Domestic policy in the first half of the 19th century

Assuming the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that henceforth politics would be based not on the personal will or whim of the monarch, but on strict observance of laws. The population was promised legal guarantees against arbitrariness. Around the king there was a circle of friends, called the Unspoken Committee. It included young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. D. Czartorysky. The aggressively minded aristocracy dubbed the committee "the Jacobin gang." This committee met from 1801 to 1803 and discussed projects of state reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.

During the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. much has been done, but much more has been promised. The restrictions imposed by Paul I were lifted. Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities were opened in Dorpat and Vilna. In 1804, the Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be admitted to educational institutions, at the lower levels education was free, paid from the state budget. The reign of Alexander I was characterized by unconditional religious tolerance, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.

In 1802, the obsolete collegiums, which since the time of Peter the Great were the main organs executive power, have been replaced by ministries. The first 8 ministries were established: military ground forces, navy, justice, internal affairs, finance. Commerce and public education.

In 1810-1811. during the reorganization of the ministries, their number increased, and the functions were even more clearly delineated. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and controlling body in the system of state administration. He received the right to make "representations" to the emperor about obsolete laws. Managed spiritual affairs Holy Synod whose members were appointed by the emperor. It was headed by the chief prosecutor, a person, as a rule, close to the king. From military or civilian officials. Under Alexander I, the position of chief prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who since 1816 was also the Minister of Public Education. The most active supporter of the idea of ​​reforming the public administration system was the state secretary of the Permanent Council, M. M. Speransky. However, he is not very for a long time enjoyed favor with the Emperor. The implementation of Speransky's project could contribute to the start of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the project “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” outlined the principle of separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers by convening representatives of the State Duma and introducing elected judicial instances.

At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become a link between the emperor and the bodies of central and local self-government. The cautious Speransky endowed all the newly proposed bodies only with deliberative rights and by no means encroached on the fullness of autocratic power. The liberal project of Speransky was opposed by the conservative-minded part of the nobility, which saw in it a danger to the autocratic-feudal system and to their privileged position.

The ideologue of the conservatives became famous writer and historian I. M. Karamzin. In practical terms, the reactionary policy was pursued by Count A. A. Arakcheev, close to Alexander I, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor through the further development of the bureaucratic system.

The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended in victory for the latter. Speransky was removed from business and sent into exile. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other high dignitaries appointed by the emperor. He was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. Reforms 1802–1811 did not change the autocratic essence of the Russian political system. They only increased the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.

In subsequent years, the reformist moods of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure of Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation by N.N. Russian Empire" (1819-1820). The project provided for the separation of branches of power, the introduction of government bodies. Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

In the last decade of the reign of Alexander I in domestic politics more and more conservative trend. By the name of her guide, she received the name "Arakcheevshchina". This policy was expressed in the further centralization of state administration, in police-repressive measures aimed at the destruction of free thought, in the "purge" of universities, in the imposition of cane discipline in the army. The most striking manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev was military settlements - special form recruiting and maintenance of the army.

The purpose of creating military settlements is to achieve self-support and self-reproduction of the army. To ease for the country's budget the burden of maintaining a huge army in peaceful conditions. The first attempts to organize them date back to 1808-1809, but they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. State-owned peasants of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkov provinces were transferred to the category of military settlements. Soldiers were also settled here, to whom their families were registered. Wives became villagers, sons from the age of 7 were enlisted as cantonists, and from the age of 18 into active military service. The whole life of the peasant family was strictly regulated. For the slightest violation of the order, corporal punishment followed. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed chief commander of the military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to the settlement.

However, the idea of ​​the self-sufficiency of the army failed. The government spent a lot of money on the organization of settlements. The military settlers did not become a special class that expanded the social support of the autocracy, on the contrary, they were worried and rebelled. The government abandoned this practice in subsequent years. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. He had no children. Due to ambiguity in the issue of succession to the throne in Russia, a emergency- interregnum.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) are rightly regarded as "the apogee of autocracy". The Nikolaev reign began with the massacre of the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. The replacement of the heir to the throne by Alexander I came as a surprise to Nicholas I, who was not prepared to rule Russia.

On December 6, 1826, the emperor created the first Secret Committee, headed by the Chairman of the State Council V.P. Kochubey. Initially, the committee developed projects for the transformation of higher and local government and the law "on states", that is, on the rights of estates. It was supposed to consider the peasant question. However, in reality, any practical results the work of the committee did not give, and in 1832 the committee ceased its activities.

Nicholas I set the task of concentrating in his hands the solution of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of the regime of personal power was embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. It was divided into several branches that interfered in the political, social and spiritual life of the country.

The codification of Russian legislation was entrusted to M. M. Speransky, returned from exile, who intended to collect and classify all existing laws, to create a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative tendencies in domestic politics limited him to a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after Cathedral Code 1649. They were published in " the full assembly Laws of the Russian Empire” in 45 volumes. In a separate "Code of Laws" (15 volumes), the current laws were placed, which corresponded to the legal situation in the country. All this was also aimed at strengthening the bureaucratization of management.

In 1837-1841. under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, a wide system of measures was carried out - the reform of the management of state peasants. In 1826, a committee was set up to set up educational institutions. Its tasks included: checking the statutes of educational institutions, developing uniform principles of education, determining academic disciplines and manuals. The committee developed the basic principles of government policy in the field of education. They were legally enshrined in the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. lower classes, created the essence of the created education system.

The reaction hit the universities as well. Their network, however, was expanded due to the need for qualified officials. The charter of 1835 liquidated university autonomy, tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, the police and local government. At that time, S.S. Uvarov was the Minister of Public Education, who, in his policy, sought to combine the “protection” of Nicholas I with the development of education and culture.

In 1826, a new censorship charter was issued, which was called "cast iron" by contemporaries. The Main Directorate of Censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nicholas I as one of the top political tasks. One after another, bans on the publication of magazines rained down. 1831 was the date of the termination of the publication of A. A. Delvich's Literary Gazette, in 1832 P. V. Kirievsky's The European was closed, in 1834 the Moscow Telegraph by N. A. Polevoy, and in 1836 " Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin.

In the domestic policy of the last years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reactionary-repressive line intensified even more.

By the mid 50s. Russia turned out to be "an ear of clay with feet of clay." This predetermined failures in foreign policy, the defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused the reforms of the 60s.

Foreign policy of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

On the turn of the XVIII- XIX centuries. two directions were clearly defined in Russia's foreign policy: the Middle East - the struggle to strengthen its positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and the European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after accession to the throne was the restoration of relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to come into conflict with France either. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the region of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

According to the manifesto of Alexander I of September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling dynasty Bagratidov lost the throne, the control of Kartli and Kakheti passed to the Russian governor. Tsarist administration was introduced in Eastern Georgia. In 1803-1804. under the same conditions, the rest of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria, Imeretia - became part of Russia. Russia received strategically important territory for strengthening its positions in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Great importance not only strategically, but also economic terms In 1814, the construction of the Georgian Military Highway was completed, which connected Transcaucasia with European Russia.

The annexation of Georgia pushed Russia against Iran and Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries towards Russia was fueled by the intrigues of England. The war with Iran that began in 1804 was successfully waged by Russia: already during 1804-1806. the main part of Azerbaijan was annexed to Russia. The war ended with the annexation in 1813 of the Talysh Khanate and the Mugan steppe. According to the Peace of Gulistan, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the assignment of these territories to Russia. Russia was granted the right to keep its military vessels on the Caspian Sea.

In 1806, the war between Russia and Turkey began, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was the removal in August 1806 from the posts of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia at the insistence of the Napoleonic General Sebastiani, who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Mikhelson occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1807, the squadron of D.N. Senyavin defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the diversion of the main forces of Russia to participate in the anti-Napoleonic coalition did not allow the Russian troops to develop success. Only when M. I. Kutuzov was appointed commander of the Russian army in 1811 did the hostilities take a completely different turn. Kutuzov concentrated the main forces at the Ruschuk fortress, where on June 22, 1811 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman Empire. Then, with successive blows, Kutuzov defeated in parts the main forces of the Ottomans along the left bank of the Danube, their remnants laid down their arms and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldavia was ceded to Russia, which later received the status of the Bessarabia region. Serbia, which rose to fight for independence in 1804 and was supported by Russia, was presented with autonomy.

In 1812, the eastern part of Moldova became part of Russia. Its western part (beyond the Prut River), under the name of the Principality of Moldavia, remained in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

In 1803-1805. the international situation in Europe sharply worsened. The streak starts Napoleonic Wars in which all were involved European countries, incl. and Russia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. under the rule of Napoleon was almost the entire central and Southern Europe. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which competed with the British bourgeoisie in the struggle for world markets and for colonial partition peace. Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took a leading place in international relations at the beginning of the 19th century.

The proclamation in 1804 of May 18 of Napoleon as emperor further inflamed the situation. April 11, 1805 was concluded. English-Russian military convention, according to which Russia was obliged to put up 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy to Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds and participate in land and sea military operations against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops numbering 430 thousand soldiers were sent against Napoleon. Upon learning of the movement of these troops, Napoleon withdrew his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where he was Austrian army under the command of General Mack and utterly defeated her at Ulm.

The commander of the Russian army, M. I. Kutuzov, given the fourfold superiority of Napoleon in strength, through a series of skillful maneuvers, avoided major battle and, having made a difficult 400-kilometer march, joined up with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov proposed to withdraw the Russian-Austrian troops further east in order to gather enough strength for the successful conduct of hostilities, however, the emperors Franz and Alexander I, who were with the army, insisted on a general battle. On November 20, 1805, it took place at Austerlitz (Czech Republic) and ended in victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and made a humiliating peace. The coalition actually broke up. Russian troops were withdrawn to the borders of Russia and Russian-French peace negotiations began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.

In mid-September 1806, a fourth coalition was formed against France (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia and Sweden). In the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the Prussian troops were completely defeated. Almost all of Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had to fight alone for 7 months against the superior forces of the French. The most significant were the battles of Russian troops with the French in East Prussia on January 26-27 at Preussisch-Eylau and on June 2, 1807 near Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push the Russian troops back to the Neman, but he did not dare to enter Russia and offered to make peace. The meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on the Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807.

Joining the continental blockade caused severe damage to the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Peace of Tilsit caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in the advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow was dealt to Russia's international prestige. The painful impression of the Tilsit peace was to some extent "compensated" by the successes in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which was the result of the Tilsit agreements.

The war began on February 8, 1808 and demanded a great effort from Russia. At first, military operations were successful: in February-March 1808, the main urban centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then hostilities stopped. By the end of 1808, Finland was freed from Swedish troops, and in March, the 48,000th corps of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having made the transition on the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia, approached Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, in the city of Friedrichsgam, a peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden, under the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, the contradictions between France and Russia gradually deepened.

A new war between Russia and France was becoming inevitable. The main motive for unleashing the war was Napoleon's desire for world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the Napoleonic army crossed the Neman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army consisted of 3 corps under the command of MacDonald, advancing on Riga and Petersburg. The main, central group of troops, consisting of 220 thousand people, led by Napoleon, attacked Kovno and Vilna. Alexander I at that time was in Vilna. At the news of France crossing the Russian border, he sent General A. D. Balashov to Napoleon with peace proposals, but was refused.

Usually, Napoleon's wars were reduced to one or two general battles, which decided the fate of the company. And for this, Napoleon's calculation was reduced to using his numerical superiority to smash the dispersed Russian armies one by one. On June 13, French troops occupied Kovno, and on June 16 Vilna. At the end of June, Napoleon's attempt to encircle and destroy the army of Barclay de Tolly in the Drissa camp (on the Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tolly, by a successful maneuver, led his army out of the trap that the Dris camp could have turned out to be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk to join the army of Bagration, who was retreating south in the direction of Bobruisk, Novy Bykhov and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were aggravated by the lack of a unified command. On June 22, after heavy rearguard battles, the armies of Barclay da Tolly and Bagration united in Smolensk.

The stubborn battle of the Russian rearguard with the advancing advanced units of the French army on August 2 near Krasnoy (west of Smolensk) allowed the Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk took place. On the night of August 6, the burned and destroyed city was abandoned by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to advance on Moscow. On August 8, Alexander I signed a decree appointing M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Nine days later, Kutuzov arrived in the army.

For the general battle, Kutuzov chose a position near the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the advanced fortification in front of the Borodino field - the Shevardinsky redoubt. A heavy battle ensued: 12,000 Russian soldiers held back the onslaught of a 40,000-strong French detachment all day. This battle helped to strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. battle of Borodino began at 5 am on 26 August with an attack French division General Delzon at Borodino. Only by 16 o'clock was the Raevsky redoubt captured by the French cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave the order to withdraw to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped the attacks, limiting himself to artillery cannonade. As a result of the Battle of Borodino, both armies suffered heavy losses. The Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French 58 thousand people.

On September 1 (13), a military council was convened in the village of Fili, at which Kutuzov made the only right decision - to leave Moscow in order to save the army. The next day the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. On the same night, fires broke out in various parts of the city, which raged for a whole week. The Russian army, leaving Moscow, first moved to Ryazan. Near Kolomna, Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned onto the Starokaluga road and withdrew his army from the attack of the pressing French cavalry. The Russian army entered Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly struck at Murat's corps, which was stationed on the river. Chernishne is not far from Tarutina. The defeat of Murat forced Napoleon to accelerate the movement of the main forces of his army to Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to cross him to Maloyaroslavets. On October 12, a battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, which forced Napoleon to abandon the movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the old Smolensk road devastated by the war. The retreat of the French army began, which later turned into a flight, and its parallel pursuit by the Russian army.

Since the invasion of Napoleon in Russia, the country has flared up people's war against foreign invaders. After leaving Moscow, and especially during the period of the Tarutino camp, the partisan movement assumed a wide scope. The partisan detachments, having launched a "small war", disrupted the enemy's communications, performed the role of reconnaissance, sometimes gave real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.

Retreating from Smolensk to the river. Berezina, the French army still retained combat effectiveness, although it suffered heavy losses from hunger and disease. After crossing the river Berezina began a disorderly flight of remnants French troops. On December 5, in Sorgani, Napoleon handed over command to Marshal Murat, and he hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, the tsar's manifesto was published announcing the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing defeat on it. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. 12 provinces that became the scene of hostilities were devastated. Such ancient cities as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, etc., were burnt and devastated.

To ensure its security, Russia continued hostilities and led the movement for the liberation European nations from French domination.

In September 1814 opened Congress of Vienna, where the victorious powers decided on the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to agree among themselves, because. sharp contradictions arose, mainly on territorial issues. The work of the congress was interrupted due to the flight of Napoleon from Fr. Elba and the restoration of his power in France for 100 days. By combined efforts, the European states inflicted a final defeat on him at the Battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815. Napoleon was captured and exiled to about. St. Helena off the west coast of Africa.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of the old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. From most of the Polish lands, the Kingdom of Poland was created as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815 Russian emperor Alexander I, the Austrian Emperor Franz and the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III signed an act establishing the Holy Alliance. Alexander I himself was its author. The text of the Union contained the obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all possible assistance. Political goals-support of the old monarchical dynasties on the basis of the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the Congresses of the Union during the years from 1818 to 1822. the suppression of revolutions was authorized in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), Spain (1820-1823). However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

The news of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah's government as a good moment to unleash hostilities against Russia. July 16, 1826 60,000th Iranian army without declaring war, invaded the borders of Transcaucasia and began a rapid movement towards Tbilisi. But soon she was stopped and began to suffer defeat after defeat. At the end of August 1826, Russian troops under the command of A.P. Yermolov completely cleared Transcaucasia from Iranian troops and hostilities were transferred to the territory of Iran.

Nicholas I, not trusting Yermolov (he suspected him of having connections with the Decembrists), transferred command of the troops Caucasian District I. F. Paskevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops began in Eastern Armenia. The local Armenian population rose to help the Russian troops. In early July, Nakhchivan fell, and in October 1827, Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates. Soon all of Eastern Armenia was liberated by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, Russian troops occupied Tabriz, the second capital of Iran, and quickly advanced towards Tehran. Panic broke out among the Iranian troops. Under these conditions, the Shah's government was forced to agree to the terms of peace proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchay peace treaty between Russia and Iran was signed. According to the Turkmanchay Treaty, the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates joined Russia.

In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely difficult for Russia. The troops, accustomed to parade ground art, technically poorly equipped and led by mediocre generals, initially failed to achieve any significant success. The soldiers were starving, diseases raged among them, from which more people died than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, at the cost of considerable efforts and losses, they managed to occupy Wallachia and Moldavia, cross the Danube and take the fortress of Varna.

The campaign of 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June, after a long siege, captured the strong fortress of Silistria, then Shumla, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In Transcaucasia, Russian troops besieged the fortresses of Kars, Ardagan, Bayazet and Erzerum. On August 8, Adrianople fell. Nicholas I hurried the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Dibich with the conclusion of peace. On September 2, 1829, a peace treaty was concluded in Adrianople. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to the approaches to Batum. After the annexation of Transcaucasia, the Russian government faced the task of ensuring a stable situation in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began to advance deep into Chechnya and Dagestan, building military strongholds. Local population were driven to the construction of fortresses, fortified points, the construction of roads and bridges. The result of the policy pursued was the uprisings in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826), which, however, were subsequently suppressed by Yermolov's corps.

An important role in the movement of the highlanders of the Caucasus was played by Muridism, which became widespread among the Muslim population. North Caucasus at the end of the 20s. 19th century It implied religious fanaticism and an uncompromising struggle against the "infidels", which gave it a nationalistic character. In the North Caucasus, it was directed exclusively against Russians and was most widespread in Dagestan. A peculiar state - Immat - has developed here. In 1834, Shamil became the imam (head of state). Under his leadership, the struggle against the Russians intensified in the North Caucasus. It continued for 30 years. Shamil managed to unite the broad masses of the highlanders, to carry out a number of successful operations against the Russian troops. In 1848 his power was declared hereditary. That was the time greatest success Shamil. But in the late 40s - early 50s, the urban population, dissatisfied with the feudal-theocratic order in Shamil's imamate, began to gradually move away from the movement, and Shamil began to fail. The highlanders left Shamil with whole auls and stopped the armed struggle against the Russian troops.

Even the failures of Russia in the Crimean War did not ease the situation of Shamil, who tried to actively promote Turkish army. His raids on Tbilisi failed. The peoples of Kabarda and Ossetia also did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857. Chechnya fell away from Shamil. Uprisings began against Shamil in Avaria and Northern Dagestan. Under the onslaught of the troops, Shamil retreated to Southern Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, the troops of General Evdokimov took Shamil's "capital" - the village of Vedeno and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 murids took refuge in the village of Gunib, where on August 26, 1859, after a long and stubborn resistance, he surrendered. The Imamat ceased to exist. In 1863-1864 Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasus Range and crushed the resistance of the Circassians. The Caucasian war is over.

For the European absolutist states, the problem of combating the revolutionary danger was dominant in their foreign policy, it was associated with the main task of their domestic policy, the preservation of the feudal-serf order.

In 1830-1831. a revolutionary crisis arose in Europe. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, overthrowing the Bourbon dynasty. Having learned about it, Nicholas I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the delegations sent by Nicholas I to Austria and Germany returned with nothing. The monarchs did not dare to accept the proposals, believing that this intervention could result in serious social upheavals in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king, Louis Philippe of Orleans, as well as later Nicholas I. In August 1830, a revolution broke out in Belgium, which declared itself an independent kingdom (previously Belgium was part of the Netherlands).

Under the influence of these revolutions, in November 1830, an uprising broke out in Poland, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. Prince Konstantin managed to escape. A provisional government of 7 people was formed. The Polish Sejm, which met on January 13, 1831, proclaimed the “detronization” (deprivation of the Polish throne) of Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. Against the 50,000 rebel army, a 120,000 army was sent under the command of I. I. Dibich, who on February 13 inflicted a major defeat on the Poles near Grokhov. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the assault on the suburbs of Warsaw - Prague began. The next day, Warsaw fell, the uprising was crushed. The constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the Limited Statute published on February 14, 1832, the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. The administration of Poland was entrusted to the Administrative Council, headed by the emperor's viceroy in Poland, I.F. Paskevich.

In the spring of 1848 a wave of bourgeois democratic revolutions swept Germany, Austria, Italy, Wallachia and Moldavia. At the beginning of 1849 a revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the request Austrian Habsburgs for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. At the beginning of May 1849, 150 thousand army of I.F. Paskevich was sent to Hungary. A significant preponderance of forces allowed the Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.

Especially acute for Russia was the question of the regime of the Black Sea straits. In the 30-40s. 19th century Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this treaty, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 1940s, the situation changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to regain territories lost as a result of Russian-Turkish wars in late XVIII- the first half of the 19th century.

Britain and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict that had arisen for a decisive offensive against the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to wage war with one weakened empire, he hoped to agree with England on the division, in his words: "the legacy of a sick person." He counted on the isolation of France, as well as on the support of Austria for the "service" rendered to her in suppressing the revolution in Hungary. His calculations were wrong. England did not go along with his proposal to divide the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I's calculation that France did not have sufficient military forces to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe was also erroneous.

In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about which of the churches had the right to own the keys to the Bethlehem temple, to possess other religious monuments in Jerusalem. Orthodox Church supported by Russia, and the Catholic - by France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A. S. Menshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox, subjects of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.

Thus, the dispute over the Holy Places served as a pretext for the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. In reply Turkish sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France, declared war on Russia. Nicholas I published the Manifesto on the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military operations were deployed on the Danube and in Transcaucasia. November 18, 1853 Admiral P. S. Nakhimov at the head of a squadron of six battleships and two frigates defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and destroyed the coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet at Sinop was the reason for the direct intervention of England and France in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, a 70,000 Anglo-French army was concentrated in Varna. In early March 1854, England and France presented Russia with an ultimatum to purify Danubian Principalities, and, having received no answer, declared war on Russia. Austria, for its part, signed with the Ottoman Empire on the occupation of the Danubian principalities and moved an army of 300,000 to their borders, threatening Russia with war. The demand of Austria was supported by Prussia. At first, Nicholas I refused, but the commander-in-chief of the Danube Front, I.F. Paskevich, persuaded him to withdraw troops from the Danubian principalities, which were soon occupied by Austrian troops.

main goal the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. September 2, 1854 allied forces began landing on the Crimean peninsula near Evpatoria, consisting of 360 ships and 62,000 army. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov ordered the sinking of the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol Bay in order to interfere with the Allied ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand with 96 guns from Prince A. S. Menshikov, were located on the entire Crimean peninsula. Under his leadership, the battle on the river. Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol, and retreated to Bakhchisarai. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.

The defense was led by the chief of staff Black Sea Fleet Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege - P. S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854 ), attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855 began final assault Sevastopol. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, it was hopeless to continue the defense. In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. After the defeat of Turkey in Transcaucasia, Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell. The conduct of hostilities was stopped. Negotiations began.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris peace treaty was signed, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral. Rossi was torn away only southern part Bessarabia, however, she lost the right to protect the Danubian principalities in Serbia. With the "neutralization" of France, Russia was forbidden to have on the Black Sea naval forces, arsenals and fortresses. This was a security blow. southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nicholas' rule, stirred up the public masses and forced the government to work hard on reforming the state.



deadline

Review – 25 April 23.00
Creative work - May 7, 23.00

Lecture 2. Russian Empire in the late XIX-early XX century.

Lecture 2. Russian
empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Socio-economic
position
Political development
Empires (1894-1913)

The first general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897

First general census
population of the Russian
Administrative division - 97 provinces.
empire
1897
Census registered in the Russian Empire
125,640,021 inhabitants. By 1913 - 165 million people.
16,828,395 people (13.4%) lived in cities.
Largest cities: St. Petersburg - 1.26 million, Moscow -
1 million, Warsaw - 0.68 million.
The literacy rate was 21.1%, and among men
it was significantly higher than among women (29.3% and
13.1%, respectively).
By religion: Orthodox - 69.3%, Muslims
- 11.1%, Catholics - 9.1% and Jews - 4.2%.
Estates: peasantry - 77.5%, petty bourgeois - 10.7%,
foreigners - 6.6%, Cossacks - 2.3%, nobles - 1.5%,
clergy - 0.5%, honorary citizens - 0.3%,
merchants - 0.2%, others - 0.4%.

Nationalities of Russia (1907-1917) P.P. Kamensky

Class structure of society

Nobility
Clergy
Guild Merchants
Philistines
Peasants
Odnodvortsy
Cossacks

The class structure of society

Bourgeoisie - 1.5 million people
Proletariat - 2.7 million people. By 1913 -
18 million people
The intelligentsia as a special stratum in
the social structure of society -
725 thousand people

Important:

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. social division
society was an interweaving
estate and class structures. Were taking shape
groups of contradictions: nobility-bourgeoisie,
the bourgeoisie is the workers, the government is the people,
intelligentsia - people, intelligentsia -
power. national problems.
The problem of social mobility.
Marginalization. Urbanization. Social
mobility.

Main National Policy Issues

The presence of several faiths (Islam,
Buddhism, Catholicism, Lutheranism)
Russification policy regarding
Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish and
other peoples - the rise of nationalism
The Jewish question is the "Pale of Settlement",
discrimination in various fields
activities
Difficult situation in Islamic areas
empires

The turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

The transition from traditional to
industrial society
Overcoming the socio-cultural
backwardness
Democratization of political life
An attempt to form a civil
societies

10. Features of the economic development of Russia

Peculiarities
economic development
More late transition towards capitalism
Russia
Russia is a country of the second echelon
modernization
Uneven development of the territory
different levels of economic and
sociocultural development
numerous peoples of the empire
Preservation of autocracy, landlord
land tenure, national problems

11. Features of the economic development of Russia

Peculiarities
economic development
Rapid pace of development, short deadlines for folding
factory production. Low labor productivity.
Russia
The factory production system evolved without
passing through the previous stages of craft and manufactory.
The growth of industrial output in the 1860-1900s. – 7
once.
The credit system is represented by large commercial
banks
Diversified economy
Russia is characterized not by the export (China, Iran), but by the import of capital
High degree of concentration of production and labor force
Monopolism
State intervention in economic life
Weak inclusion of the agricultural sector in the modernization process

12. Reforms S.Yu. Witte

STRENGTHENING THE ROLE
STATES IN
ECONOMY /
Strengthening private
entrepreneurship
1895 - wine
monopoly
1897 - monetary reform
Protectionist policy
attraction
foreign capital
Construction of iron
roads

13. The turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

For the 1890s 5.7 thousand new
enterprises
Development of new industrial areas - Yuzhny
(coal-metallurgical) and Baku (oil).
1890s - industrial boom. Construction
Trans-Siberian Railway, CER.
1900-1903 - economic crisis. Closing 3 thousand.
large and medium enterprises.
Investor countries: France, England, Germany, Belgium
monopolization of industrial production and
capital.
Industrial rise 1909-1913

14.

15.

16. Reforms P.A. Stolypin

Community destruction
Decree of November 9, 1906
Reorganization
Peasant Bank
Buying them landowners
lands and their resale
into the hands of the peasantry
resettlement
peasants on the outskirts
Courts-martial decree

17. Projects of reforms P.A. Stolypin

Transformation of the peasant
volost courts
national and religious
equality
Introduction of volost zemstvos
Primary Law
schools (compulsory primary
education) (since 1912)
Workers' Insurance Act (1912)

18. State administration of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century (until 1905).

Emperor
State Council –
legislative body
The Senate is the oversight body for the rule of law
activity activities
government officials and institutions
Synod
Ministries. Cabinet of Ministers.

19. Autocracy and public life at the beginning of the 20th century.

1901 Politics of the "policeman"
socialism” S.V. Zubatov. Creation
professional movement of workers
pursuing economic goals.
The workers need a "king who is for us"
king who "brings in the eight o'clock
working day, raise wages
pay, give all sorts of benefits.
G. Gapon. "Meeting of Russian factory workers of St. Petersburg"
1904

20. Autocracy and public life at the beginning of the 20th century.

Svyatopolk-Mirsky P.D.
Minister of the Interior
cases from August 1904
"The development of self-government
and the call of the elected
Petersburg for discussion
as the only
tool that can
enable Russia
develop properly."
Autumn 1904 - "autumn
Spring".

21. Liberal Movement

Banquet campaign of 1904
“We consider it absolutely essential that all
the state system was reorganized into
constitutional principles ... and that immediately
However, before the start of the electoral period,
declared a complete and unconditional amnesty for all
political and religious crimes."
Until the beginning of January 1905, 120
similar "banquets", which were attended by about 50
thousand people.

22. Political parties of Russia in n. 20th century

23. "Bloody Sunday"

"The king's prestige is here
killed - that's the meaning
days." M. Gorky.
"Last days
come. Brother
got up on my brother...
The king gave the order
shoot icons"
M. Voloshin

24. Repin I.E. October 17, 1905. (1907)

25. "Manifesto October 17, 1905"

civil
freedom "on the basis of real
privacy, freedom
conscience, words, meetings and unions"
for elections to the State Duma
attracts the general public
All laws must be approved in
Duma, but "elected from the people"
provides an opportunity
actual participation in the supervision of
regularity of actions" of the authorities.

26. Electoral law 11.12.1905

Four electoral curia from the landowners, city
population, peasants and workers. Were disenfranchised
choice of women, soldiers, sailors, students,
landless peasants, laborers and some
"foreigners". The system of representation in the Duma was
designed as follows: agricultural
the curia sent one elector from 2 thousand people,
urban - from 7 thousand, peasant - from 30 thousand,
working - from 90 thousand people. Government,
continued to hope that the peasantry would
the backbone of the autocracy, provided him with 45% of all seats in
Duma. Members of the State Duma were elected for a term
for 5 years.

27.

28. Opening of the State Duma and the State Council April 27, 1906

29. State Duma of the Russian Empire

30. State Duma of the Russian Empire

Duma Opening hours
Chairman
I
April 27, 1906 -
July 8, 1906
Cadet S.A. Muromtsev
II
February 20, 1907 -
June 2, 1907
Cadet F.A.Golovin
III
November 1, 1907 -
June 9, 1912
Octobrists - N.A. Khomyakov (November
1907-March 1910),
A.I. Guchkov (March 1910-March 1911),
M.V. Rodzianko (March 1911-June 1912)
IV
November 15, 1912 -
February 25, 1917
Octobrist M.V. Rodzianko

31.

32. Literature

Ananyich B.V., Ganelin R.Sh. Sergey
Yulievich Witte and his time. St. Petersburg:
Dmitry Bulanin, 1999.
Literature about S.Yu. Witte: URL:
http://www.prometeus.nsc.ru/biblio/vitte/r
efer2.ssi
Zyryanov P. N. Pyotr Stolypin:
Political portrait. M., 1992.

Lesson Objectives.

Educational: to form an idea of ​​the main features and problems of the demographic, social and economic development of the Russian Empire in turn of XVIII-XIX centuries; continue to work on concepts, the formation of the ability to distinguish main idea establish cause-and-effect relationships, compare, draw conclusions, work with reference summary, compressed information

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Theme of the lesson: "The Russian Empire at the end XIX early XX century"

History of Russia Grade 8.

Lesson goals.

Educational: to form an idea of ​​the main features and problems of the demographic, social and economic development of the Russian Empire at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries; continue working on concepts, developing the ability to highlight the main idea, establish cause-and-effect relationships, compare, draw conclusions, work with a supporting summary, concise information.

Developing: to promote the development of students' analytical skills, the ability to work with textual information, develop oral and written speech skills.

Educational: to continue the formation of teamwork skills, a sense of patriotism and pride in one's country

Educational equipment: historical documents, textbook, Handout, presentation "Russia at the beginning of the 19th century", interactive board, computer, map "Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century".

During the classes:

Stage 1. Two students form a pair, two pairs form a group. Each of them has its own text and paragraph of the textbook:

1) the territory of Russia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Population.

2) estate system.

3) economic system.

4) political system.

Within 10 minutes, everyone works with their own text and begins filling out a table in their notebook from their column, entering the key words:

Russian Empire in the late 18th - early 19th century.

Stage 2. By agreement, one of the students recites his text. The other listens, asks clarifying questions, writes down key words, and then tells his friend his topic, now the first one listens and asks questions.

3rd stage. Pair change. The first options in the group are swapped. Work continues in pairs of shifts until each student has completed the entire table in the notebook. 5 min. working time for the presentation of the material and entries in the table. Total total time to work 30 minutes.

Stage 4. Consolidation of knowledge.

Front work. Board test:

1. By the beginning of the 19th century, the population of Russia was

A) 46 million

B) 24 million

C) 128 million

D) 44 million

2. By the beginning of the 19th century, the most numerous estate in Russia

A) merchants

B) landowners

B) peasants

D) clergy

3. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century is

A) a parliamentary republic

B) Autocratic monarchy

B) theocratic state

D) Limited monarchy

4. The Russian Empire was:

A) a multinational state

B) Mono-ethnic state

Stage 5 Reflection.

Give your description of the country by writing in front of the letter, an adjective that suits you:

R -

Homework: pp5-7.

Application:

Text #1.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire was a huge continental country. It occupied one sixth of the land and stretched from Baltic Sea to Alaska North America. By the middle of the 19th century, the territory of Russia reached 18 million square kilometers. The country was divided into 69 provinces and regions, which in turn were divided into counties (in Belarus and Ukraine - into counties). On average, there were 10-12 counties per province. Groups of provinces in some cases united into governor-generals and governorships. So, three Lithuanian-Belarusian (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno, with a center in Vilna) and three Right-Bank Ukrainian provinces (Kyiv, Podolsk and Volyn, with a center in Kyiv) were united. The Caucasian governorship included the Transcaucasian provinces with the center in Tiflis.

Text number 2.

in the 17-18 centuries, the Cossacks were used by the state to protect external borders, in the 17-18 centuries, the Cossacks, mostly the poorest part of it, formed the backbone of the rebels during peasant wars, but at the turn of the 18-19 centuries. the government established control over the Cossack regions, and in the 19th century. began to create new Cossack troops to protect the borders, for example, the Siberian and Transbaikal. The Cossacks were mostly state peasants. By the middle of the 19th century. in Russia there were 9 Cossack troops: Don, Black Sea (Kuban), Terek, Astrakhan, Orenburg, Ural, Siberian and Ussuri troops; the heir to the throne was considered the chieftain of all Cossack troops. At the head of each army was an appointed (appointed) ataman. The village atamans were elected by the Cossacks themselves.

Text number 3.

The main forms of feudal exploitation are corvée and dues.

The spread of the corvée form of exploitation applies primarily to the chernozem provinces. In the central industrial provinces where soil fertility was low, quitrent form prevailed.

The landowners sought to increase the production of bread for sale. To do this, they reduced the peasant allotments, increased the area under crops. The number of corvée days increases, and in some cases a month is introduced.

month - a kind of corvee. The landowner took away from the peasants their allotments, forcing them to work only on his land. For this, he gave them a monthly allowance of food and clothing.

The increase in gross grain production occurred precisely because of the expansion of sown areas, while the corvée system could not be profitable and was in crisis. The productivity of forced labor was constantly falling, which is explained by the disinterest of the peasants in the results of their labor.

The amount of the dues for the first half of XIX in. increased by 2.5-3.5 times. Since agriculture did not provide enough money for dues, the peasants began to engage in non-agricultural activities, such as handicrafts. AT winter time the export trade (transportation of goods on their sledges) is spreading. With the development of industry, the number of otkhodnik peasants increased, who went to work in manufactories, earning money there for dues (otkhodka).

There were also contradictions in the quitrent system. Thus, the competition among peasant craftsmen is intensifying. On the other hand, the developing factory industry was a serious competition to peasant crafts. As a result, the earnings of quitrent peasants fell, their solvency decreased, and hence the profitability of landlord estates.

Text No. 4.

According to its political structure, Russia was autocratic monarchy. At the head of the state was the emperor (in common parlance he was traditionally called the king). The highest legislative and administrative power was concentrated in his hands.

The emperor ruled the country with the help of officials. According to the law, they were the executors of the will of the king. But in reality the bureaucracy played a more significant role. In his hands was the development of laws, it also carried them out. The bureaucracy was the absolute master in central authorities management and local (provincial and county). Political system Russia in its form was autocratic-bureaucratic. The word "bureaucracy" is translated like this: the power of the offices. All segments of the population suffered from the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, from its bribery.

The highest bureaucracy consisted mainly of noble landowners. Of these, the officer corps was also completed. Surrounded on all sides by the nobles, the king was imbued with their interests, defending them as his own.

True, sometimes contradictions and conflicts arose between the tsar and individual groups of the nobility. Sometimes they got very acute forms. But these conflicts never captured the entire nobility.

Management of the Russian Empire. By the end of the XIX century. autocracy, as it seemed, stood firm and indestructible. All the highest functions of power (legislative, executive and judicial) were concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but the implementation of each of them was carried out through a system of state institutions.

Supreme legislature, as before, there remained the State Council, endowed with legislative powers. It consisted of persons appointed by the king and ministers. For the most part, these were well-known courtiers and dignitaries, many of whom were in very advanced years, which allowed the salon public to refer to them as nothing more than state Soviet elders. The State Council had no legislative initiative. At its meetings, only the bills introduced by the monarch, but developed by the ministries, were discussed.

The main body of executive power was the Committee of Ministers. It was headed by a Chairman, whose functions were very limited. The Committee of Ministers included not only ministers, but also heads of departments and state administrations. Cases that required the approval of various ministers were submitted to the Committee for consideration. It was not a consolidated governing body coordinating the activities of individual departments. The committee was a meeting of administrative independent friend from a friend of the dignitaries. Each minister had the right to report directly to the emperor and was guided by his orders. The minister was appointed exclusively by the monarch.

The emperor was considered the head of the court and judicial administration, and the entire court was carried out on his behalf. The competence of the monarch did not extend to specific legal proceedings, he had the role of the highest, and last, arbiter.

The monarch oversaw the court and administration through Governing Senate who watched over to order supreme power were executed in localities, and resolved complaints against the actions and orders of all authorities and persons, up to and including ministers.

Administratively, Russia was divided into 78 provinces, 18 regions and Sakhalin Island. There were administrative units that included several provinces - governor generals, usually established on the outskirts. The governor was appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of the Interior.

Since 1809, the Russian Empire also included Finland (the Grand Duchy of Finland), headed by the emperor and which had broad internal autonomy - its own government (senate), customs, police, and a monetary unit.

On the rights of vassal formations, two Central Asian states were also part of Russia - Khanate of Bukhara(emirate) and Khiva Khanate. They were in complete political dependence on Russia, but in internal affairs their rulers had autonomous rights.

The power of the governor was extensive and extended to almost all areas of the life of the province.

Public education and health care were part of the system of central state administration.

Cities had self-government in the form of city dumas and councils. They were entrusted with administrative and economic tasks - transport, lighting, heating, sewerage, water supply, improvement of pavements, sidewalks, embankments and bridges, as well as the management of educational and charitable affairs, local trade, industry and credit.

The right to take part in city elections was determined by a property qualification. Only those who owned this city real estate (in large centers - worth at least 3 thousand rubles, in small towns this threshold was much lower).

Four cities (Petersburg, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch-Bnikale) were withdrawn from the provinces and controlled by city governors directly subordinate to the central government.

Provinces were divided into districts and regions - into districts. The county was the lowest administrative unit, and further division had already special appointment: parish - for peasant self-government, plots of zemstvo chiefs, plots forensic investigators etc.

By the end of the XIX century. zemstvo self-government was introduced in 34 provinces European Russia, and in other areas, government bodies were in charge of affairs. Zemstvo bodies were mainly engaged in economic affairs - construction and maintenance in due order. local roads, schools, hospitals, charities, statistics, handicraft industry, land loan organization. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos had the right to establish special zemstvo dues.

The zemstvo administration consisted of provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies- provincial and district zemstvo councils, which had their own permanent offices and departments.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years by three electoral congresses - landowners, townspeople and peasants. The county zemstvo assemblies elected their representatives to the provincial zemstvo assembly, which formed the provincial zemstvo council. At the head of the county and provincial zemstvo councils were elected chairmen. They not only directed the activities of these institutions, but also represented the zemstvos in government bodies management (provincial presences).

Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries took the path of modernization, formation and development of an industrial society. The main goal of the Russian version of modernization was the desire to catch up with the industrial countries in its development, to prevent too much lag in the military-economic field, to join the world economic system and thus defend its national interests.

In terms of its development, speed and intensity of industrialization, Russia belonged to the agrarian-industrial countries, with a weak-medium level of development of capitalism (82% of the population was employed in agriculture). The Russian economy was characterized by:

• The "catching up", forced character of the development of capitalism.
• The formation of a multi-structural economy (along with the capitalist, pre-capitalist, feudal and patriarchal structures were also preserved).
• Many beginnings in economic development initiated not by society, but by the state.
• Unstable, crisis development of society.

In 1891-1900, Russia made a giant leap in its industrial development. Over the decade, the volume of industrial production in the country doubled, in particular, the production of means of production - tripled. During the industrial boom, the length railway tracks in Russia has tripled (up to 60 thousand km), iron smelting has increased five times, and coal mining in the Donbass has increased six times.

Russia produced as many cars as it imported. The country has become the world's top grain exporter. As a result financial reform, conducted by S.Yu. Witte, in 1900 Russia's huge external debt was paid, inflation was stopped, and the gold equivalent of the ruble was introduced.

In Russia, monopolies (cartels, syndicates, trusts) are being created - large economic associations that have concentrated in their hands a significant part of the production and marketing of goods. Among them: "Prodamet", "Roof", "Nail", "Produgol", "Prodvagon" and others.

A characteristic feature of industrial development was the widespread attraction of foreign investment.

An important feature of Russia's capitalist evolution was that the autocracy played a significant role in economic life and in the formation of the basic elements of new relations. It created state-owned factories (military production), which were withdrawn from the sphere of free competition, controlled railway transport and road construction, etc. The state actively promoted the development domestic industry, banking, transport and communications.

Despite the accelerated development of industry, the agricultural sector remained the leader in terms of share in the country's economy. Russia ranked first in the world in terms of production: its share was 50% of the world's rye harvest, 25% of the world's grain exports. At the same time, it should be noted that the agricultural sector of the economy was only partially involved in the modernization processes.

New forms of management were introduced on the lands of the landowners and wealthy peasants. The vast majority of peasants used the old, inefficient forms of farming. Semi-serfdom and patriarchal remnants were preserved in the countryside: the communal system of land tenure and land use. It is the problems Agriculture became pivotal in the economic, social and political life of the country at the beginning of the century.

Thus, Russia embarked on the path of modernization lagging behind the countries Western Europe. Autocracy, the preservation of administrative-feudal methods of management hampered economic development.

Formation process in Russia social strata of the population inherent in industrial societies, there was rapidly. As evidenced by the 1897 census, the total population of the empire was 125.5 million people. On January 1, 1915, it reached 182 million 182 thousand 600 people. During this period, the number of those who lived by selling their labor increased one and a half times and amounted to almost 19 million people. The number of entrepreneurs grew even more intensively. In close relationship with the expansion of capitalist production were indicators of the size of the urban population. During the same period, the number of citizens increased from 16.8 to 28.5 million people.

Despite these changes, in Russia the basis social structure, still constituted states - closed groups of people endowed with certain rights and duties that were hereditary in nature. The nobility remained the dominant class (about 1% of the population).

The nobility was divided into two categories: tribal and personal. The ancestral was hereditary, the personal was not. Although the role of the nobility in the economic life of the country was decreasing, it still remained a privileged class. Honorary and noble citizens belonged to the privileged estates - the top of the townspeople.

A special state was the clergy and guild merchants. A significant part of the urban population were philistines - shopkeepers, artisans, workers and employees.

Cossacks - Don, Kuban, Ural - made up a special military service status. They were entitled to land, were serving military service, preserved certain traditions of the Cossack environment.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the bourgeoisie, the working class, and the intelligentsia were rapidly forming in Russia.

The bourgeoisie is becoming a powerful class from an economic point of view. The bourgeoisie was formed from different social strata, owned enterprises, land allotments concentrated large amounts of capital in their hands.

However, in Russia the bourgeoisie, in contrast to the countries of Western Europe, has not become a powerful independent force. This was explained by the fact that the Russian bourgeoisie turned out to be dependent not on the market for raw materials and goods, but on the government, and acted as a monopolist in these markets. High profits in production were associated with the ability to obtain a state order and subsidies for its implementation. These conditions required from the capitalist not the qualities of an entrepreneur, but rather a courtier who knew all the loopholes at court.

As a result, the capitalist valued not freedom, but close relations with the emperor and the government. This situation has contributed to the increase specific gravity and autonomous functioning of a special social group- officials. The economic basis for the growth of the role of this segment of the population was the presence of a widely branched state capitalist economy: banks, railways, state factories, state lands. Until 1917, there were up to 500 thousand officials of various ranks in the country.

The peasantry, as before, made up the majority of the country's population. However, entering the village commodity-money relations contributed to its expansion. One part of the peasants joined the ranks of the proletariat, the other expanded its economy, gradually ousting the landowners from the agricultural market and buying up their land.

The peculiarities of the “reformation” of the social strata of the population in Russia caused serious contradictions both within a certain stratum of the population and between individual strata (the nobility - the bourgeoisie, the nobility - the peasantry, the bourgeoisie - the workers, the authorities - the people, the intelligentsia - the people, the intelligentsia - the authorities, etc.). .). The immaturity of the middle strata, the gap between the "tops" and "bottoms" determined the unstable, unstable position of Russian society.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia remained an autocratic monarchy. Representative bodies of power were not formed. All legislative, administrative and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. Most of the subjects considered autocratic power familiar and stable. Proximity to the monarch created for many real opportunities to influence the political and economic life of the country.

higher state institutions The "State Council" and the "Senate" acted as advisory bodies. By 1905, Russia did not have a unified government. Each minister reported on the affairs of his ministry directly to the emperor.

The judiciary as a whole is based on the judicial reform of the 60s of the XIX century. The Department of Police was responsible for the protection of state security. The army was an important state institution. The country had universal military service, although along with this there was a developed system of benefits and deferrals from conscription.

In organizing the life of the country, a significant role was played by local self-government - zemstvos. Zemstvos were elected by representatives of peasants, landowners and townspeople. The spheres of their activity covered almost all issues of local life.

The events of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907 forced the government to go for the transformation of the existing political system. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 “On Improving the Foundations of State Administration” gave the population freedom of conscience, speech, meetings, and unions. Soon the law on elections to the State Duma was adopted.

The Duma participated in the development of bills, considered the state budget, discussed the issue of building railways and founding joint-stock companies. Later, the State Council was reformed and became the upper legislative chamber. She received the right to approve or reject laws approved by the Duma.

Despite the preservation of legislative power, a step was taken towards the liberalization of society. The new political system was characterized by the fact that the legislative power belonged to the emperor and the bicameral parliament, and the highest executive power belonged to the emperor and the ministers responsible to him, the highest judicial and controlling power belonged to the Senate.