To the question what are the major construction projects of the 30s of the 20th century in Russia? given by the author Secondary the best answer is Industrialization is the process of creating a large, technically advanced industry, primarily industries that produce tools and means of production. The course towards industrialization was adopted at the XIV Congress of the CPSU (b) in December 1925. The congress set the task of transforming the USSR from a country importing machinery and equipment into a country producing them, and on this basis to achieve the technical and economic independence of the Soviet Union from the capitalist countries.
In 1927, the XV Congress of the CPSU (b) approved directives for the preparation of the first five-year plan.
The most important construction projects of the first five-year plan were the Magnitogorsk and Kuznetsk metallurgical plants, the Stalingrad and Kharkov tractor plants, and automobile plants in Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod.
The second five-year plan (1933 - 1937) was approved in 1934 at the XVII Congress of the CPSU (b).
The most important construction projects of the second five-year plan: the completion of the construction of the Ural-Kuznetsk Combine - the main coal and metallurgical base in the east of the country, the Ural and Kramatorsk heavy engineering plants, etc. The first metro line was opened in Moscow in 1935. New industrial regions were created in the Volga region, in the North Caucasus and in Transcaucasia, in Central Asia and in the Far East. Significant school construction was carried out. In total, 4,500 large industrial enterprises were built during the years of the second five-year plan.
The third five-year plan (1938 - 1942) was approved at the XVIII Congress of the CPSU (b) in March 1939. It was interrupted by the German attack on the USSR and, therefore, was not completed.
In total, 9,000 large industrial enterprises were built during the years of the five-year plans. Industrialization led to a significant growth of the working class (from 9 million in 1928 to 24 million in 1940) and the engineering and technical intelligentsia. A number of new cities appeared on the map of the country: Magnitogorsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Novokuznetsk, etc.
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Answer from Solovet[newbie]
The first metro stations.
Answer from Bulbozavr OOO[guru]
In the 30s of the last century, a powerful industry was formed in the country. Such significant for those times were built industrial enterprises, as the Ural Machine-Building Plant. Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Plant, Gorky Automobile Plant.
The GOELRO plan was carried out, and this is the construction of the Dnieper hydroelectric power station. This was the largest construction site in Europe at that time - the capacity of the first stage of the hydroelectric power station was 650 thousand kilowatts - the whole country was erecting. In the early 1930s, industrial enterprises were created in all union republics. This is the construction of the Turkestan-Siberian Railway" (1930), "Construction of the May 1 Dam on the Zeravshan River in Uzbek SSR"(1930), Development of the oil field in Baku" (1935). The creation of modern industry in all the Union republics had great value to eliminate the actual backwardness of the peoples, to ensure all-round progress in their development.
Between 1928 and 1941, 9,000 industrial enterprises were built in the USSR.
Cultural construction in the USSR in the 20-30s
Among the key factors that allowed the USSR in an unprecedentedly short historical period - by the end of the 30s - to become the second industrial power in the world (after the USA), was a qualitative turn in the sphere of cultural development of the masses. This social process entered the history of the country as cultural revolution . Its main tasks were to create an all-encompassing system of public education and enlightenment, to develop science and train the people's intelligentsia, to educate a person who is able to fruitfully participate in the construction of a new society, to familiarize working people with the spiritual riches developed by mankind. Emphasis in the development of Soviet culture was placed on enriching the peoples of the country with "the knowledge of all the riches that mankind has developed."
It was an extremely difficult task to make up in a short time what had been lost for centuries. Before the Great October socialist revolution three quarters of the Russian population were illiterate. Most of the peoples and ethnic groups, including the small peoples of the North, the Far East, and partly the North Caucasus, did not even have their own written language, and were at an extremely low level of cultural life. The situation was complicated by an acute shortage of trained or simply literate personnel, material and financial resources, the devastating consequences of the imperialist and civil wars, and foreign military intervention.
State, party and public organizations, overcoming difficulties, contradictions and mistakes, persistently solved numerous problems of radical restructuring of the whole matter of public education and enlightenment, the development of higher education, science and creativity, culture and life of workers, peasants, all sections of the population.
Already in the first days and months after the revolution, the Soviets in the center and locally took vigorous measures to preserve the cultural heritage of the past. Thus, on October 25 (November 7), 1917, the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee appointed commissars for the protection of museums and palaces; and on October 27 (November 9) the People's Commissariat for Education organized the registration of libraries, created a commission for accounting and control of the treasures of the Winter Palace.
In the first months Soviet power The Council of People's Commissars adopted a number of decrees on the accounting and registration of monuments of art and antiquity, on the prohibition of the export and sale of items of special artistic and historical significance abroad, on the preservation of libraries and book depositories, on the nationalization of the Tretyakov Gallery and other art collections, on taking under protection the estate of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana, about increasing funds (and this is with an extreme shortage of finances) for the deployment of cultural, educational and publishing activities.
At the height of the civil war, local Soviets, party and public bodies helped the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR to register and preserve more than 550 old estates, about a thousand private collections, 200 thousand works of art. The owners of these estates, valuable collections were given special letters of protection. “We walk without boots,” wrote a prominent historian, Deputy Commissar of Education M.N. Pokrovsky (1888-1932), - and the Hermitage, during the revolution and thanks to it, becomes the first collection of the world after the Louvre and the Vatican... art, which seemed to them completely alien, at critical moments did not allow these greenhouse plants, which are rare in our country, to be destroyed, and, starving and cold himself, warmed them up and left them for future generations.
As a priority, the Soviet government put forward the task of introducing the entire mass of working people, especially the younger generations, to literacy. For example, already on November 9 (22), 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars established by their decree the State Commission for Education, chaired by the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky, and on June 18, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted the Regulations on the organization of public education in the Russian Republic, according to which free and compulsory general and polytechnic education was introduced in the country for all children under the age of 17 years. In the autumn of 1918, the Regulations of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on the unified labor school of the RSFSR began to operate, a new spelling was introduced, a network of courses for the training of teachers capable of building a new school, raising a person in a person was unfolding. This was one of the main tasks of the Cultural Revolution. For “culture,” according to the apt statement of M. Gorky (1868–1936), “is violence organized by the mind against the zoological instincts of people.”
The network of primary, incomplete secondary and secondary schools has increased significantly: from 124,000 in the 1914/15 academic year. - up to 199 thousand in 1940/41 account. Accordingly, the number of students in schools increased from 9.7 million to 34.8 million. G.
A huge amount of work was done by the All-Russian Voluntary Society “Down with Illiteracy”, created in 1923, by volunteers from the kultariat and the Komsomol. For 1920–1940 60 million people were taught literacy. The general literacy of citizens aged 9 to 49 reached 87.4% in 1939. Soviet power helped 48 nations and peoples of the USSR, including 13 small peoples of the Far North, acquire national writing for the first time. Voluntarily accepted by the peoples In the USSR, the Russian language became a means of communication for more than 120 ethnic groups of the country, which opened wide access to the spiritual riches of national and world culture for all of them. The Russian people rendered enormous disinterested assistance to the nations and peoples of the USSR in the development of culture, the organization of book printing, the publication of newspapers and magazines in 60 languages, and the revival of various types of national arts.
In the 1930s, universal primary education became compulsory in the country, and the transition to compulsory seven-year education was completed. Secondary, general and special vocational education of young people developed intensively. This markedly affected the increase in the level of development of production, the growth of labor productivity and the rationalization movement. All expenses for education, including higher education, were covered by the state.
Qualitative shifts have taken place in the development of a network of higher educational institutions and in the training of specialists in various fields. The state, despite the tight budget associated with the speeding up of industrialization, found funds to finance universities, the number of which grew from 105 in 1915 to 817 in 1940. Accordingly, the number of students in them grew from 127 thousand to 812 thousand, or in 6.4 times. In 1937, in the USSR, there were almost twice as many university students per thousand residents as in England and Italy, and three times as many as in Germany. Workers' faculties played an important role in the training of workers and peasants. Those who successfully graduated from the workers' faculty had the right to enter universities without exams.
As a result, over the years of the military five-year plans, the number of specialists with higher education employed in the national economy grew from 233,000 in 1928 to 909,000 in 1940, that is, almost fourfold. With a general increase in personnel with higher education, priority was given to the training of engineers (1928 - 48 thousand, 1940 - 295 thousand).
The public education system created in the USSR provided a real right and free access to knowledge to all citizens, contributed to the socio-economic progress of society, the rapid development of science, literature and art.
The USSR Academy of Sciences became the leading scientific center. The Academies of Sciences of the Union Republics, created in the 1920s and 1930s, as well as numerous sectoral research institutes and laboratories, worked fruitfully. World recognition received the works of N.E. Zhukovsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, I.P. Bardina, V.I. Vernadsky, G.O. Grafty, P.L. Kapitsa, S.I. Vavilov, A.F. Ioffe, N.F. Gamaleya, I.M. Gubkina, L.D. Landau, S.V. Lebedeva, A.N. Tupolev, S.V. Ilyushin, V.M. Petlyakova, A.N. Nesmeyanov, I.P. Pavlova, D.V. Skobeltsyna, B.V., I.V. Kurchatov, F.A. Zandler, S.P. Queen and many others. population scientists in 1940 it reached 98.3 thousand people in the USSR against 11.6 thousand people in 1914. Soviet scientists made a huge contribution to solving the problems of technical and economic independence, strengthening the defense might of the USSR, and developing the scientific, technical and social progress of our Motherland .
Young Soviet literature left a deep imprint on social life, consciousness and spiritual life of people. Overcoming the difficulties of growth, negative nihilistic tendencies, ideological pressure of the political leadership, writers, poets, playwrights created many works, the value of which has not decreased over the past decades. The core of Soviet literature of those years was M. Gorky, D. Bedny, V.Ya. Bryusov, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, M.A. Sholokhov, A.A. Fadeev, F.I. Parfenov, A.S. Serafimovich, A.N. Tolstoy... At the same time, A.P. Platonova, M.A. Bulgakov, O.E. Mandelstam, B.A. Pilnyak.
The Soviet musical and theatrical art. It was in the 1930s that S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich, D.B. Kabalevsky, T.N. Khrennikov, Yu.A. Shaporin, B.V. Astafiev, I.O. Dunayevsky and others wrote works that were included in the golden fund of national and world culture. The network of theaters, clubs, palaces of culture, houses of pioneers, libraries, various cultural and educational societies and institutions grew rapidly. Almost re-created Soviet cinema by the beginning of the 1930s, about a thousand “silent” films were shown on the screens, and then up to 500 sound films. The progress in cultural construction can be judged from the data below in the table (figures at the end of the year):
Program implementation cultural revolution turned a previously semi-literate country into one of the most educated in the world, brought Soviet society to the heights of cultural progress of that time, became a prerequisite for strengthening the economic and defense power of the USSR, social progress society. The most important result of the first five-year plans was the formation of a multinational intelligentsia that emerged from the people. Most of the old intelligentsia went over to the service of the people. And although in the second half of the 1930s the intelligentsia suffered tangible losses due to Stalin's arbitrariness and mass repression, the process of its formation increased.
Thanks to the powerful industry created by the intellect and labor efforts of the people, the effective system of training specialists in all sectors of the national economy, and the cultural development of the people, the USSR won a historic victory over Nazi Germany in the Great Patriotic War.
Up to 12 km per day were manually laid, and not according to "an average of about 1.5 km per day, and on some days even 4 km."
"Russian miracle" in the black sands
The very intention of the Russian government to build a railway line through the Karakum desert caused a wide international response. And most of both domestic and foreign experts doubted the implementation of such a project.
American and European newspapers published ironic notes, the authors of which condescendingly called the project a "Russian utopia." But the construction of the road, which began soon, cooled the ardor of skeptics: Western press weekly printed reports on the progress of work as if they were military operations. This construction was so unusual that science fiction writer Jules Verne became interested in it. And already in 1892 his new novel, Claudius Bombarnac, describing the journey of a French reporter along the pre-existing Trans-Caspian Railway...
Transport problem
In the second half 19th century Russia controlled large areas of east coast Caspian Sea. The bridgehead created made it possible to continue the offensive deep into Central Asia, culminating in the annexation of part of the Khiva, Kokand and Bukhara possessions to the empire. But the remoteness of this is strategically important region from the European part of Russia created difficulties both in the management of the region and in the protection of new borders. In other words, it was necessary to solve the transport problem. St. Petersburg was urged to do the same by General Mikhail Skobelev, whose troops in 1880 were preparing to storm the Geok-Tepe fortress on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. Without taking it, there was nothing to think about further advancement deep into the Akhal-Teke oasis.
On July 9, 1880, the emperor ordered "to proceed without delay to the arrangement of the base and the transport of the necessary supplies to it by means of camels, horses and the decoville portable road" and "at the same time to proceed with detailed studies for the construction of a permanent railway." And already on July 27, 1880, General Annenkov was instructed to lead the construction of the first stage of the railway from Mikhailovsky Bay to Kizil-Arvat ...
From the Caspian Sea to Kizil-Arvat
In the same year, 1880, the 1st reserve railway battalion was formed, which included 25 officers, 30 technical engineers, doctors and representatives of other professions, as well as 1080 lower ranks various specialties. These were the builders of the first section of the future Trans-Caspian railway. It was originally intended to build a portable horse-drawn railway of the Decoville system here. However, it soon became clear that this was unrealistic: loose sands, dunes and an almost complete lack of water and fodder ... Without completely abandoning the use of the “carry”, Annenkov decides to build a steam railway and after 10 days (September 4) reports on the completion work. In response, another imperial command followed, ordering to continue laying the highway to Kizil-Arvat. Total length the road from Mikhailovsky Bay to this point was supposed to be 217 versts (230 kilometers). Exactly one year later (September 4, 1881) the first steam locomotive came to Kizil-Arvat, and from September 20, regular train traffic began along this route.
Transcaspian Railway was built in incredibly difficult conditions: it went through sand dunes, salt marshes and steppes, laid under the scorching sun, there was not enough water. To speed up the work, civilian workers from Russian provinces joined the military builders. But they, not accustomed to the hot climate, lack of water and local food, often got sick. It was decided to "mobilize" the Armenians from Baku, Shusha and Yelizavetpol, who were easier to endure hot climate and who spoke Persian and Turkic languages. It was they who helped Russian engineers and technicians to communicate with the Muslim population.
For the soldiers of the railway battalion, a special laying train was formed from 27 double-decker cars. They were adapted not only for housing, they housed kitchens and workshops, a dining room, a forge and warehouses, a telegraph office and a first-aid post. A building control center was also located here.
All necessary materials were delivered from Russia to the Mikhailovsky Bay by steamships, then the rails and sleepers were reloaded onto special trains. The construction was carried out according to high-speed American technology: trains, pushed from behind by steam locomotives, approached the place where the already built track ended. After laying every 100 fathoms of track, the material train moved forward along the laid line, and the work continued. The supply of materials was usually enough for two miles. When they ended, the train pulled back and stood at a specially designated dead end in order to let the next train with building materials pass. So it was possible to lay six miles of track a day. And for delivery to the construction site less heavy materials horse and camel transport was used. special problem represented the construction water supply. Water was delivered to completely waterless sections of the route by special trains and camels transporting it in cans.
Most of the road being built, which only occasionally crossed oases, passed through a clayey, saline, sandy desert, sometimes replaced by dunes. Flying sand, moving from place to place, fell asleep and destroyed sleepers, railway tracks, barracks for workers, rendered equipment unusable. But nothing could stop General Annenkov, who was in charge of the construction. Mikhail Nikolaevich came up with a new way to deal with moving sands: he ordered to plant saxaul bushes along the railway line being built. Annenkov's method turned out to be so effective and cost-effective that it was subsequently successfully used in the construction of railways in Algeria, Libya and the Sahara desert ...
However, the completion of the construction of this section was already carried out without General Annenkov. The war with the Tekins continued during construction, so that the soldiers of the railway battalion more than once had to take up arms. Mikhail Nikolaevich, having received a serious wound during the reconnaissance of the area in Yangi-Kala, was forced to leave his post. He returned to the Samur fortification and, having healed a little, was recalled to St. Petersburg, where he received a new appointment: he was ordered to lead the construction of strategic railways in Polissya.
Kizil-Arvat – Merv – Samarkand
After three years of active operation of the road, in April 1885 it was decided to continue it to the Amu Darya River: already on July 12 of the same year, the first rails from Kizil-Arvat were laid. The construction of the next section of the highway was again entrusted to Mikhail Annenkov. The pace of work increased sharply, already on November 29 the first steam locomotive arrived in Askhabad: 205 miles of track were laid in four and a half months. A solemn meeting was organized for the builders of the highway in the capital of Transcaspia.
But St. Petersburg demanded to speed up the construction. The 1st reserve railway battalion was renamed the 1st Transcaspian, and the 2nd Transcaspian railway battalion was formed to help it. The very next year, the battalions were united into a single railway brigade and replenished with special personnel companies.
On July 2, 1886, the road reached the city of Merv. When the first Russian train arrived here, according to the description of eyewitnesses, triumph and jubilation reigned in Merv ... This day, the commander of the 2nd Trans-Caspian railway battalion, Colonel Andreev, noted the corresponding order, which said: “Today, exactly a year after the start of laying the continuation Transcaspian military railway, after a long, persistent and hard work, amidst all sorts of hardships under the midday heat and in the cold, under snow and rain, along the rails laid by our battalion for 527 miles, the first Russian steam locomotive arrived in the city of Merv, located in the depths of Asia, on the most remote outskirts of our fatherland and of particular importance and importance in Central Asia ... From the first days of the formation of the battalion entrusted to me, he fell enviable share fulfill independent task- to lay a railroad to Asia, through the Trans-Caspian Territory and Bukhara to Turkestan. Now, thanks to the joint efforts of all the ranks of the battalion, who honestly and conscientiously worked for this cause, the vast task has already been half completed successfully, in one year 527 miles of track have been laid and 21 stations have been equipped with the conditions necessary for proper movement, which is still an unparalleled fact to this day. , since neither in Russia nor in other states where there are special railway units of the troops, such extensive tasks were not assigned to them and similar results were not achieved, and the lines built abroad had the value of only access, bypass or connecting roads of a very insignificant length ... "(TsGVIA, Kushkinskaya field company. Orders for the Turkestan brigade. Case 21, f. 5873-1, sheets 218-224).
The work continued in incredibly difficult conditions. The sandy section between Merv and Chardzhuy was especially difficult. At the slightest breath of a breeze, the crests of the dunes began to smoke, with a stronger wind, the contour of the area instantly changed. Where there was a sandy hill, a recess was formed, and a hillock grew in the place of the recess. It happened that they did not have time to make a canvas, as it was immediately destroyed, the recess was covered, and the embankment was blown out. However, despite such obstacles, the construction of the road proceeded quickly.
Having completed the most difficult area highways along the waterless expanses of the Karakum desert, on November 30, 1886, the builders reached the Amu Darya. By this time, the forces of the 1st Trans-Caspian Railway Battalion had built a 27-verst line from Mikhailovsky Bay to a new, more convenient port in the Caspian, Uzun-Ada, which from now on became the starting point of the Trans-Caspian Railway.
The lands beyond the Amu Darya belonged to the Emirate of Bukhara. The Russian government managed to agree with the emir on the continuation of the construction of a highway through his territory to Samarkand. And immediately stood in front of the builders the most difficult task- construction of a bridge across the Amu Darya. But General Annenkov coped with it too: in 124 days of continuous daily and night work the deed was done. Enterprising Annenkov built a wooden bridge with a length of 2 versts 247 fathoms. Such a length of railway wooden bridges has not yet been built by anyone and nowhere in the world! And therefore, the largest railway engineers of Europe and America specially came to admire this miracle of construction equipment.
And already in the summer of 1887, the 2nd Trans-Caspian Railway Battalion was ordered to begin laying the railway deep into Turkestan: from the Bukhara city of Chardzhui to the "Russian" Samarkand. The experience gained by builders in the Trans-Caspian Territory, and carefully carried out engineering surveys along the line of the new section, made it possible for General M.N. Annenkov to do this work under more favorable conditions. The pace of laying the canvas was increasing, and already in last days February 1888 the first train arrived in Bukhara. And then it took only a month to bring the canvas almost to the very border of the emirate ...
The first train, leaving Krasnovodsk, more precisely, from the Uzun-Ada station, arrived in Samarkand on May 15, 1888 - on the day of the anniversary of the coronation of Emperor Alexander III, during whose reign Central Asia was annexed to Russia. The completion of such a large-scale project literally amazed the entire civilized world: the construction railway line was called the construction site of the century, which from now on became known as the "Russian miracle".
The Trans-Caspian military railway was the first experience of building such a scale by the military department. The average cost of each of the 1,343 versts from Uzun-Ada to Samarkand was only 33,500 rubles. Such a quick and cheap construction of a road through the sandy steppe and the waterless expanse of the desert was carried out only thanks to the exceptional energy and heroic work of the builders. The hero of the Jules Verne novel mentioned above (alter ego of the author himself) states: “They often talk about the extraordinary speed with which the Americans laid railway track across the plains of the Far West. But let it be known that the Russians in this respect are in no way inferior to them, if not even superior, both in the speed of construction and in the boldness of industrial designs.
The merits of General Annenkov to the fatherland are truly difficult to overestimate. The construction of the Trans-Caspian military railway cost the Russian government only 43 million rubles. For comparison: not a single railway built in the country fit into such a modest amount. And this despite the fact that nowhere else had to face such difficulties in the delivery of equipment and building materials, the distance of their delivery, loose sands and waterless deserts, the scorching sun and hot steppe winds ...
Mikhail Nikolaevich Annenkov (1835–1899) was a hereditary military man. His father, Adjutant General Nikolai Nikolaevich, distinguished himself during Polish campaign. Then he was the commander of the Izmailovsky regiment, director of the office of the military ministry. Consistently held the posts of Novorossiysk and Bessarabian governor-general, state controller, Kyiv, Podolsk and Volyn governor-general. Was a member State Council. Mikhail Nikolayevich graduated from the Corps of Pages, then from the Academy General Staff, took part in the pacification of the Polish rebellion. In 1867 he published a series of articles on the use of railways in military affairs. In 1869 he was promoted to major general and appointed head of the movement of troops on all railways in Russia. His engineering and organizational talent brought many benefits to the fatherland during Russian-Turkish war. In 1879, Annenkov was promoted to lieutenant general. This was followed by a business trip to Turkestan for the construction of the Trans-Caspian military railway. He was the first head of the military communications department of the Transcaspian region. In the last years of his life, he held various responsible positions in Central Russia, in particular, led a special department public works to provide assistance to the population affected by crop failure ... But the main business of his life, which entered the name of Mikhail Nikolayevich in the annals of the fatherland, was, of course, the construction of the Transcaspian railway.
For the brilliant performance of an important and responsible work completed in such a short time, for impeccable honesty and dedication to M.N. Annenkov was awarded the diploma of Emperor Alexander III, granted the diamond badge of St. Alexander Nevsky and showered with other favors. And in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the existence of the railway, grateful Russia erected a monument to its worthy son on the forecourt of Samarkand. To the celebrations on this occasion in former capital empire of Timur were invited more than a hundred officials from various cities of Russia and the same number of guests from neighboring regions of Turkestan, local officials, officers and eminent citizens. Guests from Russia were met on the platform of the Samarkand railway station on October 20. And the next day at large cluster people in a solemn atmosphere, the opening of the monument to the general. It was a gray granite pedestal made of blocks, on which a bust was placed next to a double-headed eagle. On the front side of the monument there was an ornate inscription “General of Infantry Mikhail Nikolaevich Annenkov, builder of the Transcaspian military railway. 1835-1899". On the back side of the monument, facing the station, contained brief information: "The construction of the Trans-Caspian military railway was started on November 25, 1880, completed on May 15, 1888." The celebrations ended with a sumptuous dinner party at the Public Assembly given on behalf of the city. It was attended by 200 invited persons, both nonresident and local. Documents preserved in the archive testify that this feast cost the city treasury 1,400 rubles ...
AT Soviet time bust of M.N. Annenkov, double-headed eagle and both inscriptions were destroyed. On the vacated pedestal in September 1924, they erected the figure of the leader of the world proletariat. Accordingly, a new inscription appeared:
“... Leninism is alive. Lenin's ideas are just as firm and unshakable for us as this rock on which we perpetuated the memory of Ilyich. We will fulfill Lenin's precepts." Some time later, in the spirit of Stalinist agitation, a Soviet myth was created about the construction of this monument: “On the railway station square of ancient Samarkand, as a token of love for the great leader V.I. To Lenin, the workers, peasants, labor intelligentsia of the city erected with their own efforts majestic monument. On a huge block of marble, carved from a single rock in the Nurata mountains, a bronze figure of the leader was installed "This monument, which stood for the next seven decades, was then dismantled ...
(A grandiose reconstruction of Moscow began from the Soviet hotel "Moscow")
In the 30s of the 20th century, a grandiose reconstruction of Moscow was carried out, almost half of the city was redone. This was necessary, since after the revolution the city had a chaotic development option, and the population grew at a rapid pace.
In the 1930s, a voluminous series of works took place, at the end of the decade the capital became comfortable, new and clean, where it was very spacious. During this time was spacious modern look Moscow, which stood almost until the end of the 20th century in an unchanged state.
General plan for the reconstruction and development of Moscow 1935
(According to one of the options in the State Planning Commission, Red Square could be)
The history of the grand plan for the reconstruction of Moscow in 1935 began in the 1920s, when the Great Moscow project was created. According to this project, the city was supposed to grow not up, but in breadth. It was supposed to move around in cars. But in 1935 the plenum central committee The Bolshevik Party adopted a different plan: Moscow should become multi-storey, with wide avenues and rays diverging from the center - the streets, the communist city of the star.
Features of the architectural appearance of Moscow in the 30s
The main styles of Moscow architecture of this time are traditionalism and constructivism. Constructivism can be traced mainly in the final construction of buildings from the end of the 20s:
(State Library of the USSR. V. I. Lenin)
- State Library of the USSR. V. I. Lenin;
- STO House (1933-36) - modern. building State Duma in Okhotny Ryad;
- Crimean bridge(1936-38).
Traditionalism is based on the pre-revolutionary experience of architecture. This is how a residential building on Mokhovaya Street was built in 1934, where one of the favorite decorative techniques is used - the colonnade.
In construction, the old ones are being revived style features, architects are trying to combine the old and the new, this is how national schools and VDNKh pavilions are built.
Bright architectural buildings of the 30s in Moscow
- The first hotel built under the Soviet regime appeared. This project is character traits from the transitional period of constructivism to the Stalinist Empire style and was built from 1933 to 1936. The hotel was decorated with sculptures, paintings, panels, mosaics and looked very pompous.
(The building of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture of the 30s of the USSR)
- Narkomzem - the building was built in the style of late constructivism (1928 - 1933). This is a bold experiment in the application of new technologies in construction and the implementation of avant-garde design. This style assumed the frame system of the building. New materials have been applied, and rounded elements appear in the architecture of the building.
(How the house was moved in the Pravda newspaper)
(Sukharevskaya Tower on a postcard from 1927, will be demolished in the 1930s)
By the end of the 30s, the architecture of Moscow acquires a shade of ceremonial splendor. The era of the Stalinist empire begins.
Industrialization - the period from 1928 to 1941 (interrupted by the war), during which the Soviet government implemented the plans of the first three five-year plans, which made it possible to strengthen the industry of the USSR, as well as ensure the independence of the military-industrial complex and the main elements of the economy from Western countries. The beginning of industrialization should be sought in the twenties of the last century, which led to the introduction of the NEP. The first talk about a course towards industrialization (although it was emphasized that the USSR would still remain an agrarian country for some time) occurred in 1925.
For correct understanding essence of what is happening, it is necessary to single out 2 main tasks facing industrialization:
- To put the USSR in economic and industrial terms on a par with advanced countries peace.
- Complete modernization of the military-industrial complex and its independence from other countries.
Preparation for industrialization (period from 1925 to 1928)
In general, the path to industrialization was opened at the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1925 and the 16th Party Conference in April 1929, which resulted in the creation of the basic principles of development. There were 2 industrialization plans on the agenda:
- "starting". Indicators with the necessary minimum.
- "optimal". Overestimated figures, on average by 20%.
We know that the Soviet government has always taken on the impossible. Therefore, they chose the "Optimal" plan, which had inflated interest. The next important event took place in April 1926. For the first time in the Bolshevik Party, the idea of building socialism in the USSR, without regard to other countries, won. Let me remind you that Lenin and Trotsky were supporters of the world revolution. They believed that first it was necessary to overthrow the bourgeoisie wherever possible, and only then engage in socialism. Stalin said that the USSR is a unique product, they need to cherish and build socialism here and now. In the end, Stalin's approach won out. But I want to note that the new path fundamentally contradicted the ideology of Marxism. Here important point is that industrialization itself has become not just an economic means, but also a political one.
In the fall of 1926, the Bolsheviks put forward a new slogan (they loved this business): "Catch up and overtake the capitalist countries!" It was impossible to do this under the conditions of the NEP, which was already rotting in its liberalism and petty trade. Therefore, more and more people supported the idea of starting industrialization in the USSR, as the only way to catch up with the countries of Europe and the USA.
In April 1929 the next party congress approved the "optimal" plan for the first five-year plan. Above, we have already talked about what kind of plan it is. The main thing in this regard is the construction of new industrial facilities (factories and factories). In total, it was planned to build 1200 new large objects. I must say right away that in the future this plan was revised 2 times in the direction of reducing volumes, but more on that later. The priority was given to production facilities and heavy industry. 78% of all budget revenues were allocated for the implementation of this idea.
Sources of industrialization
Industrialization required huge amounts of money. This is logical, because the construction of industry requires big money and does not give every minute returns. But the only way to save the economy of the USSR. And the leadership of the party began to seek means for creating industry by all available means:
- International trade. The Soviet government sold oil, timber, flax, gold, and grain to Europe. Grain, timber and oil were in the greatest demand. In total, they brought annually more than 2 billion rubles.
- Collectivization actively worked for industrialization. Agricultural products were taken almost for next to nothing and transferred to the needs of industry.
- Complete abolition of private (retail and wholesale) trade. All privileges of the NEP were abolished. It happened in 1933. Let me remind you that the share of NEPmen in the retail market was 75%.
- Creation of deficits. The population was purposefully limited in everything in order to invest everything in industry as much as possible. As a result, the standard of living of people in the USSR in 1933 fell by 2 times compared to 1928!
- Ideological setting of citizens. All party organizations inspired people with a sense of patriotism and duty in order for them to work better. What actually happened.
- Special means.
What is special equipment for industrialization
What is meant by "special equipment"? In 1917, the Bolsheviks carried out a massive expropriation. Funds went to Swiss banks ( Finance center Europe), from where they could be used for the needs of the revolution in other countries. These funds were allocated to specific accounts and to specific people. They were representatives of the Leninist Guards.
During the NEP period, money was also received, and they also went to accounts in Swiss banks. There were only about 100 leaders of the Leninist Guard who had accounts in foreign banks. I repeat it was not their personal money, but it was in personal accounts. Since there is no world revolution, they lay like a dead weight. And the amounts were huge - an average of 800 million dollars (you just need to remember that the dollar then, compared with the modern one, must be multiplied by 20-25). That is, these were huge sums, and in the 1930s, Stalin received this money and, in many respects, thanks to them, industrialization in the USSR took place.
Stalin's personal intelligence went through Western banks and, bribing employees, she brought out those people who had money in their accounts. Because Stalin simply could not know this. He was not in this game by that time. This was done along other lines, for example, along the Commentary. Then the so-called Stalinist terror began, when they began to arrest representatives of the Leninist guard. At first they were given very moderate sentences. But few people know that these terms (5-7 years) were an exchange for their funds in Swiss banks. These are the very special means that have solved many problems.
At the same time, a terrible crisis was raging in the world, which went down in history as the Great Depression. Thanks to this crisis, the Soviet government managed to buy up the industrial objects that they needed literally for next to nothing. There is one more moment, which stories very rarely talk about. At the same time, the US lost the UK market and was forced to look for new ones. One of them was precisely the market of the USSR. So, part of the industrialization in the USSR was carried out with the money of American billionaires.
Progress of industrialization
Period before the start of work on the first five-year plan
In fact, by 1928, a situation had developed in which all the available resources of the USSR were thrown into the creation of industry. Stalin already then said that without industry, the USSR would be destroyed and crushed, most likely by war (surprisingly, Stalin was almost never wrong in his forecasts).
Three five-year plans were allocated for industrialization. Let's take a closer look at each five-year plan.
First Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1928 to 1932)
Technique is everything!
The slogan of the first five-year plan
The first five-year plan was to produce up to 60 large enterprises. In total, let me remind you, it was originally planned to build 1200 objects. Then it turned out that there was no money for 1200. We allocated 50-60 objects, but then it turned out again that 50-60 objects were also very many. Ultimately, a list was drawn up of 14 industrial facilities that were to be built. But these were really large and necessary facilities: Magnitka, TurkSib, Uralmash, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, DneproGES and others, no less significant and complex. 50% of all money was spent on their construction.
In total, the following indicators were declared as optimal:
- Industrial output = +136%;
- Labor productivity = +110%.
The first 2 years of the first five-year plan showed an excess of the plan, industrialization went on full swing, resulting in missions being increased by 32%, and then another 45%! The leaders of the USSR assumed that an infinite increase in the plan would lead to all greater efficiency labor. Somewhere this happened, but most often people began to engage in “additions”, when the indicators were given deliberately false. True, if this was revealed, then the person was instantly accused of sabotage, and at best, a prison followed.
The first five-year plan ended with the fact that the leadership of the USSR proudly reported that the plan was overfulfilled. In fact, it didn't even remotely resemble reality. For example, labor productivity increased by 5%. On the one hand, it’s not bad and there is progress, but on the other hand, it was said about 110%! But here I want to warn everyone against hasty conclusions. Despite the fact that almost all the indicators announced before the five-year plan were not met, the country made a gigantic breakthrough. The USSR received industry and an excellent base for further work and growth. And this is the most important thing. Therefore, the result of the first five-year plan of industrialization in the USSR must be assessed positively.
Second Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1933 to 1937)
Frames are everything!
The slogan of the second five-year plan
The first five-year plan laid the foundation, created a quantitative indicator. Now quality is required. And it is no coincidence that the construction projects of the first five-year plan are immediately remembered, but the construction projects of the second five-year plan are not. The point is not that construction has become worse or ambitions have disappeared, but that industrialization has switched to next level. That is why in these years it was not enterprises that were already heard, but individuals - Stakhanov, Chkalov, Busygin and others. And this emphasis on quality paid off. If from 1928 to 1933 labor productivity increased by 5%, then from 1933 to 1938 by 65%!
Third Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1938 to 1941)
The third five-year plan was started in 1938, but was interrupted in 1941 due to the outbreak of war.
The Third Five-Year Plan began in 1938, and the plan for it was approved at the 18th Party Congress in 1939. The main slogan of this stage in the development of the USSR was - Catch up and overtake Western countries in production per capita. It was assumed that this should be achieved without reducing the cost of the military-industrial complex. But since the war broke out in Europe literally less than a year later, spending was more focused on the military-industrial complex. The main emphasis of the third five-year plan was placed on the chemical and electrical industries. The measure of the activity of the five-year plan was that the national gross income should have doubled. This was not achieved, but the reason for this was the war. Still, the five-year plan was interrupted 2.5 years before its completion. But the main thing that the Soviet government managed to achieve was that the military-industrial complex became completely independent from other countries, and the growth of industry reached a stable + 5/6% annually. And this is a direct result of industrialization in the Soviet Union.
What did the Five-Year Plans give the country and their significance for Industrialization
Since the task was to create industrial society, then the results should be evaluated based on the response to main question. And it sounds like this - "Was the USSR or not a fully industrial country?". This question cannot be answered unambiguously. Yes and no, but in general - the problem was solved. I'll prove it with an example. Official figures they say that 70% of the national income came from industry! Even if we assume that these figures are overestimated (the leadership of the Central Committee of the CPSU liked to do this) and the share of industry in the national income was 50%, these are in any case colossal figures, which are far from being reached by very many of modern powers. And the USSR passed this way in just 12 years.
I will also give some figures on the development of the USSR in the period from 1922 to 1937:
- Up to 700 factories and plants were put into operation annually (the lower figure is 600).
- By 1937, industrial growth was 2.5 times faster than in 1913.
- The volume of industry grew significantly, and according to their indicator, the USSR came out on the 2nd place in the world. Let me remind you that in 1913 the Russian Empire ranked 5th in the world in this indicator.
- The USSR became a completely independent state in terms of military and economic from other countries. Without this, it was impossible to win the war.
- Complete absence of unemployment. It is noteworthy that in 1928 it was 12%, but thanks to industrialization, everyone worked in the USSR.
The working class and its life
The main idea of industrialization was to provide every person with a job and to ensure tight control over him. In principle, this was achieved, although even Stalin's rule did not have complete control over the minds of the workers.
Beginning in 1932, the USSR introduced mandatory passports for everyone. In addition, punishments for violation of discipline in the workplace were toughened. For example, if a person did not show up for work without good reason- Immediate dismissal. At first glance, it seems cruel, but the fact is that the then Soviet worker is a former peasant who is used to being watched in the village, controlled and told what to do. In the city, he received freedom, after which many "blew their heads off." Therefore, it was necessary to induce social discipline. It must be said, truthfully, that even the Stalinist regime failed to achieve social discipline in Soviet society to the end.
In 1940 (this was due to the preparation for the war), the worker lost the right to move to another place of work without the permission of the administration. This decision was reversed only in 1955.
In general, the life of an ordinary person was extremely difficult. The card system was abolished in 1935. Now everything was bought for money, but the prices were, to put it mildly, high. Judge for yourself. The average monthly salary of a worker in 1933 was 125 rubles. Wherein:
- 1 kilogram of bread cost 4 rubles.
- 1 kilogram of meat cost 16-18 rubles.
- 1 kilogram of oil cost 40-45 rubles.
Now think about what a worker could afford in 1933? By the end of the 30s, the material situation of the workers improved somewhat, however, they still felt whole line problems.
Intelligentsia under Industrialization
As for the intelligentsia and engineers, the 1930s was certainly a period when the intelligentsia and engineers lived very well. Almost everyone had housekeepers, they receive a good salary. The authorities tried to provide conditions comparable to those of 1913 for that part of the intelligentsia that went into the service of the regime. Let me remind you that, for example, in 1913 a professor received the same salary as a minister.
Specialism and its peculiarity
Since very often the plans were not fulfilled, they decided to introduce such a thing as pests, or people who interfere with the formation of Soviet power. In 1928-1931, the Spetsiedstvo company was launched. During this company, up to 1000 old specialists from various fields were expelled from the country. They were also accused of not understanding the tasks of socialism. And it became one of business cards industrialization.
What is a specialty? I will explain on specific example. For example, they tell an engineer that they need 200% productivity. He says that it is impossible, the technique will not stand. Conclusion Soviet official- the specialist thinks in bourgeois categories, against socialist construction, which means that he needs to be driven out of the country.
In parallel with this, there was a process of creating new workers and promoting new personnel. They were called "Promoters". According to the results of the first five-year period, their number amounted to 1 million people. But by the middle of 1931, it became clear that these new cadres were one of the main brakes on industrialization. And Stalin solved this problem - he returned old specialists to their positions, gave them good salaries, and forbade the nominees to conduct negative campaigning against these specialists. So Spetsiedstvo was discontinued, and the nominees were practically over.
Economy of the USSR towards the end of industrialization
It is very interesting how administrative methods and cost accounting methods were combined. In 1934, self-financing was introduced everywhere. Everything was fine for 2 years. Then in 1936 - again strict administrative control. And so on the cycle. That is, there was a constant combination of administrative methods and cost accounting methods.
The first five-year plans did the main thing - they created industry and created a new economy. Thanks to this, the USSR had a future. But this is where it starts main brake– many departments and ministries. In total, 21 of them were created. The industry was divided between monopolies, and while there were few of them, the State Planning Commission managed to grind them together. However, over time it became more difficult, and the creation of the plan gradually turned into an administrative arbitrariness. And already in the 50s, the planned economy in the USSR was very, very conditional.
In any case, industrialization in the USSR was an extremely important step that provided the country with industry and a real economy that had an efficient orientation and was able to live independently of other countries.
