the noosphere, or “thinking layer,” is a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In it, for the first time, man appears as the largest geological force capable of transforming the planet.

There are sciences whose subject of study is a specific person. This category may include the sciences of ontogenesis - the process of development of the individual organism. Within the framework of this direction, gender, age, constitutional and neurodynamic characteristics of a person are studied. In addition, there are sciences about personality and its life path, within the framework of which the motives of human activity, his worldview and value orientations, relationships with the outside world.

It should be borne in mind that all sciences or scientific directions, studying man, are closely interconnected and together give a holistic picture of man and human society. However, no matter what KZ directions are considered, various branches of psychology are represented in it to one degree or another. This is not accidental, since the phenomena that psychology studies largely determine the activities of man as a biosocial being.

Thus, a person is a multifaceted phenomenon. His research must be holistic. Therefore, it is no coincidence that one of the main methodological concepts used to study man is the concept systematic approach. It reflects the systematic nature of the world order. According to this concept, any system exists because it exists system-forming factor. In the system of sciences that study man, such a factor is the man himself, and it is necessary to study it in all its diversity of manifestations and connections with outside world, since only in this case can one obtain a complete understanding of a person and the patterns of his social and biological development. In Fig. 1.6 shows the diagram structural organization person, as well as his internal and external relationships.

1.3. Psychology as a science

When dividing sciences into groups based on the subject of study, natural, humanitarian and Technical science. The first study nature, the second - society, culture and history, the third are associated with the study and creation of means of production and tools. Man is a social being, and all his mental phenomena are largely socially conditioned, which is why psychology is usually classified as a humanitarian discipline.

The concept of “psychology” has both scientific and everyday meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the corresponding scientific discipline, in the second - to describe behavior or mental characteristics individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, every person becomes acquainted with “psychology” long before its systematic study.

Already in early childhood the child says “I want”, “I think”, “I feel”. These words indicate that small man, without realizing what he is doing, explores his inner world. Throughout life, every person, consciously or unconsciously, studies himself and his capabilities. It should be noted that the level of knowledge of one’s inner world largely determines how much a person can understand other people, how successfully he can build relationships with them.

Man is a social being, and he cannot live outside of society, without contact with others. In the practice of live communication, each person comprehends many psychological laws. Thus, each of us has been able to “read” since childhood, but external manifestations - facial expressions, gestures, intonation, behavioral characteristics - emotional condition another man. Thus, every person is a kind of psychologist, since it is impossible to live in society without certain ideas about the human psyche.

However, everyday psychological knowledge very approximate, vague and in many ways different from scientific knowledge. What is this difference (Fig. 1.7)?

Firstly, everyday psychological knowledge is specific, tied to specific situations, people, and tasks. Scientific psychology strives for generalization, for which appropriate concepts are used.

Secondly, everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive. This is due to the method of obtaining them - random experience and its subjective analysis on unconscious level. In contrast, scientific knowledge is based on experiment, and the acquired knowledge is completely rational and conscious.

Third, there are differences in the way knowledge is transferred. Typically, knowledge everyday psychology transmitted from with great difficulty, and often this transfer is simply impossible. As Yu. B. Gippenreiter writes, “ eternal problem“fathers and sons” is precisely that children cannot and do not even want to adopt the experience of their fathers.” At the same time, in science, knowledge is accumulated and transferred much more easily.

Fourthly, scientific psychology has an extensive, varied and sometimes unique factual material, inaccessible in its entirety to any bearer of everyday psychology.

So what is psychology as a science?

The word “psychology” translated from ancient Greek literally means “the science of the soul” ( psyche- "soul", logos- “concept”, “teaching”). The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the XVII-XIX centuries. the area studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Thus, psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. What is the subject of studying psychology in our time?

In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. It should be noted that there are different points of view on the structure of mental phenomena. For example, certain mental phenomena, depending on the author of the position, can be classified into different structural groups. Moreover, very often in scientific literature You may encounter a confusion of concepts. Thus, some authors do not separate the characteristics of mental processes and mental properties of the individual. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual (Fig. 1.8).

Mental processes act as primary regulators of human behavior. Mental processes have a definite beginning, course and end, that is, they have certain dynamic characteristics, which primarily include parameters that determine the duration and stability of the mental process. Based on mental processes, certain states are formed, knowledge, skills and abilities are formed. In turn, mental processes can be divided into three groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional.

To educational mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include sensation, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech and attention. Thanks to these processes, a person receives information about the world around him and about himself. However, information or knowledge itself does not play any role for a person if it is not significant for him. You've probably noticed that some events remain in your memory for a long time, while others you forget the next day. Other information may go completely unnoticed by you. This is due to the fact that any information may or may not have an emotional connotation, i.e. it may be significant or insignificant. Therefore, along with cognitive mental processes, emotional mental processes are distinguished as independent ones. Within this group of mental processes, mental phenomena such as affects, emotions, feelings, moods and emotional stress are considered.

We have the right to believe that if specific event or the phenomenon causes in a person positive emotions, then this has a beneficial effect on his activity or condition, and, conversely, negative emotions complicate activities and worsen a person’s condition. Nevertheless, there are exceptions. For example, an event that causes negative emotions increases a person’s activity and stimulates him to overcome the obstacles that have arisen. Such a reaction indicates that for the formation of human behavior, not only emotional, but also volitional mental processes are important, which are most clearly manifested in situations related to decision-making, overcoming difficulties, managing one’s behavior, etc.

Sometimes another group of mental processes is identified as an independent group - unconscious processes. It includes those processes that occur or are carried out outside the control of consciousness.

Mental processes are closely interconnected and act as primary factors in the formation of human mental states. Psi-

Chemical states characterize the state of the psyche as a whole. They, like mental processes, have their own dynamics, which are characterized by duration, direction, stability and intensity. At the same time, mental states influence the course and outcome of mental processes and can promote or inhibit activity. TO mental states include such phenomena as elation, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency. It should be noted that mental states can be extremely complex phenomena that have objective and subjective conditioning, but their characteristic common feature is dynamism. The exception is mental states caused by dominant characteristics personality, including pathocharacterological features. Such states can be very stable mental phenomena that characterize a person’s personality.

Next class mental phenomena - mental properties of a person - characterized by greater stability and great consistency. Mental properties of a person are usually understood as the most significant characteristics of a person, ensuring a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character. The level of development of these properties, as well as the peculiarities of the development of mental processes and the prevailing (most characteristic of a person) mental states determine the uniqueness of a person, his individuality.

The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups and collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology. We will consider only a brief description of such mental phenomena.

All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena of groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.

Collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in regulating the existence of a collective or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relationships, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. Mental states of the group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closedness of the group, panic, etc. Among the most significant mental properties groups include organization, leadership style, and performance efficiency.

Thus, the subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena as one specific person, as well as mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives. In turn, the task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena. Describing the task of psychology, S. L. Rubinstein writes: “Psychological cognition is an indirect cognition of the mental through the disclosure of its essential, objective connections.”

1.4. Basic methods psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the techniques and means by which information necessary for making decisions is obtained. practical recommendations and construction of scientific theories. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable and valid they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective (Fig. 1.9).

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods ■ 27

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Validity and reliability of the psychodiagnostic test

To characterize the ability of a test to measure the actual level of a mental property or quality, the concept of “validity” is used. The validity of a test shows the extent to which it measures the quality (property, ability, characteristic, etc.) that it is intended to assess. Invalid, i.e., tests that do not have validity, are not suitable for practical use.

Validity and reliability are related concepts. Their relationship can be illustrated by the following example. Let's say there are two shooters A and B. Shooter A scores 90 points out of 100, and shooter 8 scores only 70. Accordingly, the reliability of shooter A is 0.90, and shooter 8 is 0.70. However, shooter A always shoots at other people's targets, so his results are not counted in competitions. The second shooter always selects the correct targets. Therefore, the validity of arrow A is zero, and arrow 8 is 0.70, i.e., numerically equal to reliability. If Shooter A starts choosing targets correctly, his validity will also be equal to his reliability. If he sometimes confuses the mi-

sheni, then some of the results will not be counted and the validity of shooter A will be lower than reliability. In our example, the analogue of reliability is the shooter’s accuracy, and the analogue of validity is also shooting accuracy, but not at any target, but at a strictly defined, “own” target.

There are cases in history when tests recognized as invalid for measuring some properties turned out to be valid for others. This means that reliability is a necessary condition validity. An unreliable test cannot be valid, and, conversely, a valid test is always reliable. The reliability of a test cannot be less than its validity; in turn, validity cannot exceed reliability.

In modern psychometrics, there are three main types of validity: 1) content (logical); 2) empirical and 3) conceptual.

Based on: Melnikov 8. M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental psychology personality: Proc. aid for listeners. IPI, teacher, ped. disciplines of universities and peds. Inst. - M.: Education, 1985.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

The observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest. It is based on systematic monitoring of people’s activities, which is carried out in ordinary living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves complete and exact description observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that is used by all people. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Hence, scientific observation requires special training during which specialized knowledge is acquired to promote objectivity psychological interpretation quality.

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, the method of participant observation is widely used. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place. Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Self-observation, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of specific methods, used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation, or stop completely. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective. Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

Nevertheless, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When confronted in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist strives to understand its psychological content. In most cases, he turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings. In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Characteristic feature it is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

A survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral questioning, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to observe the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

A written survey allows you to cover large quantity people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

A free survey is a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When questioning this

Need to know

to to different subjects. There will be no serious ethical problems, even if subjects are given a surprise test of words they were not expecting to be tested. But what if a researcher were to compare the word learning of neutral subjects with the word learning of angry or confused subjects? Clearly, this study does not will yield reliable conclusions if subjects are told in advance that they will be deliberately angered (by being treated harshly) or deliberately confused (by making them believe that they have accidentally broken some device). possible, but subjects should be brought out of ignorance as soon as possible after their participation.

It should explain to them why they had to be kept in the dark or deceived, and, in addition, their residual anger or confusion should be removed so that their dignity is not harmed and their appreciation of the research being conducted is enhanced. The Institutional Review Board must be satisfied that the procedure for removing subjects from the study complies with these requirements.

Third ethical principle research is the right of subjects to confidentiality. Information about a person obtained during the research process should be considered confidential and other persons should not have access to it without his consent. Typically, this is done by separating the names of subjects and other identifying information from the data obtained. In this case, data identification is carried out using an alphabetic or numeric code. Thus, only the experimenter has access to the subject's results. Approximately 7-8% of all psychological experiments use animals (mostly rodents and birds), and very few of them subject the animals to painful or harmful procedures. However, in last years There has been increased interest in this issue and controversy over the use, housing and handling of animals in scientific research; Both federal and APA guidelines require that all procedures that are painful or harmful to the animal must be fully justified by the knowledge that results from such research. There are also special rules governing the living conditions of laboratory animals and procedures for caring for them.

1. Reveal the role of biological factors in human evolution.

From the position synthetic theory biological factors evolution organic world- the mutation process, genetic drift, the struggle for existence and natural selection - are also applicable to human evolution. Ancestors' transition great apes to a terrestrial way of life, caused by a cooling climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, became the first step towards upright walking. Deficiencies in the speed of movement when walking upright were compensated by the fact that the forelimbs were freed, and the vertical position of the body made it possible to obtain a greater amount of information. Thus, human ancestors could use their hands to make and use various tools, and also react in a timely manner to the approach of predators. Biological factors of anthropogenesis contributed to the formation of human morphophysiological characteristics (upright posture, increased brain volume, developed hand).

2. Describe the social factors of evolution. At what stage of anthropogenesis did they begin to play a leading role?

It is logical to arrange the social factors of evolution in the following sequence: joint way of life - thinking - speech - work - social way of life. Human ancestors began to unite in groups to live together and mastered the manufacture of tools. It is the manufacture of tools that is a clear boundary between ape-like ancestors and humans. Thus, the social factors of anthropogenesis were aimed at improving relations between people within a group.

3. What is the role of labor in human evolution?

The evolution of the hand, after being freed from the function of support, went in the direction of its improvement for labor activity and the manufacture of various tools. The use of manufactured hunting tools allowed man, along with plant foods, to widely include higher-calorie foods of animal origin in his diet. Cooking over a fire reduced the load on the masticatory apparatus and digestive system. As a result, the skull skeleton became lighter. With the development of labor activity, there was a further unification of people for life together. This expanded man's understanding of the world around him. New ideas were generalized in the form of concepts, which contributed to the development of thinking and the formation of articulate speech. With the improvement of speech came the development of the brain.

4. Indicate the qualitative differences of man that distinguish him from the animal world.

The main qualitative difference of a person is, of course, conscious work, which represents the boundary that separated man and his distant ancestors. Humans are also distinguished by certain structural features associated with upright posture, labor activity, speech development. Due to upright walking, the position of the body has changed and a S shape spine. Other progressive elements associated with walking on two legs were: an arched, springy foot, an expanded pelvis, a shorter and wider rib cage. Due to work activity, the human hand is small in size, thin and mobile, which makes it possible to make a variety of movements.

24. Natural and social in man. The problem of anthropogenesis.

« Human » - a general concept denoting belonging to the human race, the nature of which, as noted above, combines biological and social qualities. In other words, a person appears in his essence as biosocial being.

Modern man from birth represents a biosocial unity. He is born with incompletely formed anatomical and physiological qualities, which further develop during his life in society. At the same time, heredity provides the child with not only purely biological properties and instincts. He initially turns out to be the owner of actually human qualities: developed ability to imitate adults, curiosity, the ability to be upset and happy. His smile (“privilege” of a person) has an innate character. But it is society that completely introduces a person into this world, which fills his behavior with social content.

Consciousness is not ours natural heritage, although nature creates a physiological basis for consciousness. Conscious mental phenomena are formed throughout life as a result of education, training, active mastery of language and culture. It is to society that man owes such qualities as transformative instrumental activity, communication through speech, and the ability for spiritual creativity.

Finding social qualities human occurs in the process socialization: what is inherent specific person, is the result of mastering the cultural values ​​that exist in a particular society. At the same time it is an expression, an embodiment internal capabilities personality.

Natural and social interaction between man and society contradictory. Man is a subject of social life; he realizes himself only in society. However, it is also a product of the environment and reflects the peculiarities of the development of biological and social aspects of social life. Achieving biological and social harmony society and man at every historical stage acts as an ideal, the pursuit of which contributes to the development of both society and man.

Society and man are inseparable from each other both biologically and socially. Society is what the people who form it are; it acts as an expression, design, and consolidation of the inner essence of a person, his way of life. Man emerged from nature, but exists as a man only thanks to society, is formed in it and shapes it through his activities.

Society determines the conditions for not only social, but also biological improvement of man. That is why the focus of society should be on ensuring the health of people from birth to old age. Biological health a person allows him to actively participate in the life of society, realize his creative potential, create a full-fledged family, raise and educate children. At the same time, a person deprived of the necessary social conditions for life loses his “ biological form", deteriorates not only morally, but also physically, which can cause antisocial behavior and crimes.

In society, a person realizes his nature, but he himself is forced to submit to the requirements and restrictions of society, to be responsible to it. After all, society is all people, including every person, and by submitting to society, he affirms in himself the demands of his own essence. By speaking out against society, a person not only undermines the foundations of general well-being, but also deforms his own nature, disrupts the harmony of biological and social principles in himself.

Biological and social factors

What allowed man to stand out from the animal world? The main factors of anthropogenesis can be divided as follows:

biological factors- upright posture, hand development, large and developed brain, ability for articulate speech;

main social factors- labor and collective activity, thinking, language and communication, morality.

Work of the factors listed above played a leading role in the process of human development; his example demonstrates the interrelation of other biological and social factors. Thus, upright walking freed up the hands for using and making tools, and the structure of the hand (distant thumb, flexibility) allowed the effective use of these tools. In the process of joint work, close relationships developed between team members, which led to the establishment of group interaction, care for members of the tribe (morality), and the need for communication (the appearance of speech). Language contributed development of thinking, expressing more and more complex concepts; the development of thinking, in turn, enriched the language with new words. Language also made it possible to pass on experience from generation to generation, preserving and increasing the knowledge of mankind.

Thus, modern man- a product of the interaction of biological and social factors.

Under him biological features understand what brings a person closer to an animal (with the exception of the factors of anthropogenesis, which were the basis for the separation of man from the kingdom of nature), - hereditary traits; the presence of instincts (self-preservation, sexual, etc.); emotions; biological needs (breathe, eat, sleep, etc.); similar physiological features to other mammals (the presence of the same internal organs, hormones, constant body temperature); the ability to use natural objects; adaptation to the environment, procreation.

Social Features characteristic exclusively of humans - the ability to produce tools; articulate speech; language; social needs(communication, affection, friendship, love); spiritual needs ( morality, religion, art); awareness of your needs; activity (labor, artistic, etc.) as the ability to transform the world; consciousness; ability to think; creation; creation; goal setting.

Man cannot be reduced solely to social qualities, since biological prerequisites are necessary for his development. But it cannot be reduced to biological characteristics, since one can only become a person in society. Biological and social are inseparably fused in a person, which makes him special biosocial being.

Biological and social in man and their unity

Ideas about the unity of the biological and social in the development of man were not formed immediately.

Without delving into distant antiquity, let us recall that during the Enlightenment, many thinkers, differentiating the natural and the social, considered the latter as “artificially” created by man, including almost all the attributes of social life - spiritual needs, social institutions, morality, traditions and customs. It was during this period that concepts such as "natural law", "natural equality", "natural morality".

The natural, or natural, was considered as the foundation, the basis for the correctness of the social order. There is no need to emphasize that the social played a secondary role and was directly dependent on the natural environment. In the second half of the 19th century. various theories of social Darwinism, the essence of which is attempts to extend to public life principles of natural selection and the struggle for existence in living nature, formulated by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. The emergence of society and its development were considered only within the framework of evolutionary changes occurring independently of the will of people. Naturally, they considered everything that happened in society, including social inequality and the strict laws of social struggle, as necessary and useful both for society as a whole and for its individuals.

In the 20th century attempts to biologize “explain” the essence of man and his social qualities do not stop. As an example, we can cite the phenomenology of man by the famous French thinker and natural scientist, by the way, the clergyman P. Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955). According to Teilhard, man embodies and concentrates in himself the entire development of the world. Nature in its process historical development receives its meaning in a person. In it, she reaches, as it were, her highest biological development, and at the same time it acts as a kind of beginning of her conscious, and, consequently, social development.

Currently, science has established an opinion about the biosocial nature of man. At the same time, the social is not only not belittled, but its decisive role in separating Homo sapiens from the animal world and its transformation into a social being is noted. Now hardly anyone dares to deny biological prerequisites for the emergence of man. Without even addressing scientific evidence, and guided by the simplest observations and generalizations, it is not difficult to discover the enormous dependence of man on natural changes - magnetic storms in the atmosphere, solar activity, earthly elements and disasters.

In the formation and existence of a person, and this has already been said earlier, a huge role belongs to social factors, such as labor, relationships between people, their political and social institutions. None of them by itself, separately, could have led to the emergence of man, his separation from the animal world.

Each person is unique and this is also predetermined by his nature, in particular, by the unique set of genes inherited from his parents. It must also be said that the physical differences that exist between people are primarily predetermined by biological differences. These are, first of all, differences between the two sexes - men and women, which can be considered among the most significant differences between people. There are other physical differences - skin color, eye color, body structure, which are mainly due to geographical and climatic factors. It is these factors, as well as the unequal conditions of historical development, the educational system that largely explain the differences in everyday life, psychology, social status peoples of different countries. And yet, despite these quite fundamental differences in their biology, physiology and mental potential, the people of our planet are generally equal. The achievements of modern science convincingly demonstrate that there is no reason to claim the superiority of any race over another.

Social in man- this is, first of all, instrumental production activity, collectivist forms of life with the division of responsibilities between individuals, language, thinking, social and political activity. It is known that Homo sapiens as a person and an individual cannot exist outside of human communities. Cases are described when small children, for various reasons, came under the care of animals, were “raised” by them, and when, after several years in the animal world, they returned to people, it took them years to adapt to the new social environment. Finally, social life it is impossible to imagine a person without his social and political activity. Strictly speaking, as noted earlier, a person’s life itself is social, since he constantly interacts with people - at home, at work, during leisure time. How do the biological and the social relate when determining the essence and nature of a person? Modern science answers this unequivocally - only in unity. Indeed, without biological prerequisites it would be difficult to imagine the emergence of hominids, but without social conditions the emergence of man was impossible. It is no longer a secret that pollution of the environment and human habitat poses a threat to the biological existence of Homo sapiens. To summarize, we can say that now, like many millions of years ago, the physical state of a person, his existence, to a determining extent, depend on the state of nature. In general, it can be argued that now, as with the emergence of Homo sapiens, its existence is ensured by the unity of the biological and social.

Psychological aspects of the problem of anthropogenesis

The problem of anthropogenesis is undoubtedly one of the most complex and multifaceted. Its development requires the combined efforts of many social and natural sciences. Without discussing this problem as a whole, I would like to draw attention to its psychological aspects. They relate primarily to the emergence and development human psyche , and especially consciousness, in the process of human evolution and the formation of the history of society. The development of the problem of anthropogenesis, one way or another, requires the study of the relationships between the biological (generally natural) and the social, which are considered by Soviet science in the light of the Marxist doctrine of various forms of movement of matter. According to this teaching, higher forms of movement are formed on the basis of lower ones, incorporating them into themselves and transforming them in a certain way. The social, as a higher form, is formed on the basis of the biological and includes the latter, transforming it in accordance with its laws. During the development of matter, the biological is removed (in the dialectical-materialistic understanding) by the social, but is not replaced or eliminated. It begins to develop in new conditions262. The biological (generally natural) development of a person is carried out in a social way, which necessarily leads to a change in his biological qualities and the formation of new, social qualities. How did the removal of the biological form of the movement of matter of the newly emerged social matter take place? How did this latter subjugate the biological and how did biological laws begin to operate under new conditions? For what reasons did the special biological species Homo sapiens begin to form at a certain stage in the evolution of living beings and society arose? All these problems, which are, of course, fundamental to the system of scientific knowledge as a whole, also have psychological aspects. In the study of the origin of the human psyche, Soviet psychological science proceeds from the Marxist theory of anthropogenesis, the main provisions of which are as follows: 1) the emergence of man is a natural result of biological evolution; 2) the process of anthropogenesis is inextricably linked - it proceeded in unity - with the process of sociogenesis; 3) the decisive role in the process of anthropo- and sociogenesis belongs to labor. Modern science has a considerable amount of data confirming the validity of these provisions. However, a clear concrete scientific picture of the process of anthropogenesis has not yet been created. Much is now known about individual aspects and aspects of this process. There are ideas about the physical characteristics of Australopithecus, Pithecanthropus, Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon263 and some assumptions about their way of life. Thanks to the brilliant work of M. N. Gerasimov, it was possible to restore their appearance. There are well-founded judgments about the volume of their brains. Analysis of traces of material culture makes it possible, to some extent, to theoretically restore the types of activities in which they were engaged. The data that modern science has about human ancestors and the early stages of its development are, of course, essential for solving the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in anthropogenesis. However, it seems that it is impossible to recreate a more or less adequate picture of the process of anthropogenesis without a special study of how the forms and levels of mental reflection should have changed and developed in this process, i.e. without elaborating the question of the psychological prerequisites of anthropogenesis. If man is a natural result of biological evolution, then it is important to consider it in a way that would reveal the development of these prerequisites. In modern science, much is being done to study the biological, morphological and physiological aspects evolutionary process. However, psychological aspects remain aside - the development in the course of biological evolution of the psychological prerequisites of anthropogenesis. Meanwhile, without studying them, it is hardly possible to reveal the process of anthropogenesis sufficiently fully. To reveal this process, it is important to understand how, during the transition from a biological form of movement to a social one, the properties of the organism and especially the brain changed, primarily the property of mental reflection. The importance of psychological prerequisites and factors in the process of anthropogenesis is noted in anthropology. Thus, Steitz emphasizes that in this process psychological characteristics began to play a much larger role than physical characteristics. As already noted, the mental reflection, having arisen in the process of evolution, became its the most important factor . It must be assumed that this factor played a very significant role in the development of man. His ancestor must have had such psychological properties that could act as the initial prerequisites (more precisely, their component) for the formation of specific characteristics of the species “Homo sapiens”. Analyzing the prerequisites of anthropogenesis, it is important to reveal the process of evolutionary development of not only biological, but also, and perhaps primarily, psychological properties. It can be assumed that human ancestors had a special organization of sensory-perceptual processes and ideas, as well as memory, elements of rational activity, specific emotions, and a higher (compared to other animals) level of mental regulation of behavior. They probably also had a richer system of means and ways of interacting with each other. The question of what was the level of mental development of human distant ancestors is, of course, very difficult. But it is one of the most important in the study of anthropogenesis. Unfortunately, science does not yet have sufficiently rigorous methods for solving it. To some extent, the lack of our knowledge about the behavior and level of mental development of human ancestors is compensated by studies of modern apes. However, a direct projection of the data obtained in these studies onto a long-ended stage of biological evolution hardly provides the key to solving this issue. It is believed that the common ancestor of humans and apes lived about 12-14 million years ago. It is clear that from a comparison of human behavior and psychology with the behavior and psychology of a chimpanzee, gorilla, gibbon or orangutan, it is hardly possible to directly derive an idea of ​​​​the mental development of hominids in the process of human formation. Here, apparently, more complex logical moves are required. In the same way, the direct projection of data on the life of some tribes living in our time, but greatly lagging behind in their historical development, to the initial stages of human development is of limited value. In solving the question of the emergence and development of the human psyche, it is necessary to develop such techniques and methods that would make it possible to theoretically recreate the behavior of human ancestors and primitive people. In this regard, work on the reconstruction of the elementary labor acts of primitive man based on the analysis of preserved tools and products of his labor seems promising. In this regard, the methods developed by the prominent Soviet archaeologist S. are extremely interesting. A. Semenov. While studying the tools of Paleolithic times, he found a way to restore the sequence of motor acts during their manufacture. It has been shown that with the development of tools, the number of such acts increases, as well as the requirements for their accuracy, coordination of movements and the correlation of the actions performed with the final goal. An analysis of the reproduction of these actions, carried out with the participation of psychologists, made it possible to make a number of fairly substantiated assumptions about the development of separation and interaction of hands in the labor process, differentiation of finger functions, visual-motor coordination, and the initial moments of the formation of the sense of touch as a specifically human type of perception. Semenov’s data also allows us to indirectly judge the development of anticipation processes. For psychology it seems especially interesting principle the method itself proposed by Semenov. Its essence is as follows: based on an analysis of the structure of primitive tools, the technology of their production is recreated, which is used as the basis for a model of labor activity itself; Then this model is implemented, imitated in the activity (of modern man), and observations of the progress of its implementation are used for the purpose of its psychological analysis. The general scheme of the research movement here is that first the products of human labor are analyzed, in the resting properties of which the activity performed many centuries ago is imprinted; on the basis of such an analysis, the technology for manufacturing the product and, at the same time, the structure of the activity are theoretically recreated (and practically tested); finally, based on the model of activity, judgments are made about those mental processes that should ensure its organization and implementation. Thus, the direction of the path of analysis can be determined by the formula: “product of activity - reconstruction of activity - reconstruction of the psyche.” The method proposed by Semenov, in our opinion, has great heuristic capabilities. In terms of the use of modeling in the study of phenomena of the past, the work of American scientists is also very interesting: linguist F. Liberman and comparative anatomy specialist E. Crelin, who restored the structure of the Neanderthal vocal tract according to his anatomical model and created, using a computer, a model of speech-like sounds that he could pronounce. Based on this research, they concluded that the Neanderthal man was a developmental dead end because, in particular, he was not able to produce certain sounds, which the researchers believe are necessary for the development of speech. Further development of methods for reconstructing the behavior of primitive man and his ancestors requires, of course, even greater efforts and can only be achieved through comprehensive research combining many sciences. An important role in such research belongs to psychology, which must first of all develop methods for assessing and criteria for levels of mental development, principles for analyzing the structure of behavior, especially activity, and the mechanisms of its mental regulation. Of course, this can only be done on the basis of a good general theory that reveals the essence of the functions of mental reflection in behavior. The study of the psychological aspects of anthropogenesis plays important role also in the concrete scientific implementation of the position of its unity with the processes of sociogenesis. In this regard, knowledge of the laws of socio-psychological phenomena is of particular importance. An essential function in the development of communities of people undoubtedly belonged to communication associated with their joint activities. This is emphasized, in particular, by Clix, who made a very interesting attempt to recreate the process of the origin of human thinking. It was in joint activity and communication that industrial, family, ethical and all other types of social relations took shape. In this process, norms and rules of behavior, subjective relationships between people, ways of transferring accumulated experience from generation to generation, collective ideas, initial human forms imitation and suggestion, etc. Social institutions are the organs of society: the initial system of education and upbringing, religious activities, rituals, etc. were also born in this process. In the process of communication, social programs of inheritance and ways of their implementation in people's lives were formed. Of course, it is now very difficult to imagine the lifestyle and mental characteristics of people at the initial stages of the formation of humanity. Here we often have to be content with more or less plausible guesses. But there is hope that as the general objective laws of the human psyche are revealed, an increasingly strict basis will be formed for the theoretical reconstruction of the initial stage of human development. Biological trends in studying the psychological aspects of anthropogenesis adhere to an approach based on the thesis that there are no qualitative differences in the behavior and psyche of animals and humans: the differences between them are purely quantitative. The life of society is determined by exactly the same laws as life in the animal world. The conclusions obtained from the analysis of the evolutionary process of this world are applied without any transformation not only to the human body, but also to its behavior and psyche, as well as to society as a whole, including social institutions. This approach is especially characteristic of those trends in psychology that are associated with the so-called social Darwinism, which asserts that the development of society is also governed by the law of the struggle for existence and natural selection, like the development of the animal world, that human behavior in society is completely determined by genetic programs that any communities of living beings, including human society, are stratified by genetic strength and dominance and are a consequence of the struggle for existence. According to Jensen, human activity, like animal behavior, is adaptive in nature: the intellectual, social and moral adaptation of a human being is in principle no different from the adaptive behavior of animals. The main position in the concept of human behavior proposed by B. Skinner is the thesis of random reinforcement, which modifies behavior, but only within the “genetic equipment” of individuals. The use of biological laws to explain the process of anthropo- and sociogenesis creates the appearance of objectivity. In fact, research is simply replaced by the phrase264. The direct transfer of the laws governing the animal world to human society does not reveal, but obscures its actual laws. The basis of the life of society is not natural selection, not the biologically determined struggle for existence and not genetic programs, but the method of production. It is they who ultimately determine the structure of society. In turn, the structure of society determines the life and activities of each of its members. The division of society into classes is not the result of biological laws, but is determined by the method of production; The functions of an individual are determined not by his “genetic equipment”, but by the position he occupies in the system of social relations. The decisive role in determining the process of anthropogenesis was played not by biological, but by historical patterns. It was under their influence that the direction of the very biological evolution of human ancestors changed. Basic biological laws reveal the relationships “individual (individual)-species”, “individual-population”, “organism-environment”. In the process of anthropo- and sociogenesis, a new relationship “individual-society” was formed (of course, the individual remained a representative of the species), the relationship of the human individual and the species to the rest of nature also changed, and the relationship “society-nature265” arose. In this process there was new way existence and development: not adaptation to the environment, but its transformation - its adaptation to human needs266. However, the question naturally arises: what happened to biological laws? Have they stopped working? The assertion that with the emergence of man and society the action of biological laws completely ceased, and their place was taken by social laws, is the same simplification and “phrase” as the biologizing position. The ability to determine the line dividing biological evolution and the historical development of man is doubtful. The real scientific task is to understand how biological laws have been transformed under the powerful and ever-increasing influence of the laws of social development. How, for example, has the effect of the laws of balancing the organism and the environment (the unity of the organism and the environment) changed in the conditions of a society that changes nature in the process of production to satisfy human needs? How were the laws of variability and heredity transformed under the conditions of the social and labor mode of human existence? What transformations of their actions took place in the conditions of the social and labor mode of human existence: what signs of a person changed in the process of anthropogenesis? How and in what range? How did a special genetic “socialized” program develop that reflected the need for a complex brain, a developed hand, upright posture, anatomical features of the larynx, and much more? How did genetic polymorphism arise and develop? In short, to understand changes in the relationship between the biological and the social in the process of anthropogenesis, it is necessary to study not only the formation of social laws, but also the associated specificity of biological laws, caused by an objective change in their role in human development. In the process of the emergence of society and the laws of its development, as well as the resulting transformation of biological laws, changes occurred in the mental properties of man. The natural needs of the individual (and species) changed, social needs took shape, and in this regard, motives and goals of behavior were formed, an ideal form of reflection of reality emerged, associated with a qualitatively new (compared to animals) type of inheritance - social. In connection with the formation of consciousness, changes in the basic functions of the psyche occurred: conceptual thinking, voluntary regulation of behavior, means and methods of exchanging results arose perfect reflection in communication. Man became a social subject of cognition, activity and communication. Since its formation was carried out in the process of labor, transforming nature, active in nature, this inevitably had to affect the psyche. Specific human mental phenomena also arose, such as creative imagination, volition, self-awareness, moral feelings, etc. Researching exactly how all this happened is a fundamental task psychological science 267. The proposition that labor created man is in Soviet science generally recognized. This is also shared by a number of foreign scientists. However, in a specific scientific sense, many questions regarding the role of labor in the process of anthropogenesis remain insufficiently developed. Psychologists' studies usually note that in the process of interaction with nature, a person, unlike an animal, makes and uses tools, that in human activity, the idea of ​​a future result precedes the actual activity itself and directs it, that in his activity a person interacts with other people, coordinates his actions with their actions. All this is, of course, true. However, each of these characteristics can be found in some elementary form in some animal species. In psychology there are many studies of the so-called tool actions of monkeys. They show that monkeys (and not only apes) can use objects as a kind of tools for obtaining, for example, food. Moreover, they are capable of basic “construction” of such weapons. Other animals, including some species of birds, are also capable of using objects as tools (more precisely, like tools). Of course, the instrumental behavioral acts of animals are only superficially similar to the instrumental actions of humans. For them, these acts appear in the context of adaptive behavior as a moment of active adaptation to the environment, but do not form a unified system of behavior. However, the point is not even this, but the fact that actual tools of labor are not just some objects that mediate the interaction of the organism with the environment; it is an element of the productive forces of society and as such has a specific systemic quality. The method of action is fixed in its design, i.e. social program. By mastering a tool, the individual also assimilates this program, which was repeatedly emphasized by Leontyev. This is also noted by Klix. It can be assumed that in connection with the manufacture and use of tools that record socially accumulated experience, spatial concepts and the ability to imitate have received strong development. In turn, this had an impact on the development of visual memory and those mental processes that ensure the translation of its content into real activity: associative and combinatorial capabilities also expanded. As for the idea of ​​the future result of an action, it must be said that the acceptor of the result of an action is the most important element of the functional system of the behavioral act of any (or almost any) animal (Anokhin). The main thing is not that it exists, but that a person’s idea of ​​the future result of a labor action acts as a goal of activity that is social in its genesis. In this regard, in individual activity, certain “discrepancies” should have arisen between the image - goal and the results of actions, overcoming which objectively required the development of complex systems mental actions and operations. In many animals one can observe various shapes herd, group, i.e. joint behavior268; Moreover, they sometimes reach a very high degree of complexity. As research by H. A. Tikh shows, in monkeys such group behavior has a rather complex organization, including the distribution of functions, a certain system of subordination, etc. . However, the association of animals, their joint behavior, although it represents a very specific form, still has only an adaptive nature. Unlike the joint activity of people, it is not directed by a goal associated with the transformation of nature, with production. The qualitative originality of the joint behavior of people in the process of production activity should necessarily have led to the emergence of new forms of communication. At the same time, the motivation of activity had to change, as well as the structure of the entire system of mental processes. Finally, elementary forms of communication and the use of conditioned signals in it are also characteristic of many animal species. But this is not yet a language, as they sometimes try to claim. Language arises and develops as a social, not a biological phenomenon269. It has specific systemic qualities, the foundations of which are determined by the life of society. By mastering human language, an individual becomes familiar with the experience accumulated by humanity. In general, as already noted in the fourth chapter, the activity of an individual is a derivative of the activity of society that transforms the nature, a derivative of the latter. Therefore, the study of the human psyche requires an analysis of its activities in the totality of those systemic qualities, the foundations of which are the life of society. A lack of understanding of the specifics of these qualities in the study of social phenomena and the human psyche often leads to conclusions that raise serious doubts.

"Human"- a general concept denoting belonging to the human race, the nature of which, as noted above, combines biological and social qualities. In other words, a person appears in this essence as biosocial being.

Modern man from birth represents a biosocial unity. It is worth noting that he will be born with incompletely formed anatomical and physiological qualities, which further develop during his life in society. With all this, heredity supplies the child not only with purely biological properties and instincts. It is worth noting that he initially turns out to be the owner of the human qualities: developed ability to imitate adults, curiosity, ability to be upset and happy. His smile (“privilege” of a person) has an innate character. But it is society that brings a person completely into this world, which fills his behavior with social content.

Consciousness will not be our natural heritage, although nature creates the physiological basis for consciousness. Conscious mental phenomena are formed throughout life as a result of upbringing, training, and active mastery of language and culture. It is to society that man owes such qualities as transformative instrumental activity, communication through speech, and the ability for spiritual creativity.

The acquisition of social qualities by a person occurs in the process socialization: what is inherent in a particular person is the result of an assessment of the cultural values ​​that exist in a particular society. It is important to note that at the same time it is also an expression, the embodiment of the internal capabilities of the individual.

Natural and social interaction between man and society contradictory. Man is a subject of social life; he realizes himself only in society. At the same time, it will also be a product of the environment, reflecting the features of the development of biological and social aspects of social life. Achieving biological and social harmony society and man at every historical stage acts as an ideal, the desire for which contributes to the development of both society and man.

Society and man are inseparable from each other both biologically and socially. Society is such as the people who form it are; it acts as an expression, design, consolidation inner essence a person, his way of life. The material was published on http://site
Man emerged from nature, but exists as a man only thanks to society, is formed in it and shapes it by its activity.

Society determines the conditions for not only social, but also biological improvement of man. That is why the focus of society should be on ensuring the health of people from birth to old age. A person’s biological health allows him to actively participate in the life of society, realize his creative potential, create a full-fledged family, raise and educate children. With all this, a person deprived of the necessary social conditions for life loses his “biological form”, deteriorates not only morally, but also physically, which can be the cause of antisocial behavior and crimes.

In society, a person realizes this nature, but he himself is forced to submit to the requirements and restrictions of society, to be responsible to it. After all, society is all people, including every person, and by submitting to society, he affirms in himself the demands of his own essence. By speaking out against society, a person not only undermines the foundations of general well-being, but also deforms his own nature, disrupts the harmony of biological and social principles in himself.

Biological and social factors

What allowed man to stand out from the animal world? The main factors of anthropogenesis can be divided as follows:

• biological factors- upright posture, hand development, large and developed brain, ability for articulate speech;

• main social factors— labor and collective activity, thinking, language and communication, morality.

Work of the factors listed above played a leading role in the process of human development; His example will illustrate the relationship between other biological and social factors. Thus, upright walking freed up the hands for using and making tools, and the structure of the hand (spaced thumb, flexibility) made it possible to effectively use these tools. In the process of joint work, close relationships developed between members of the team, which led to the establishment of group interaction, care for members of the tribe (morality), and the need for communication (the appearance of speech). Language contributed to the development of thinking, expressing increasingly complex concepts; the development of thinking, in turn, enriched the language with new words. Language also made it possible to pass on experience from generation to generation, preserving and increasing the knowledge of mankind.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that modern man is a product of the interaction of biological and social factors.

Under him biological features understand what brings man together with animals (with the exception of the factors of anthropogenesis, which were the basis for separating man from the kingdom of nature) - hereditary characteristics; the presence of instincts (self-preservation, sexual, etc.); emotions; biological needs (breathe, eat, sleep, etc.); similar physiological characteristics to other mammals (presence of the same internal organs, hormones, constant body temperature); the ability to use natural objects; adaptation to the environment, procreation.

Social Features characteristic exclusively of humans - the ability to produce tools; articulate speech; language; social needs (communication, affection, friendship, love); spiritual needs (morality, religion, art); awareness of their needs; activity (labor, artistic, etc.) as the ability to transform the world; consciousness; ability to think; creation; creation; goal setting.

A person cannot be focused solely on social qualities, since biological prerequisites are necessary for his development. But it cannot be reduced to biological characteristics, since one can only become a person in society. Biological and social are inseparably fused in a person, which makes him special biosocial being.

Biological and social in man and their unity

Ideas about the unity of the biological and social in the development of man were not formed immediately.

Without delving into distant antiquity, let us recall that during the Enlightenment, many thinkers, differentiating the natural and the social, considered the latter as “artificially” created by man, including almost all the attributes of social life - spiritual needs, social institutions, morality, traditions and customs. It was during this period that concepts such as "natural law", "natural equality", "natural morality".

The natural, or natural, was considered as the foundation, the basis for the correctness of the social order. There is no need to emphasize that the social played a secondary role and was directly dependent on the natural environment. In the second half of the 19th century. various theories of social Darwinism, the essence of which lies in attempts to extend to social life principles of natural selection and the struggle for existence in living nature, formulated by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. The emergence of society and its development were considered only within the framework of evolutionary changes occurring independently of the will of people. Naturally, everything that happens in society, incl. social inequality, strict laws of social struggle, were considered by them as necessary and useful both for society as a whole and for its individuals.

In the 20th century attempts to biologize “explain” the essence of man and his social qualities do not stop. As an example, we can cite the phenomenology of man by the famous French thinker and naturalist, by the way, the clergyman P. Note that Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) According to Teilhard, man embodies and concentrates in himself the entire development of the world. Nature, in the process of its historical development, receives its meaning in man. In him, she reaches, as it were, her highest biological development, and at the same time he acts as the ϲʙᴏunique beginning of her conscious, and, consequently, social development.

Today, science has established an opinion about the biosocial nature of man. In this case, the social is not only not belittled, but its decisive role in separating Homo sapiens from the animal world and its transformation into a social being is noted. Now hardly anyone dares to deny biological prerequisites for the emergence of man. Even without turning to scientific evidence, but guided by the simplest observations and generalizations, it is not difficult to discover the enormous dependence of man on natural changes - magnetic storms in the atmosphere, solar activity, earthly elements and disasters.

In the formation and existence of man, and this has already been said earlier, a huge role belongs to social factors, such as labor, relationships between people, their political and social institutions. None of them by itself, separately, could have led to the emergence of man, his separation from the animal world.

It is worth saying that each person is unique and is also predetermined by his nature, in particular, by the unique set of genes inherited from his parents. It must also be said that the physical differences that exist between people are primarily predetermined by biological differences. These are, first of all, differences between the two sexes - men and women, which can be considered among the most significant differences between people. There are other physical differences - skin color, eyes, body structure, which are mainly due to geographical and climatic factors. It is these factors, as well as the unequal conditions of historical development and the educational system, that largely explain the differences in everyday life, psychology, and social status of peoples various countries. And yet, despite these rather fundamental differences in biology, physiology and mental potential, the people of our planet are generally equal. The achievements of modern science convincingly demonstrate that there is no reason to claim the superiority of any race over another.

Social in man— ϶ᴛᴏ primarily instrumental production activity, collectivist forms of life with the division of responsibilities between individuals, language, thinking, social and political activity. It is known that Homo sapiens as a person and an individual cannot exist outside of human communities. It is appropriate to note that cases have been described in which small children, for various reasons, came under the care of animals, were “raised” by them, and when, after several years in the animal world, they returned to people, they needed years to adapt to the new social environment. Finally, it is impossible to imagine a person’s social life without his social and political activity. Strictly speaking, as noted earlier, a person’s life itself will be social, since he constantly interacts with people - at home, at work, during leisure time. How do the biological and the social relate when determining the essence and nature of a person? Modern science unambiguously answers ϶ᴛᴏ - only in unity. Indeed, without biological prerequisites it would be difficult to imagine the emergence of hominids, but without social conditions the emergence of man was impossible. It’s no longer a secret that pollution environment, the human environment poses a threat to the biological existence of Homo sapiens. To summarize, we can say that now, like many millions of years ago, the physical state of a person, his existence, to a determining extent, depend on the state of nature. In general, it can be argued that now, as with the emergence of Homo sapiens, its existence is ensured by the unity of the biological and social.

Modern science, firstly, studies man as a representative of a biological species; secondly, he is considered as a member of society; thirdly, it is studied subject activity person; fourthly, the patterns of development of a particular person are studied.

Chapter 1. Subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 1 7

Rice. 1.4.The structure of the concept of “individuality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The beginning of the targeted study of man as a biological species can be considered the works of Carl Linnaeus, who singled him out as independent type Homo sapiens in the order of primates. Thus, the place of man in living nature was determined for the first time. This does not mean that the person was not previously of interest to researchers. Scientific knowledge human origins in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine. However, these studies were narrow-profile, insufficiently systematized, and most importantly, contradictory in nature, and in them man was most often contrasted with living nature. K. Linnaeus proposed to consider man as an element of living nature. And this was a kind of turning point in the study of man.

Anthropology is a special science about man as a special biological species. To the structure modern anthropology include three main sections: human morphology(study of individual variability of physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to old age inclusive, sexual dimorphism, changes physical development person under the influence various conditions life and activity), the doctrine of anthropogenesis(on the changing nature of man's closest ancestor and man himself during the Quaternary period), consisting of primate science, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (the study of human fossil forms) and racial studies.

In addition to anthropology, there are other related sciences that study humans as a biological species. For example, the physical type of Man as his general somatic organization is studied by such natural sciences as human anatomy and physiology, biophysics and biochemistry, psychophysiology, and neuropsychology. Medicine, which includes numerous sections, occupies a special place in this series.

The doctrine of anthropogenesis - the origin and development of man - is also associated with the sciences that study biological evolution on Earth, since human nature cannot be understood without a general and consistent developing process evolution of the animal world. This group of sciences may include paleontology, embryology, as well as comparative physiology and comparative biochemistry.

18 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

It must be emphasized that private disciplines played an important role in the development of the doctrine of anthropogenesis. These include, first of all, the physiology of higher nervous activity. Thanks to AND. P. Pavlov, who showed great interest in some genetic problems of higher nervous activity, the most developed department of comparative physiology was the physiology of higher nervous activity of anthropoids.

Comparative psychology, which combines animal psychology and general human psychology, plays a huge role in understanding the development of man as a biological species. Experimental studies of primates in zoopsychology began with the scientific works of such scientists as V. Koehler and N. N. Ladygina-Kots. Thanks to the successes of animal psychology, many mechanisms of human behavior and patterns of mental development have become clear.

There are sciences that are directly related to the doctrine of anthropogenesis, but play a significant role in its development. These include genetics and archaeology. Special place is occupied by paleolinguistics, which studies the origin of language, its sound means and control mechanisms. The origin of language is one of the central moments of sociogenesis, and the origin of speech is the central moment of anthropogenesis, since articulate speech is one;

of the main differences between humans and animals.

In connection with the fact that we touched upon the problems of sociogenesis, we should note the social sciences, which are most closely related to the problem of anthropogenesis. These include paleosociology, which studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture.

Thus, man, as a representative of a biological species, is the object of study of many sciences, including psychology. In Fig. 1.5 presents B. G. Ananyev’s classification of the main problems and sciences about Homo sapiens . Anthropology occupies a central place among the sciences that study the origin and development of man as an independent biological species. The main conclusion that allows us to draw the current state of anthropology in relation to human development can be formulated as follows: at some stage of biological development, man was separated from the animal world (the borderline stage of “anthropogenesis-sociogenesis”) and the action of natural selection ceased in human evolution , based on the biological expediency and survival of the individuals and species most adapted to the natural environment. With the transition of man from the animal world to the social world, with his transformation into a biosocial being, the laws of natural selection were replaced by qualitatively different laws of development.

The question of why and how man’s transition from the animal to the social world occurred is central to the sciences studying anthropogenesis, and to date there is no clear answer to it. There are several points of view on this problem. One of them is based on the following assumption: as a result of mutation, the human brain turned into a superbrain, which allowed man to stand out from the animal world and create a society. This point of view is shared by P. Chauchard. According to this point of view, in historical times the organic development of the brain is impossible due to its mutational origin.

There is another point of view, which is based on the assumption that the organic development of the brain and the development of man as a species led to quality

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 19

Rice. 1.5.Sciences that study man as a biological object

natural structural changes in the brain, after which development began to be carried out according to other laws that differed from the laws of natural selection. But just because the body and brain remain essentially the same doesn't mean no development occurs. Research by I. A. Stankevich indicates that structural changes occur in the human brain, progressive development of various parts of the hemisphere, separation of new convolutions, and formation of new sulci are observed. Therefore, the question of whether a person will change can be answered in the affirmative. However, these evolutionary changes are mainly

20 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

will relate to the social conditions of human life and his personal development, and biological changes of the type Homo sapiens will be of secondary importance*.

Thus, man as a social being, as a member of society, is no less interesting for science, since the modern development of man as a species Homo sapiens is no longer carried out according to the laws of biological survival, but according to the laws of social development.

The problem of sociogenesis cannot be considered outside the social sciences. The list of these sciences is very long. They can be divided into several groups depending on the phenomena they study or are associated with. For example, sciences related to art, technological progress, and education.

In turn, according to the degree of generalization of the approach to the study of human society, these sciences can be divided into two groups: sciences that consider the development of society as a whole, in the interaction of all its elements, and sciences that study individual aspects of the development of human society. From the point of view of this classification of sciences, humanity is a holistic entity, developing according to its own laws, and at the same time a multitude of individual people. Therefore, all social sciences can be classified either as sciences about human society, or as sciences about man as an element of society. It should be borne in mind that in this classification there is not a sufficiently clear line between different sciences, since many social sciences can be associated both with the study of society as a whole and with the study of an individual person.

Ananiev believes that the system of sciences about humanity (human society) as an integral phenomenon should include sciences about the productive forces of society, sciences about the settlement and composition of humanity, sciences about production and social relations, about culture, art and science itself as a system of knowledge, science about the forms of society at various stages of its development.

It is necessary to highlight the sciences that study the interaction of man with nature and humanity with the natural environment. An interesting point of view was held on this issue by V.I. Vernadsky, the creator of the biogeochemical doctrine, in which he identified two opposing biogeochemical functions that interact and are associated with the history of free oxygen - the O 2 molecule. These are the functions of oxidation and reduction. On the one hand, they are associated with ensuring respiration and reproduction, and on the other, with the destruction of dead organisms. As Vernadsky believes, man and humanity are inextricably linked with the biosphere - a certain part of the planet on which they live, since they are geologically naturally connected with the material and energy structure of the Earth.

Man is inseparable from nature, but unlike animals, he has activity aimed at transforming the natural environment in order to ensure optimal conditions of life and activity. In this case we are talking about the emergence of the noosphere.