Abraham Harold Maslow
FAR
LIMITS
HUMAN
PSYCHES
^"ONE"!"!Saint-Petersburg Eurasia Publishing House would like to thank Vadim Albertovich Kiprushkin Abraham Harold Maslow for his assistance in the publication of this book.
Far limits of the human psyche / Perev. from English. A. M. Tatlybaeva. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 1999.-432p.
ISBN 5-8071-0018 This book is the second, revised edition of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. This theory is based on the difference between lower (imperfect) and higher (growing) needs.
The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in the history and theory of psychology, human sciences.
ISBN 5-8071-0018-2 c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1 c Losev P. P., design, 1999 c Eurasia Publishing House, 1999 On the ways of humanization Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY www.koob. en
1.0 humanistic biology
2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development
3. About self-actualization and what goes beyond it Part II. CREATIVITY
4. Creativity and readiness for it
5. Holistic approach to creativity
6. Emotional barriers to creativity
7. The need for creative people Part III. VALUES
8. Merging the real and the valuable
9. Notes on the Psychology of Being
10. Documents of the symposium on the problem of human values Part IV. EDUCATION
11. The Knower and the Known
12. Learning and higher experiences
13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education Part V. SOCIETY
14. Synergism in society and in man 2
15. Questions for regulatory social psychologist 2
16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238
17. About eupsychic management 2
18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 2 Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE
19. Notes on Naive Cognition 2
20. Further Notes on Cognition 271 Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND
PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING
21. Different Meanings of Transcendence 2
22. Theory Z 2 Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION
23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots of Higher Values 3
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On the Paths of Man's Incarnation Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. A year-long postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were the behaviorists Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon, and Harry Harlow. His dissertation research on dominance and sexuality in primates was done under the direction of Harlow.
After two years as an assistant to Thorndike at Columbia College, Maslow took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and left it only in 1951.
During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow interacted with large quantity scholars primarily associated with Columbia University and The New School Social Research. He met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan, Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Anshbacher and fell under the influence of their ideas.
At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research on an Indian reservation and wrote a section on cross-cultural psychology for Ross Stagner's book The Psychology of Personality. In the mid 40s. Maslow was in contact with Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who was doing medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study women's sexual behavior at Brooklyn College. But a potential collaboration between the two scientists was frustrated. However, the research method discovered by Maslow was used by Kinsey later.
www.koob.ru Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his papers published in 1943, Dynamics of Personal Organism On the Paths of Humanization and Human Motivation Theory. This topic was developed by him in detail in the book Motivation and Personality (1954).
Abraham Harold Maslow is a brilliant thinker dealing with issues of abnormal psychology, human motivation and personality, known as the founder of humanistic psychology, as the creator of the theory of self-actualization.
His theory of focusing on the distinction between lower (imperfect) and higher (growing) needs is not accidental. At that time, two major currents dominated world psychology: behaviorism, which was criticized for the mechanistic approach to human psychology by analogy with animal psychology, for considering human behavior as completely dependent on external stimuli, and psychoanalysis, which was considered the best system analysis for psychopathology and possible psychotherapy, but not sufficient to explain human thinking and behavior in general, since, according to Maslow, human nature is far from being as bad as people think it is.
No less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the work of the Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Goldstein, to whom he dedicated his book On the Psychology of Being. In the preface, Maslow wrote:
To sum up in one sentence what humanistic psychology means to me, I would say that it is the integration of Goldstein (and Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic psychologies), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers at the University of Wisconsin.
Maslow owes his theory to Kurt Goldstein, and he borrowed the term from him. Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of self-actualization into science, but, being a neurophysiologist, he understood this as a certain tension that would make further ordered activity of the organism possible. Goldstein argues that the normal body can temporarily delay eating, sleeping, sex, and so on if other motives cause it. For Goldstein, as for Maslow, self-actualization does not mean the end of problems, on the contrary, growth can often bring a certain amount of suffering. Goldstein wrote that the abilities of the body determine its needs, for example, the presence of muscles requires movement, etc.
Maslow freely defines self-actualization as the full use of talents, abilities, opportunities, and the like, as a process of self-realization of human potentials. I imagine a self-actualized person not as an ordinary person to whom something has been added, but as an ordinary person from whom nothing has been taken away.
The average person is a kind of human being, with stifled and suppressed abilities and talents.
Initially, Maslow's research on self-actualization was driven by his desire to more fully understand two of his most inspiring ways of humanizing human teachers - Ruth Benedict, who originally used the term synergism to refer to the degree of interpersonal cooperation and harmony in society, and Max Wertheimer, whose work is about www.koob.ru productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on cognition and creativity. Although they were very different people, and they were engaged in research in different fields, Maslow felt that they had a level of personal accomplishment in both professional and personal lives that he rarely observed in others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant scientists, but also deeply accomplished, creative people. He began to record the results of his observations in a notebook in order to understand what makes them so special.
This was his first step in the study of the problem of self-actualization, which subsequently lasted for the rest of his life.
The far reaches of the human psyche is one of the best works of Abraham Maslow, his final work, a book about mental health, creativity, values, education, society, transcendence and metamotivation.
In order to explore the limits of human possibilities, it is necessary to study the best of individuals; according to Maslow, so to find out how fast people can run, you need to study the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to do " average sample from the population of the city.
Abraham Harold Maslow was a theoretical psychologist. He did not conduct large and thorough experimental studies, according to him, he simply did not have enough time for this. He spent more pilot studies, but not for publications, but to confirm their own hypothesis.
For his first study, Maslow chose people who did not have
significant personal problems, not subject to neurosis and, most importantly, making the best use of their talents and abilities. His sample consisted of eighteen people, nine of whom were Abraham Maslow's contemporaries and nine of whom were historical figures:
Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams, Aldous Huxley, Baruch Spinoza and others.
By according to Maslow, the self-actualizing people he studied were not perfect and were not without the opportunity to make big mistakes.
In addition, they had many of the problems of ordinary average people:
anxiety, guilt, internal conflicts, etc.
Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not the absence of problems, but the movement from transient and unreal problems to real problems.
Book Maslow Far the limits of the human psyche is the culmination of his reflections on self-actualization. In it, Maslow describes the ways in which an individual can self-actualize:
On the path of human incarnation
Self-actualization is an experience full, alive, selfless, with full concentration and full absorption;
Taking responsibility for your actions;
To be actualized means to exist really, physically, and not only potentially;
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Self-actualization is not a thing, it is a long process like the Buddhist path of enlightenment;
Self-actualization is a test of peak experiences. Peak experiences are transitional moments of self-actualization, the pinnacle of our experiences that arise when strong feeling love, exceptional beauty, works of art... "Peak experience" is a generalization best moments human life.
As a result of studying Maslow's self-actualization revealed that some of the self-actualizing individuals tended to experience many peak experiences, while others experienced them very rarely or not at all. He divided self-actualizing people into mentally healthy, productive people with little or no experience of peak experiences, and people for whom the experience of peak experiences was important and central.
In the chapter Transcendence and the Psychology of Being, Maslow describes over twenty ways of experiencing transcendence. This is the Transcendence of time, culture, the past, the inner Ego, basic needs, love, other people's opinions, one's own weakness, one's own will, dichotomy, mystical experience, the Transcendence of Vice, etc. Maslow claims that transcendent personalities tend to identify themselves with their abilities, profession. For example, I am a doctor, I am a mathematician.
Many people who have access to mystical experiences are not mentally healthy and not productive, which Maslow considered essential properties of self-actualization, further noting that he met just as many transcending people among businessmen, teachers, politicians, as among those who are considered closer to this musicians, poets, priests, etc.
Before Maslow, there were many different theories of motivation. However, they did not differ in the necessary completeness. Maslow brought some clarity to this problem. He made an attempt to hierarchize motives. According to its hierarchy, physiological needs (food, sleep, etc.) form the basis. Next come the levels of higher needs: the need for security, love, and respect. The highest level is occupied by meta-needs - the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth. As lower needs are met
stey immediately appear others - higher needs, and begin to dominate in the body. When they are satisfied, new needs come on the scene, of an even higher level, and so on. Metamotivation is based on the needs and values of growth. It is precisely this motivation, according to Maslow, that is inherent to a greater extent in self-actualizing individuals, in whom, in his opinion, lower motives are satisfied. Each level of metamotivation corresponds to certain levels of complaints. Complaints concerning the lack of safety precautions, the arbitrariness of the authorities, irregular working hours, etc. - these are complaints of the level of fundamental needs. The levels of higher complaints lie in the areas of recognition and self-respect: at these "levels, the problems of pride, autonomy, self-respect, respect from others are important, feelings are relevant self-importance, encouragement, praise, trust from others. Higher-level complaints are about things that damage a person's self-esteem.
www.koob.ru Meta-complaints are about the frustration of meta-needs. These include the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth, etc.
When representatives of the women's committee burst in and complain excitedly that the roses in the park are not well maintained, this in itself is wonderful, because it indicates the high standard of living of those who complain.
In the book The Far Beyond the Human Psyche, Maslow introduces a new concept - mentally healthy individuals, which should be understood as mature people, with a high degree self-actualization, and develops the theory of a mentally healthy society, a society that favors the most full development and realization of human potential. Maslow believed that society should consist of mentally healthy, pre-human, self-actualized individuals. However, even ideal society. According to Maslow, the teacher or culture does not make the person. Rather, they enable, encourage, encourage to become real and relevant.
Maslow describes a mentally healthy society as opposed to authoritarian business management, where the authoritarian manager believes that workers and management have completely opposite, incompatible goals: workers want to earn as much as possible with minimal effort, and therefore they must be well looked after.
Democratic management assumes that workers want to be creative and productive, that they need support and approval; suspicious, hostile people, perhaps, will work better in an authoritarian system and use freedom unproductively. The theory of a mentally healthy society applies only to those who can take responsibility and enjoy self-government. Therefore, a mentally healthy society should consist of self-actualized people.
On the way to the incarnation of man
In the chapter Synergy (the term was first used by Ruth Benedict and means joint action) Maslow writes about synergy in individuals when the success of others is the basis complete satisfaction for the individual, and help is offered freely and for granted. Thus, identification with others promotes high individual synergy.
Synergy can exist within the individual. In the long term, a person must do what he needs to do, because he wants to do it.
In his book The Far Reach of the Human Psyche, Maslow touches upon the problems of education. He rightly believes that teaching dance, art or other physical means expressions - important point traditional education: physically and sensory oriented subjects require active participation students. According to Maslow, love, respect, a sense of security, fundamental needs, equally important for everyone, but, unfortunately, in most textbooks on psychology, the word "love" is not even mentioned.
Maslow introduces a new concept of plateau-experience, plateau-cognition.
The key is the plateau experience. This type of consciousness has something in common with the peak experience, but it is a different type of experience. Here the author used the image of a high plateau. According to Maslow, a plateau experience means to live at a constantly high level in the sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen, in the ease of the miraculous...
www.koob.ru this means accepting the sharpness and accuracy of the beauty of things, but not making a big fuss out of it ... But at the heart of plateau experiences, peak experiences, according to Maslow, are only positive emotions.
Maslow's theory of self-actualization is a theory of growth, the consistent satisfaction of higher needs. An individual cannot begin the path to self-actualization if his lower needs are not satisfied: security, love, respect.
Self-actualization involves the development of abilities to the maximum possible, self-actualizing personalities are attracted to difficult, intricate problems that require maximum creative effort.
Abraham Maslow considers defense mechanisms as obstacles to personal growth, and he himself adds two more types of defenses: desacralization and the Jonah complex.
The volitional component is not specifically considered by Maslow; according to Maslow, self-actualization means work - doing well what one wants to do. Becoming a second-rate doctor is not the way to self-actualize. A person wants to be first class, or as good a doctor as possible for him. Maslow believes that on the paths of humanizing a person, a mentally healthy individual is free from internal conflicts, and the will is needed in order to develop one's abilities and talents.
Abraham Maslow is rightfully considered the best specialist in the realm of human potentiality. His merit is colossal, he founded a new "ap^enie in modern psychology, the subject of study of which is
-^ization of personality, its highest values and meanings, -b-^^^^^^ freedom, responsibility, autonomy, mental health, transcendence, etc.
Akulina N.N.
Part I Health and Pathology 1 About Humanistic Biology* My studies in psychology made me think about many things, and some of these thoughts did not fit into the framework of traditional psychology - according to at least within the framework of the psychology that I once studied.
Having become interested in the problems of psychology in the thirties, I very soon discovered that they could not be solved by obeying the structure of psychological science that had developed by that time (behavioristic, positivist, scientific, non-judgmental, mechanomorphic psychology). And then, quite naturally, I had doubts about the correctness of the structure itself, and these doubts prompted me to start looking for other approaches to solving the problems facing psychology. Over time, the results of my research have developed into a philosophical concept www.koob.ru, which includes not only psychology, but also science as such, as well as religion, production, management, and now biology. Essentially, I would call it a worldview (Weltanschauung).
Today's psychology is not united, it is split into many currents.
If we try to somehow streamline the current state of psychological science, we can say that there are at least three psychologies and, accordingly, three disparate groups of scientists.
The first of these are behaviorists1, objectivists, positivists, mechanists. Second * These are extracts from notes I wrote in March-April 1968 at the request of the director of the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, in the hope that they would help to abandon the safe concept of biology and adopt a humanistic philosophy of biology. In these notes, I have left aside questions of what is obviously borderline in biology and have devoted myself to what, in my opinion, has not been considered before, or has not been noticed, or has been misinterpreted - from my psychological point of view.
Health and pathology
includes a friendly shoot, nurtured on Freud's psychoanalysis2.
The third group is humanistic psychologists3, or, as it is also called, the Third Force, which united scientists who could not accept the views of the first two groups. It is about this, the third direction in psychology, that I am going to speak. I interpret this third psychology as a science that has absorbed the achievements of the other two psychologies, and therefore I will use such terms as epi-behaviorism and epi-Freudianism (epi means after). These terms will help us avoid superficial oppositions such as Freudian-anti-Freudianism. I am a Freudian, and I am a behaviorist, and I am a humanist, and for that matter, all my activity is aimed at developing the fourth psychology - the psychology of the transcendent.
Here I speak only for myself. Even among humanistic psychologists there are those who are more inclined to list the behaviorists and psychoanalysts as their opponents than to admit that they have an equal right to occupy their branch on the flowering tree of science. It seems to me that psychologists of this kind fall into an anti-scientific, and perhaps even irrational ecstasy about the role of experience. And since I, in turn, consider experience only as the initial stage of cognition (a necessary but not sufficient stage), and since I believe that our ultimate goal should be the dissemination of knowledge much more general and comprehensive than the current psychology, it is better for me to speak only on my own behalf.
It is my choice and my mission to think freely, build theories, play with conjectures and assumptions - in a word, try to penetrate into the future. It is rather a pioneering activity, the work of a pioneer to put forward a bold hypothesis and go in search of new, still unexplored lands, rather than development, sowing and care, irrigation and reclamation activities of the painstaking work of experimenters.
Of course, the latter form the backbone of science, but it still seems to me that it would be a mistake to think that the task of scientists consists only in scrupulous work with facts.
A pioneer, creator, researcher, as a rule, acts alone. Tormented by fears and doubts, prone to self-justification, he nevertheless challenges people's ignorance, pride, and sometimes even paranoia4. He must be brave, must not be afraid to look ridiculous, must not be afraid of mistakes and constantly remember that he is, as Polanyi (126) said, a kind of player who is completely absent. Based on the facts, he risks making the most daring assumptions, and then for several years tries to find confirmation of them. If he is not insane, then he cannot fully believe his own assumptions and must be perfectly aware that he is betting on something he is not sure about. This is how I present my conjectures and assumptions here.
About Humanistic Biology
I believe that we cannot avoid discussing the question of evaluative biology, even if by doing so we call into question the entire history and philosophy of Western science. I am convinced that the nonjudgmental, neutral model of science inherited by biology from physics, chemistry, and astronomy, where it was not only desirable but necessary, to keep the church from interfering with scientific research- this model is completely unsuitable for scientific knowledge alive. And it is even more obvious that this non-judgmental philosophy of science is not suitable for the study of such a complex species what a person is. Here such concepts as values5, aspirations, goals, intentions become of paramount importance:
only by operating with them, one can come closer to comprehending the laws of human life, and, consequently, to solving classical problems science - prediction and management.
I am well aware of the heated debates that take place within the framework of evolutionary theory, in which such words as directions, goals, teleology, vitalism are exaggerated. These debates, in my opinion, are confusing and unproductive. I want to move the discussion of these problems to the realm of psychology, where they can be presented more prominently and where more direct ways to solve them can be found.
Within the framework of evolutionary theory, disputes are still possible about autogenesis in evolution, about whether the movement and direction of development are not caused solely by a combination of circumstances, pure chance. To me, such reasoning seems to be an excessive luxury, they are simply impossible when we are dealing with living people. After all, no one will undertake to claim that this or that person became a good doctor by chance - no one will take such a statement seriously. That is why I reject all arguments about mechanical determinism6 and do not consider it necessary to put forward any arguments in favor of my decision.
Good people and statistics of the best
I dare say that in order to study the possibilities of human nature, it is necessary to select from the population its healthiest, best specimens, such that would surpass the rest in many respects. Let me give you some good evidence to support this assertion.
In my research, I have come across the fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization7 are the healthiest in psychological sense people have very high rates of development of cognitive and perceptual abilities8. Their superiority over other people can be detected even at the sensory level; it would not surprise me in the least if, for example, some experiment discovered in them the ability to distinguish the subtlest shades of color. One experiment that I once started and not completed can serve as a model for this kind of trials with
www.koob.ruHealth and pathology
biological material. My idea was to test all the freshmen at Brandeis University using best practices of that time, namely, a psychiatric interview9, projective tests, achievement tests10, - and break them into several groups. The first of them would include two percent of the most psychologically healthy students, the second - two percent of average healthy, and, finally, the third - two percent of the least healthy representatives of the population. These three groups were then planned to be explored extensively with a battery of sensory, perceptual, and cognitive personality tests to test the clinically observed assumption that people with higher mental health scores more accurately and accurately reflect reality. I had no doubt that this assumption would be confirmed. Then we planned to observe these people, and not only during their four years of study at the university, when we could compare the data obtained with their performance and achievements in various areas of university life.
I was hoping that we would be able to start a longitudinal study." The idea was to observe these people throughout their lives to get irrefutable evidence our hypothesis about human health. Some evaluation criteria were obvious, such as, for example, longevity, resistance to psychosomatic diseases, infections, etc.
P. But we also hoped that the study would reveal other characteristics that we did not expect. In essence, that study was to repeat the California study of Lewis Terman, who selected children with high IQ12 scores about forty years ago and then observed them for several decades, and continues to do so today.His discovery was that people who were selected in childhood in an experimental group13 only on the basis of intelligence, now adults, are superior to their peers from control group for all parameters tested. From this, Lewis draws the following conclusion: all the best in a person, all the qualities that one can wish for him, are positively correlated14 with each other.
The significance of this kind of research lies primarily in the fact that it radically changes our view of statistics, and especially of that section of it that is in charge of selecting material for experiment. I want to bluntly call it the statistics of the best.
If one asks what are the capabilities of man as a biological species,15 then this question should be attributed to a small select group of people rather than to the entire population as a whole. In my opinion, the main reason for the failure of hedonistic and ethical theories lies in the fact that philosophers confused the pathological desire for pleasure with healthy and did not even mark the line between normal and pathological, between biologically healthy and unhealthy individuals.
About Humanistic Biology
In order to find out how tall a person can be, it is quite obvious that you need to select the most tall people and study them. In order to find out how fast a person can run, you do not need to calculate the arithmetic average speed of all mankind as a whole, you just need to take the Olympic champions in running and see how well they do it. If we want to know the possibilities of the spiritual and personal growth man, his moral development, then here, I am sure, we will learn more by studying the most righteous, most respectable representatives of the human race.
www.koob.ru On the whole, I think it would be fair to say that the history of mankind is a series of testimonies of how society does not value the individual. The highest impulses human soul almost always underestimated. And even when good people - saints, sages, great figures of the era - attracted the attention of philosophers and scientists, the latter rarely resisted the temptation to explain their spiritual superiority by the presence of the divine principle.
Humanistic biology and the good society
Now it is already obvious that the full actualization of human capabilities, meaning society as a whole, can take place only under certain favorable conditions. Or, to put it even more directly, for a person to be good, he needs good conditions life and good environment. On the other hand, I believe that the normative philosophy of biology should adopt the theory of the good society, which could be based on the following definition: A good society is a society that favors the fullest development and development of human potential. Probably, such terminology initially shocks classical biologists, who are inclined only to describe the human environment and have learned to avoid such words as good and bad. But if they think carefully, they will find that similar image thoughts and terminology are far from new to classical biology. For example, biologists have long used the term possibilities when they talk about genes, the actualization of which depends on how favorable the conditions prevailing in the plasma of the embryo, in the cytoplasm, in the body as a whole, and also on geographical conditions that surround this organism.
Summarizing the results of experiments on laboratory rats, monkeys and human beings (11), it can be argued that the stimulating effect of the environment in the early life of an individual has a very specific effect on the development of the cerebral cortex, to which stimulation is usually directed. Behaviorists studying primate behavior at Harlow Laboratories came to a similar conclusion. Animals, on wounds
Health and pathology
At these stages of life, isolated from their own kind, they lose the possibilities genetically inherent in them, and one day these losses become irreplaceable. One more example. Laboratory scientists Jackson in Bar Harbor found that feral dogs, accustomed to life in a pack, can no longer be tamed again.
Finally, many Indian children have recently been reported to have irreversible brain changes due to a lack of protein in their diet. If we agree with the obvious assumption that the reasons for this lie in a certain political and economic structure of Indian society, in the features of its cultural and historical development, then it becomes impossible to deny that a person, as a representative of a biological species, at least for the reproduction of full-fledged, healthy individuals good society is needed.
Is it possible for the philosophy of biology to develop in social exclusion, was politically neutral, not utopian, not eupsychic, so that she would not preach reformist and revolutionary ideas? Of course, I am far from thinking that the task of biology is the social reorganization of society. I believe that this is a matter of personal taste, and I fully admit that some biologists, concerned that their knowledge remains unclaimed, wanting to put their discoveries into practice, will go into politics. But I'm not talking about that now. I suggest that www.koob.ru biologists study humans like any other species, not only by describing and stating facts, but also by evaluating them. And when they take this approach, they will understand that the main task of human biology is the breeding of a full-fledged, healthy breed of man, and that the fulfillment of this task is unthinkable without studying all those conditions that favor or, on the contrary, hinder the full disclosure of human capabilities. And for this, obviously, biologists will have to leave their laboratories and plunge headlong into public life.
Good people as an example for everyone
Numerous studies carried out by me in the thirties allow me to assert that the most psychologically healthy people (as well as the most creative, strongest, most intelligent, most righteous) should be used as biological material for exploration, or, metaphorically speaking, they can and should be used as trailblazing pioneers to tell us, show us, and lead us, less inquisitive, less sensitive, less courageous, into as yet unknown, unexplored territories. Let me give you an example as an illustration. It is easy to find people who are especially sensitive to the perception of color and form, and rely on their judgments regarding color, dressing, shape of furniture, fabrics and other things. Even without intruding into the pro-humanist biology of the perception process16 of these people, just by carefully observing it, I will soon be able to predict with certainty which shades and shapes they will like and which they will not. In a month or two I will find that I like the same things that they like - as if they, these people, settled in me and at the same time I became more sensitive or, if you like, more confident and decisive in my assessments. That is, I can use them as a kind of expert, just like a collector who buys something for his collection seeks the advice of an art historian. (This idea is supported by the research of Child (22), who found that good painters have similar tastes regardless of artistic preferences and cultural environment who raised them.) I also assume that such people in lesser degree than others, are subject to various kinds of predilections and that their tastes and evaluations depend less on external influences, fashion than the tastes and evaluation of the majority.
Thus, based on the above example, I conclude that by identifying the qualities that distinguish the most psychologically healthy individuals17 from the rest, I will understand what a person should be like. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of Aristotle: If a good person says that this is good, then this is really good.
It is an empirically established fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization are much less likely than the bulk of people to doubt themselves, think less about whether they are doing right or wrong. They are not at all embarrassed that ninety-five percent of humanity does otherwise. And I must say that these people - at least those of them whom I studied - showed a tendency to equally evaluate the facts, what is good and what is bad, as if they sensed some higher reality that lies beyond human consciousness. , and did not base their assessments on worldly experience, which, as you know, often suffers from one-sidedness and bias. In a word, I used them to produce value, or, better to say, they helped me get closer to understanding what is most important for a person.
In other words, I made the following assumption: what is valuable to these people will eventually become valuable to me; I will agree with them, I will accept their values as extrapersonal, universal, as something that sooner or later will confirm life.
My theory of metamotivation"8 (chapter 23) is based on this. I selected these prominent people who not only have the ability to perceive facts, but also know how to identify the most important, isolate the valuable, in order to use these values as an example to follow and a model for the whole species.
I understand that I am saying almost provocative things now, but I do it deliberately. If I wanted to, I could put my thought in a much more innocent way, for example, simply by asking questions like: Yes, Health and pathology, let's select the most psychologically healthy people, I wonder what they like? What drives them? What are they striving for, what are they fighting for? What do they appreciate? But I want to be understood correctly, and therefore I deliberately pose questions about norms and values to biologists (as well as to psychologists and social scientists).
It may be useful to look at the problem from a different angle. If we agree with the conventional wisdom that man is an animal capable of choosing and making decisions, then the theme of choice and decision must inevitably be present in any attempt to describe man. But a good choice and correct solution are directly related to the quality specific person, from his wisdom, from his determination. And then you have to answer next questions: What kind of people make good choices? Where do such people come from? How do they grow? How do they learn to do it? What stops you from making a good choice? What helps it?
Of course, this is just another way of asking the old philosophical question: What is wisdom? Who is the sage?, and behind him the ancient axiological questions: What is good? What is desired? What should you desire?
I repeat: humanity has reached such a point biological development when it is responsible for its evolution. We have become self-evolvers.
And evolution involves selection, choice and decision-making, and therefore - the distribution of assessments.
The connection between consciousness and body It seems to me that we are about to make a leap towards bringing the subjective indicators of our life and external, objective indicators of the environment into a qualitatively new ratio. And in this regard, I expect a powerful breakthrough in the study of the human nervous system.
The following two examples may serve as confirmation that future research in this direction is not far off. First, the study of Olds (122), now widely known, who, by implanting electrodes into the septal zone of the rhinencephalon, found that this zone was essentially a pleasure center.
When a lab rat found that it could stimulate its brain, it repeated the auto-stimulation over and over again as long as the electrodes were implanted in that very pleasure center. Needless to say, when the animal was given the opportunity to stimulate the found centers of displeasure and pain, it refused to do so. The stimulation of the pleasure center was, apparently, so significant (or rather, desirable, pleasant, beneficial, useful) for the animal that it even refused all other sources of joy, such as food, sex, any. We now have enough human data to suggest that it is also possible for humans - in a certain sense of the word - to induce similar experiences of pleasure.
If we connect these data with others, for example, with those obtained by Kamiyya (58) in his experiments, then interesting possibilities open up before us. Kamiyya, taking electroencephalograms from his subjects, notified them when the frequency of their alpha waves reached a certain level. Thus, the subject, having the opportunity to correlate an external event, or a signal about it, with a subjective feeling of his state, could arbitrarily control his EEG. In essence, Kamiya showed that a person can bring the frequency of their brain's alpha waves to a certain desired level.
But the most important and exciting part of this research is that Kamiya discovered, and discovered quite by accident, that bringing the frequency of alpha waves to some specific level causes a state of serene peace, meditative T and even a feeling of happiness in the subject. Further study of people practicing Eastern contemplation and meditation techniques showed that they spontaneously produce the same serene EEGs that Kamiya taught his subjects. It follows irrefutably that people can be taught happiness and peace of mind. The revolutionary consequences of this discovery are obvious and numerous - not only for the improvement of the human race, but also for biological and psychological science. This discovery alone is fraught with so many possibilities that scientists would have enough work for the next century. The problem of the relationship between the body and consciousness, the problem of the connection between them, which until now seemed insoluble, is now becoming quite operable.
Such data allow us to take a different look at the problem of evaluative biology. Today, without any reservations, we can say that a healthy organism clearly and clearly tells us what it considers important for itself, what it tends to choose, or what state of affairs it considers desirable for itself. Does it still look too bold if I call it values? Biological values? Instinct-like values? If we write: A laboratory rat, having the ability to press two buttons that cause stimulation of its brain, in almost one hundred percent of cases presses the one that causes stimulation of the pleasure center, is this description really fundamentally different from what we would say: For a rat, autostimulation of the pleasure center is important, does the rat appreciate this opportunity?
I must say that it doesn't matter to me whether I use the word value or not. It is possible to perfectly state everything that I state without using this term at all. Perhaps, for the purposes of scientific strategy, or at least in order to be understood by the general scientific community, I should have been more diplomatic and avoided the word. But I really don't think it matters. It is important that we seriously rush from Health and Pathology to these new developments that help to understand the psychology and biology of choice, preferences, pleasures and the like.
I should also stress that we are going to be faced with the logical circularity dilemma that inevitably arises when designing www.
Koob.ru this kind of theories and research. It is most obvious when dealing with human material, although I assume that it cannot be avoided in the study of other animals. It is already contained in the very statement that good people or healthy animals choose or prefer this and that. Where do we get away from the fact that sadists, perverts, masochists, homosexuals, neurotics, psychotics, suicidals prefer and choose something completely different than good people do? Perhaps it would be appropriate here to draw a parallel between this fact and the fact that the choice of an animal with a high content of adrenaline in the blood differs from the choice of the so-called normal individual? I must immediately clarify that I do not consider this problem insoluble at all - it does not need to be avoided, it can and should be worked with. It's quite easy to pick healthy people through psychiatric and psychological tests vi then conclude that subjects who perform such and such results in, say, a Rorschach test19 or intellectual tests, will be most effective compared to others in food selection. The selection criterion in this case will be completely different from the behavioral criterion. I consider it possible, and even very likely, that we are now closer than ever to proving through experiments with autoneurostimulation that the so-called feeling of pleasure experienced by murderers, sadists, fetishists, is not inherently the pleasure that was caused in their experiments Olds and Kamiya.
Actually, this has long been known to psychiatry. Any experienced psychotherapist knows that behind neurotic pleasures or perversions, as a rule, there are resentment, pain and fear. Yes, and our subjective experience says the same. We know enough people who have experienced both healthy and unhealthy feeling pleasure. As a rule, they prefer the first and learn to suppress the second. Colin Wilson (161) has clearly shown us that people who commit sexual crimes have very weak sexual responses. Kirkendel (61) also showed that for a person, sex as a manifestation of love is subjectively more significant than sex in its pure form.
I work with a number of assumptions generated by the humanistic approach I mentioned above. These assumptions show the possibility of radical consequences for human philosophy and biology.
We can definitely say that they force us to pay even more attention to the self-regulation of the body, its self-government and self-fulfillment. The body has a much stronger drive for health, growth, and biological success than we might have imagined a hundred years ago. In cehumanistic biology, this tendency expresses the desire of the organism for autonomy and independence, it is anti-authoritarian in nature. In this regard, I want to turn to Taoism. Its fundamental principles have already been assimilated by modern ecology and ethology, where researchers have learned not to interfere in the phenomena and processes they study, and I believe that a similar position must be adhered to when we are dealing with a person, and especially with a small person. Such a position means trust in the craving inherent in every child to spiritual growth and self-actualization, here the emphasis is on the spontaneity and independence of the organism, the predictability of the result and external control are denied. I will quote the main thesis from my The Psychology of Science (81).
In the light of these data, can we seriously continue to believe that the goals of science are prediction and control? After all, almost every one of us is more likely to say the exact opposite - at least in relation to a person www.koob.ru. Do we want others to predict our actions? Do we want to be controlled and managed?
I won't go too far and bring up the old classic question of free will again. But I will say that the questions that arise here and need to be considered do concern the fact that any person would rather feel free than enslaved, with the right to choose than without such a right, etc. In any case, I can confidently state that any normal person does not like to be controlled. He prefers both to feel free and to be free.
There is one more, very general, atmospheric, consequence this method thinking, namely - it will help to change the image of a scientist, change not only in his own eyes, but also in the representation of the entire population.
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Current page: 1 (the book has 29 pages in total)
Maslow Abraham Harold.
The far reaches of the human psyche
/ Transl. from English. A. M. Tatly-
Abraham Harold Maslow
Abraham Harold Maslow
HUMAN
St. Petersburg
For help in the publication of this book
the publisher thanks
Kiprushkin
Vadim Albertovich
Maslow Abraham Harold.
Far limits of the human psyche / Perev. from English. A. M. Tatly-
buy. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia,
ISBN 5-8071-0018-2
This book is the second revised edition of the final
th work of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. AT
The basis of this theory is the difference between inferior (imperfect) and
higher (growing) needs.
The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in history.
and the theory of psychology, the sciences of man.
ISBN 5-8071-0018-2
c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1997
c Losev P. P., design, 1999
c Publishing house, 1999
Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY
1.0 humanistic biology
2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development
3. About self-actualization and what comes out
outside of it
Part P. CREATIVITY
4. Creativity and readiness for it
5. Holistic approach to creativity
6. Emotional barriers to creativity
7. The need for creative people
Part III. VALUES
8. Merging the real and the valuable
9. Notes on the Psychology of Being
10. Documents of the symposium on the problem
human values
Part IV. EDUCATION
11. The Knower and the Known
12. Learning and higher experiences
13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education
PART V SOCIETY
14. Synergy in society and in man 211
15. Questions for the normative social psychologist 224
16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238
17. On Eupsychic Management 249
18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 251
Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE
19. Notes on Naive Cognition 263
20. Further Notes on Cognition 271
Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND
PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING
21. Various Meanings of Transcendence 281
22. Theory Z 292
Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION
23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots
higher values 313
APPS
Appendix A: Comments on the work
Values, and Peak-Experiences > 357
Appendix B: Some analogies between
sexually dominant behavior of the lower
primates and fantasies of patients
in psychotherapy (A. G. Maslow,
X. Rand, S, Newman) 365
Appendix C: Adolescence and Youth
delinquency in two different cultures
(A. G. Maslow, R. Diaz-Guero) 383
Appendix D: Criteria for Attributing Needs
into the category of instinct-like 393
Appendix E: Abraham G. Maslow:
Bibliography 405
Notes 416
Bibliography 424
incarnation
human
Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. annual
postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell
University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he
transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in
psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were
Behaviorists: Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon and Harry
Harlow. His dissertation research on dominant T and
sexuality in primates was done under the guidance of Harlow.
After two years as an assistant to Thorndike at Columbia
Maslow College took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and
left him only in 1951.
During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow
communicated with a large number of scientists, mainly associated with
Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. He
met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan,
Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Ansh-
Baher and fell under the influence of their ideas.
At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research in
Indian Reservation and wrote a section on intercultural psychology in a book
Ross Stagner. In the mid 40s. Maslow
contacted Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who
conducted medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study
sexual behavior of women at Brooklyn College. But potential
the cooperation of the two scientists was upset. However, Maslow's discovery
research method was used by Kinsey later.
Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his
On the ways of incarnation of man
zations> i. This topic was them in detail
developed in a book (1954).
Abraham Harold Maslow - a brilliant thinker dealing with questions
abnormal psychology, human motivation and personality, famous
as the founder of humanistic psychology, as the creator of the theory
self-actualization.
His theory, focusing on the difference between inferior (imperfect)
and higher (growing) needs is not accidental. At that time in the world
psychology was dominated by two major currents: behaviorism, which
criticized for the mechanistic approach to human psychology according to
analogies with animal psychology, for considering the human
behavior as completely dependent on external stimuli, and psychoanalysis,
which was considered the best system of analysis for psychopathology and
possible psychotherapy, but insufficient to explain
human thinking and behavior in general, since, according to Maslow,
No less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the works
Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Goldstein, whom he
dedicated his book. In the preface, Maslow wrote:
psychology, then I would say that this is Goldstein integration (and
Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic
psychology), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers at Wisconsin
university>.
It is Kurt Goldstein Maslow who owes his theory, he and
borrowed the term. Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of
self-actualization, but, being a neurophysiologist, I understood by this
a certain voltage
orderly activity of the organism. Goldstein claims that
a normal body can temporarily delay eating, sleeping, sex, and so on.
Maslow, self-actualization does not mean the end of problems, on the contrary, growth
can often bring a certain amount of suffering. Goldstein wrote,
that the abilities of an organism determine its needs, for example,
the presence of muscles requires movement, etc.
Maslow freely defines self-actualization as
talents, abilities, opportunities and the like>, as a process
self-realization of human potential.
self-actualizing person, not like an ordinary person who
something is added, but like an ordinary person from whom nothing is taken away.
The average person is a kind of human being, with muted and
suppressed abilities and talents>.
Maslow's early research on self-actualization was
motivated by his desire to more fully understand his two most inspiring
t / a ways of humanizing a person
teachers - Ruth Benedict, who originally used the term
to indicate the degree of interpersonal cooperation and
harmony in society, and Max Wertheimer, whose work is about
productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on
knowledge and creativity. Although they were very different from each other
people, and they were engaged in research in different areas, Maslow
felt they had some level of personal accomplishment as in
professional as well as in his personal life, which he rarely observed in
others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant scientists, but also deeply
perfect, creative people. He began to record the results of his
observations in a notebook to understand what makes them so special.
This was his first step in the study of the problem of self-actualization,
which subsequently lasted the rest of his life.
- one of the best work
Abraham Maslow, his final work, a book on mental health,
creativity, values, education, society, transcendence and
metamotivations.
To explore the limits of human possibilities,
it is necessary to study the best of individuals; according to Maslow,
the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to do an "average
sample" from
population of the city.
Abraham Harold Maslow was a theoretical psychologist. He didn't spend
large and rigorous experimental studies, he said,
he just didn't have time for it. He spent more
research>, but not for publications, but to confirm their own
hypotheses.
For his first study, Maslow chose people who did not have
significant personal problems that are not subject to neurosis and, most importantly,
making the best use of their talents and abilities. His
The sample consisted of eighteen people, nine of whom were
contemporaries of Abraham Maslow, and nine historical figures:
Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams,
Aldous Huxley, Baruch Spinoza and others.
According to Maslow, the self-actualizing people he studied did not
were perfect and were not deprived of the opportunity to make major mistakes.
In addition, they had many of the problems of ordinary average people:
anxiety, guilt, internal conflicts, etc.
Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not the absence of problems, but
transient and unreal problems to real problems>.
Maslow's book is the culmination of his
reflections on self-actualization. In it, Maslow describes the ways in which
An individual can self-actualize:
On the path of human incarnation
- self-actualization
full concentration and complete absorption>;
- accepting responsibility for one's actions;
To be actualized means to exist really, physically, and not only
potentially;
- to be updated - to develop abilities,
choices in food, music, profession, marriage;
– self-actualization is not, it is a long process, similar to
the Buddhist path of enlightenment;
Self-actualization test. - This
transitional moments of self-actualization, the pinnacle of our experiences,
that arise with a strong feeling of love, exceptional beauty,
works of art...
moments of human life.
As a result of studying self-actualization, Maslow found that some of the
self-actualizing individuals sought to experience many
While others have experienced them extremely rarely
or not experienced at all. He divided people self-actualizing
on mentally healthy, productive with little experience
and generally without it, and on people for whom experience
was important and central.
In the chapter Maslow describes from above
twenty ways to experience transcendence. This is the transcendence of time
culture, past, inner ego, basic needs, love,
someone else's opinion, own weakness, own will, dichotomy,
mystical experience, Transcendence of vice, etc. Maslow claims that
transcending personalities tend to identify themselves with their
abilities, profession. For example, .
Many people who have access to mystical experiences are not
mentally healthy and not productive that Maslow
considered essential properties of self-actualization, further noting that
he met as many transcending people among businessmen,
teachers, politicians, as well as among those who are considered closer to this -
musicians, poets, priests, etc.
Before Maslow, there were many theories of various nature.
motivation. However, they did not differ in the necessary completeness. Maslow
brought some clarity to the problem. He made an attempt
hierarchy of motives. According to its hierarchy, the basis is
physiological needs (food, sleep, etc.). Next come the levels
higher needs: the need for security, love and
respect. The highest level is occupied by meta-needs - the need for
perfection, justice, beauty, truth. As satisfied
lower needs
On the way to the incarnation of man
other needs immediately appear - higher needs, and begin
dominate the body. When they are satisfied, they go out to
scene new needs, even higher levels, and so on. AT
metamotivation is based on the needs and values of growth. Just such
Motivation, according to Maslow, is inherent in a greater degree of self-actualizing
individuals who, in his opinion, are satisfied with lower
motives. Each level of metamotivation corresponds to certain levels
complaints. Complaints regarding lack of safety, arbitrariness
bosses, irregular working hours, etc. - these are complaints of the level
fundamental needs. The levels of higher complaints lie in the spheres
recognition and self-respect: at these "levels, issues of pride are important,
autonomy, self-respect, respect from others, relevant
feelings of self-importance, encouragement, praise, trust from
surrounding. Top-level complaints are about what is detrimental
person's self-esteem.
Meta-complaints are about the frustration of meta-needs. These include
the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth, etc.
excitedly complaining that the roses in the park are not well cared for,
wonderful in itself, because it indicates the height of the standard of living
complaining>.
In Maslow's book, he introduces a new
concept - to be understood
how and develops
theory of a mentally healthy society, a society that
favors the fullest development and realization of human
opportunities. Maslow believed that society should be made up of
mentally healthy, self-actualized
individuals. However, even an ideal society cannot create them. By
Maslow's words,
enable, favor, encourage to become real and
up-to-date>.
Maslow describes a mentally healthy society as opposed to
that workers and management have completely opposite,
incompatible goals: workers want to earn as much as possible with
with minimal effort, and therefore they must be well looked after.
Democratic governance assumes that workers want to be
creative and productive that they need support and
approval; people are suspicious, hostile, maybe
use freedom. The theory of a mentally healthy society is applicable
only to those who can take responsibility and enjoy
self-government. Therefore, a mentally healthy society should be
of self-actualized people.
On the way to the incarnation of man
In chapter (the term was first used by Ruth Benedict and
stands for joint action) Maslow writes about synergy in
individuals when the success of others is the basis of complete
satisfaction for the individual, and help is offered freely and as
due. Thus, identification with others promotes
high individual synergy.
Synergy can exist within the individual. In perspective man
must do what he has to do, because he wants to do
In his work, Maslow
touches on educational issues. He rightly believes that learning
dance, art or other physical means of expression is an important
moment of traditional education: physically and sensually
oriented subjects require active participation
students. According to Maslow, love, respect, a sense of security -
fundamental needs equally important to all,
Unfortunately, most psychology textbooks don't even mention
the word "love".
Maslow introduces a new concept, .
The key is. This type of consciousness has something
in common with, but it is a different type of experience. Here the author
used the image. According to Maslow,
means
sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen, in the lightness of the miraculous...
it means accepting the sharpness and precision of the beauty of things, but not making them
this big noise...> But basically,
lie, according to Maslow, only positive emotions.
for example, under the influence of fear.
Maslow's theory of self-actualization is a theory of growth, consistent
satisfaction of higher needs. The individual cannot begin the path to
self-actualization, if his lower needs are not satisfied:
security, love, respect.
Self-actualization involves the development of abilities to the maximum
possible, self-actualizing personalities are attracted to difficult,
intricate problems that require maximum creative effort.
Defense mechanisms Abraham Maslow considers as obstacles
personal growth, and itself adds two more types of defenses: desacralization
The volitional component is not specifically considered by Maslow; according to Maslow,
wants to do. Becoming a second rate doctor is not the way to go.
self-actualization. Man wants to be first class, or so
a good doctor, as far as it is possible for him>. Maslow believes that
On the paths of incarnating man
a mentally healthy individual is free from internal conflicts, and
the will is needed in order to develop one's abilities and talents.
Abraham Maslow is rightfully considered the best specialist in the field
human potentiality. His merit is colossal, he founded
new development in modern psychology, the subject of which is
yav ^ t ^ osny ch ^ man of the highest manifestations. ^
-^ization of personality, its highest values and meanings, -b-^^^^^^ freedom,
responsibility, autonomy, mental health, transcendent
tion, etc.
Akulina N.N.
Health and pathology
About Humanistic Biology*
My studies in psychology made me think about many things, and
some of these reflections did not fit into the traditional
psychology - at least within the framework of the psychology that once
I was trained.
Having become interested in the problems of psychology in the thirties, very soon
I found that they cannot be solved by obeying the structure
psychological science that had developed by that time (behavioristic,
positivist, nonjudgmental, mechanomorphic
psychology). And then, quite naturally, I had doubts about
the correctness of the structure itself, and these doubts prompted me to start
the search for other approaches to solving the problems facing psychology. So
over time, the results of my research have developed into a philosophical
concept that includes not only psychology, but also science as
such, as well as religion, production, management, and henceforth
biology. Essentially, I would call it a worldview (Weltanschauung).
Today's psychology is not united, it is split into many currents.
If you try to somehow streamline the current situation
psychological science, we can say that there are at least
at least three psychologies and, accordingly, three disparate groups of scientists.
The first of these are behaviorists1, objectivists, positivists,
mechanists. Second
* These are excerpts from notes written by me in March-April 1968 on
at the request of the director of the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, in the hope that
they will help to abandon the safe concept of biology and take on
arming the humanistic philosophy of biology. In these notes I
left aside questions of the apparently borderline in biology and devoted himself to
to what, in my opinion, has not been considered before, or was not
noticed, or was misinterpreted - from my, psychological,
points of view.
Health and pathology
includes a friendly shoot, nurtured on Freud's psychoanalysis2.
The third group are humanistic psychologists3, or, as
it is also called, uniting scientists who do not
were able to accept the views of the first two groups. It is about this, the third
direction in psychology, I'm going to talk. I interpret this
third psychology as a science that absorbed the achievements of the other two
psychology, and therefore I will use terms such as
and (means). These terms
help us avoid superficial oppositions, such as
I am a Freudian, and I am a behaviorist, and I am
humanist, and if it comes to that, then all my activities are aimed at
the development of the fourth psychology - the psychology of the transcendent.
Here I speak only for myself. Even among psychologists
of the humanistic direction, there are those who are rather inclined
record behaviorists and psychoanalysts in the camp of their opponents than
to admit that they have an equal right with them to occupy their branch on
flowering tree of science. I think that this kind of psychologists fall into
into anti-scientific, and perhaps even irrational ecstasy about the role
And as I in turn consider
only as an initial stage of cognition (a necessary stage, but
insufficient) and since I believe that our ultimate goal should
become the dissemination of knowledge much more general and comprehensive,
than modern psychology, it is better for me to speak only from my own
It is my choice and my mission to think freely, to build theories,
play with conjectures and assumptions - in a word, try to penetrate into
future. It is rather a pioneering activity, the work of a pioneer -
put forward a bold hypothesis and go in search of new, more
unexplored lands than development, sowing and care, irrigation and
land reclamation measures of painstaking work of experimenters.
Of course, the latter form the backbone of science, but it still seems to me that
scrupulous work with facts.
A pioneer, creator, researcher, as a rule, acts in
alone. Tormented by fears and doubts, prone to self-justification,
he nevertheless challenges human ignorance, pride, sometimes even
paranoia4. He must be brave, must not be afraid to look
funny, should not be afraid of mistakes and constantly remember that he and
is, as Polanyi said (126), a kind of player who, with full
missing facts, runs the risk of making the most daring assumptions, and
then for several years trying to find confirmation of them. If a
he is not a madman, then he cannot fully believe his own
assumptions and should be well aware of the fact that he
puts on what is not sure. This is how I present mine here.
conjectures and assumptions.
About Humanistic Biology
I think we can't avoid discussing evaluative biology,
even if by doing so we call into question the whole history and philosophy
western science. I am convinced that the nonjudgmental, neutral model of science,
inherited by biology from physics, chemistry and astronomy, where it was
not only desirable but necessary to keep the church from
intervene in scientific research - this model is completely unsuitable for
scientific knowledge of the living. And it is even more obvious that this priceless
philosophy of science is not suited to the study of such a complex biological
the kind that a person is. Here such concepts as values5,
aspirations, goals, intentions are of paramount importance:
only by operating with them, one can approach the comprehension of the laws
human life, and consequently to the solution of classical
tasks of science - prediction and control.
I am well aware of the heated debates going on within
evolutionary theory and in which such words as
directions, goals, teleology, vitalism. These debates, in my opinion,
confusing and unproductive. I would like to move this discussion to
sphere of psychology, where they can be represented more convexly and where one can
find more direct ways to solve them.
Within the framework of evolutionary theory, disputes about autogenesis in
evolution, about whether the movement and direction of development are caused
purely by coincidence, pure coincidence. me
such reasoning seems to be an excessive luxury, it is simply
impossible when we are dealing with living people. After all, no one
will undertake to assert that this or that person has become a good doctor
accidentally - no one will take such a statement seriously. Exactly
therefore, I reject any discussion of mechanical determinism6 and do not
I consider it necessary to put forward any arguments in favor of my decision.
Good people and statistics
I dare say that in order to explore the possibilities of human
nature must be selected from the population of its healthiest, best
specimens, such as would excel the rest in many
indicators. Let me give you some good reasons to support this.
statements.
In my research, I have come across the fact that people with a high degree of
self-actualization7 - the most psychologically healthy people -
have very high rates of development of cognitive and perceptual
abilities8. them over the rest of the people can
be detected even at the sensory level; I wouldn't be surprised at all
if, for example, some experiment found in them
the ability to distinguish subtle shades of color. One once begun
by me and an experiment that has not been completed can serve as a model for
samples of this kind
Health and pathology
My intention was to
test all freshmen at Brandeis University,
using the best methods of that time, namely, psychiatric
interviews9, projective tests, achievement tests10 – and break them down into
several groups. The first of these would include the two percent of the healthiest
in the psychological sense of students, in the second - two percent
average healthy, and finally, in the third - two percent of the least healthy
representatives of the population. These three groups then we planned
explore thoroughly with a battery of tests that identify
sensory, perceptual and cognitive characteristics of a person in order to
to test the hypothesis based on clinical observations about
that people with higher mental health scores
more accurately and accurately reflect reality. I had no doubt that
this assumption is confirmed. Then we were supposed to watch
these people, and not only during the four years of their training in
university, when we could compare the received data with their
academic performance and achievements in various areas of university life.
I hoped that we would be able to start a longitudinal study. "The idea
was to observe these people throughout
their lives, to obtain irrefutable evidence of our hypothesis about
human health. Some evaluation criteria were obvious,
such as, for example, longevity, resistance to psychosomatic
diseases, infections, etc. But we also hoped that during
research reveals other characteristics that we do not
assumed. In fact, that study should have been repeated
California study by Lewis Terman, who for about forty years
back selected children with high IQ12 scores and then observed
them for several decades, which he continues to do and
now. His discovery was that people selected in childhood
experimental group13 only on the basis of intelligence, now
adults are superior to their peers from the control group in all
the parameters they checked. From this, Lewis draws the following conclusion: all
the best in a person, all those qualities that one can only wish for him,
are positively correlated14 with each other.
The significance of this kind of research lies primarily in the fact that it
radically change our view of statistics, and especially that of its
section, which is in charge of the selection of material for the experiment. to me
I want to name it without prejudice.
If you ask yourself what are the capabilities of man as a biological
type15, then this question should be attributed rather to a small selected
group of people than to the population as a whole. In my opinion, the main
the reason for the failure of hedonistic and ethical theories lies in
that philosophers have confused the pathological desire for pleasure with
healthy and did not even mark the line between the norm and pathology, between
biologically healthy and unhealthy individuals.
About Humanistic Biology
To find out how tall a person can be,
it is quite obvious that you need to select the tallest people and study
them. In order to find out how fast a person can run, you do not need
to derive the arithmetic average speed of all mankind as a whole, -
you just need to take the Olympic champions in running and see
how well they do it. If we want to know the possibilities
spiritual and personal growth of a person, his moral development, then
here, I'm sure we'll learn more by studying the most righteous, the most
respectable representatives of the human race.
On the whole, I think it's fair to say that the story
of mankind is a series of testimonies of how society does not
Maslow Abraham Harold.
The far reaches of the human psyche
/ Transl. from English. A. M. Tatly-
Abraham Harold Maslow
Abraham Harold Maslow
HUMAN
St. Petersburg
For help in the publication of this book
publishing house<Евразия>thanks
Kiprushkin
Vadim Albertovich
Maslow Abraham Harold.
Far limits of the human psyche / Perev. from English. A. M. Tatly-
buy. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia,
ISBN 5-8071-0018-2
This book is the second revised edition of the final
th work of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. AT
The basis of this theory is the difference between inferior (imperfect) and
higher (growing) needs.
The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in history.
and the theory of psychology, the sciences of man.
ISBN 5-8071-0018-2
c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1997
c Losev P. P., design, 1999
c Publisher<Евразия>, 1999
On the way to the incarnation of man
Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY
1.0 humanistic biology
2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development
3. About self-actualization and what comes out
outside of it
Part P. CREATIVITY
4. Creativity and readiness for it
5. Holistic approach to creativity
6. Emotional barriers to creativity
7. The need for creative people
Part III. VALUES
8. Merging the real and the valuable
9. Notes on the Psychology of Being
10. Documents of the symposium on the problem
human values
Part IV. EDUCATION
11. The Knower and the Known
12. Learning and higher experiences
13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education
PART V SOCIETY
14. Synergy in society and in man 211
15. Questions for the normative social psychologist 224
16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238
17. On Eupsychic Management 249
18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 251
Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE
19. Notes on Naive Cognition 263
20. Further Notes on Cognition 271
Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND
PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING
21. Various Meanings of Transcendence 281
22. Theory Z 292
Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION
23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots
higher values 313
APPS
Appendix A: Comments on the work Values, and Peak-Experiences > 357 Appendix B: Some analogies between sexually dominant behavior of the lower primates and fantasies of patients in psychotherapy (A. G. Maslow, X. Rand, S, Newman) 365 Appendix C: Adolescence and Youth delinquency in two different cultures (A. G. Maslow, R. Diaz-Guero) 383 Appendix D: Criteria for Attributing Needs into the category of instinct-like 393 Appendix E: Abraham G. Maslow: Bibliography 405 Notes 416 Bibliography 424 incarnation human Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. annual postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were Behaviorists: Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon and Harry Harlow. His dissertation research on dominant T and sexuality in primates was done under the guidance of Harlow. After two years as an assistant to Thorndike at Columbia Maslow College took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and left him only in 1951. During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow communicated with a large number of scientists, mainly associated with Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. He met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan, Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Ansh- Baher and fell under the influence of their ideas. At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research in Indian Reservation and wrote a section on intercultural psychology in a book Ross Stagner<Психология личности>. In the mid 40s. Maslow contacted Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who conducted medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study sexual behavior of women at Brooklyn College. But potential the cooperation of the two scientists was upset. However, Maslow's discovery research method was used by Kinsey later. Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his On the ways of incarnation of man tions> and<Теория человеческой мотивации>. This topic was them in detail developed in the book<Мотивация и личность> (1954). Src="https://website/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG: Part III Values The deeper a person knows his nature, the desires of his inner, his "> Part III Values The deeper a person knows his nature, the desires of his inner, his temperament, his constitution, his needs and aspirations, the more clearly he realizes what he actually delivers joy to him, the easier, more natural, more automatically the problem will be solved by him value choice. Highest Values or values of Being: (characteristics) Truthful Good Beautiful Whole-hearted Living Unique Perfect Fair Simple Self-sufficient Src="https://site/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:Part V Society Concepts Those societies whose social institutions are organized">
Часть V Общество Понятия Высоким синергизмом обладают те общества, социальные институты которых организованы так, чтобы преодолевать полярность между эгоизмом и неэгоизмом, между личным интересом и альтруизмом, так, чтобы человек, добиваясь своих эгоистичных целей, заслужил награды для себя. Если в обществе вознаграждается добро, это - общество с высоким синергизмом. Человек как вид нуждается в очень немногих и очень !} simple things: Firstly, a person needs a sense of security, and a small person needs to feel cared for, which is equal to a sense of security for him. Secondly, a person needs a sense of belonging - to a family, clan, group, he must feel that he is part of something, and must know that this is his right inalienable. Thirdly, a person needs love, he needs to feel that he is loved and deserves it. Fourth, he needs respect and a sense of self-worth. Src="https://website/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG: Differences between people who have achieved transcendence and people: 1. 2. 3. 4.5.">
Различия между людьми, достигшими трансценденции, и людьми: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Для людей, достигших трансценденции, высшие переживания и платопознание становятся самым важным в их жизни Они ясно, просто, естественно и безотчетно могут изъясняться на языке высшего Бытия Они воспринимают мир унитивно, или сакрально Они более ответственно относятся к прекрасному Такие люди, как и все, пришедшие к самоактуализации, вызывают у окружающих любовь!} Src="https://site/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:People who have satisfied their basic needs become, turn to higher values. Self-actualized people already">
Люди, удовлетворившие свои базовые потребности, становятся, обращаются к высшим ценностям. Самоактуализированные люди уже не первично мотивированы (то есть, мотивированы не базовыми потребностями), они главным образом метамотивированы (мотивированы метапотребностями, высшими ценностями). Высшие ценности имеют инстинктоподобную природу, то есть человек нуждается в них, чтобы а) избежать болезни и б) достичь вочеловеченности или приблизиться к ней. , вызванные депривацией этих потребностей (метапотребностей), метапатологии. !} Basic Needs instinct-like for many reasons, but above all because a person needs their satisfaction in order to avoid illness and inhumanity, or, positively speaking, in order to move forward and higher towards self-actualization and humanness.
Part I Health and Pathology Abraham Maslow's numerous studies led him to the conclusion that the most psychologically healthy people (as well as the most creative, strongest, most intelligent, most righteous) should be used as biological material for research, highlighting the qualities , which distinguish the most psychologically healthy individuals from the rest, one can assume what a person should be like. It is an empirically established fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization are much less likely than the bulk of people to doubt themselves, think less about whether they are doing right or wrong. The human body strives for autonomy (independence from anything). If you believe in this ability, you can become more Taoist.
Important human problems: 1. The importance and necessity of the appearance of a good person 2. The problem of creating a good society 3. Satisfaction of basic needs, which then lead to the satisfaction of higher values. Failure to satisfy these needs leads to neurosis, "subhumanity".
Self-actualization: 1. this is an experience, an all-consuming experience, bright, selfless, with full concentration and absolute immersion in it. 2. it is a process when we make each of the choices we face in favor of personal growth. 3. already in the very concept there is an assertion that there is a certain subject to actualization. 4. a choice in favor of development, the need to listen to internal signals and the benefits of honesty and responsibility. 5. When you realize who you are and what you are, you will understand your defense mechanisms and gather all your courage to give them up.
Part II Creativity primary secondary What happens to a person in moments of creativity? Rejection of the past Rejection of the future Naivety Rejection of self-control Constraining power of consciousness Deactivation of defense mechanisms and self-restraints Strength and courage Integration of a person who comprehends Being Aesthetic comprehension instead of abstract cognition Absolute spontaneity
Part IV Education The main purpose of education is to help a person realize his full potential. One of the main processes of education is all perceptual and cognitive processes, learning processes, all forms of art and creative creation. 1. 2. Intrapersonal Interpersonal There are two systems of education: Traditional Humanistic
The level of complaint - and after all, a complaint is nothing more than an expression of a person's desires and aspirations - can serve as an indicator of the motivational level at which a person lives. Lower complaints - those that come from the biological level, from the security level. Higher complaints (meta-complaints) - levels of higher needs are in the areas of recognition and self-esteem; at these levels for a person become important issues pride, autonomy, self-respect, respect from others, feelings of self-worth, encouragement, praise, trust from others become relevant.
Part VI Higher comprehension Characteristics of higher cognition: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Complete, complete, self-sufficient, unitary The object corresponds to the needs of a person, the cognizer reveals to what extent the object, for which it can be used, is useful, dangerous etc. Enriches the object. Makes it more attractive. Separated from time and space. Eternal and universal. Essential values are means-values such as usefulness, desirability and undesirability. Exceptionally abstract. One of critical aspects the highest attainment is naive perception.
Part VII Transcendence and the Psychology of Being Meanings of transcendence: Transcendence as loss of self-awareness Transcendence of the metapsychological sense Transcendence of time Transcendence of culture Transcendence of the past Transcendence Transcendence as mystical experience Transcendence of death, illness, etc. Transcendence of polarity Transcendence of basic needs Love-identification as a form of transcendence Transcendence of the Freudian super-ego Transcendence of one's own weakness, dependence Transcendence means the desire for holiness
Part VIII Metamotivation Motivation - the basis of any activity is a motive. Motivation comes from needs. activity - when the motive is hidden from the individual. Self-actualized individuals act as people who have satisfied their basic needs, people whose life is controlled by higher motives. They can be called ". Metamotivation is defined: Urges - indulgence of one's own weakness, rather than fulfilling a duty. Calls that oblige us, impose responsibility, force us to act, regardless of what we are doing and what we want.
