Abraham Harold Maslow

FAR

LIMITS

HUMAN

PSYCHES

^"ONE"!"!

Saint-Petersburg Eurasia Publishing House would like to thank Kiprushkin Vadim Albertovich Maslow Abraham Harold for assistance in the publication of this book.

Far reaches human psyche/ Transl. from English. A. M. Tatlybaeva. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 1999.-432p.

ISBN 5-8071-0018 This book is the second, revised edition of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. This theory is based on the difference between lower (imperfect) and higher (growing) needs.

The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in the history and theory of psychology, human sciences.

ISBN 5-8071-0018-2 c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1 c Losev P. P., design, 1999 c Eurasia Publishing House, 1999 On the ways of human incarnation Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY www.koob. en

1.0 humanistic biology

2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development

3. About self-actualization and what goes beyond it Part II. CREATIVITY

4. Creativity and readiness for it

5. Holistic approach to creativity

6. Emotional barriers to creativity

7. Need for creative people Part III. VALUES

8. Merging the real and the valuable

9. Notes on the Psychology of Being

10. Documents of the symposium on the problem of human values ​​Part IV. EDUCATION

11. The Knower and the Known

12. Learning and higher experiences

13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education Part V. SOCIETY

14. Synergism in society and in man 2

15. Questions for the normative social psychologist 2

16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238

17. About eupsychic management 2

18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 2 Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE

19. Notes on Naive Cognition 2

20. Further Notes on Cognition 271 Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND

PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING

21. Different Meanings of Transcendence 2

22. Theory Z 2 Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION

23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots of Higher Values ​​3

–  –  –

On the Paths of Man's Incarnation Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. A year-long postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were the behaviorists Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon, and Harry Harlow. His dissertation research on dominance and sexuality in primates was done under the direction of Harlow.

After two years as Thorndike's assistant at Columbia College, Maslow took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and left it only in 1951.

During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow interacted with a large number of scientists, mostly associated with Columbia University and the New School. Social Research. He met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan, Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Anshbacher and fell under the influence of their ideas.

At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research on an Indian reservation and wrote a section on cross-cultural psychology for Ross Stagner's book The Psychology of Personality. In the mid 40s. Maslow was in contact with Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who conducted medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study the sexual behavior of women at Brooklyn College. But a potential collaboration between the two scientists was frustrated. However, the research method discovered by Maslow was used by Kinsey later.

www.koob.ru Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his articles published in 1943, Personal Organism Dynamics On the Ways of Humanization and Human Motivation Theory. This topic was elaborated in his book Motivation and Personality (1954).

Abraham Harold Maslow - brilliant thinker dealing with issues of abnormal psychology, human motivation and personality, known as the founder humanistic psychology as the creator of the theory of self-actualization.

His theory of focusing on the distinction between lower (imperfect) and higher (growing) needs is not accidental. At that time, two major currents dominated world psychology: behaviorism, which was criticized for the mechanistic approach to human psychology by analogy with animal psychology, for considering human behavior as completely dependent on external stimuli, and psychoanalysis, which was considered the best system of analysis for psychopathology and psychotherapy possible, but insufficient to explain human thinking and behavior in general, since, according to Maslow, human nature is far from being as bad as people think it is.

No less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the work of the Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Goldstein, to whom he dedicated his book On the Psychology of Being. In the preface, Maslow wrote:

To sum up in one sentence what humanistic psychology means to me, I would say that it is the integration of Goldstein (and Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic psychologies), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers at the University of Wisconsin.

Maslow owes his theory to Kurt Goldstein, and he borrowed the term from him. Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of self-actualization into science, but, being a neurophysiologist, he understood this as a certain tension that would make further ordered activity of the organism possible. Goldstein argues that the normal body can temporarily delay eating, sleeping, sex, and so on if other motives cause it. For Goldstein, as for Maslow, self-actualization does not mean the end of problems, on the contrary, growth can often bring a certain amount of suffering. Goldstein wrote that the abilities of the body determine its needs, for example, the presence of muscles requires movement, etc.

Maslow freely defines self-actualization as the full use of talents, abilities, opportunities, and the like, as a process of self-realization of human potentials. I imagine a self-actualizing person not as ordinary person, to whom something has been added, but as an ordinary person, from whom nothing has been taken away.

The average person is a kind of human being, with stifled and suppressed abilities and talents.

At first Maslow's research regarding self-actualization were prompted by his desire to more fully understand two of his most inspiring ways of humanizing human teachers - Ruth Benedict, who originally used the term synergism to refer to the degree of interpersonal cooperation and harmony in society, and Max Wertheimer, whose work on www.koob .ru productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on cognition and creativity. Although these were very dissimilar people, and they were engaged in research in different areas, Maslow felt they had a level of personal accomplishment in both professional and personal life that he rarely observed in others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant scientists, but also deeply accomplished, creative people. He began to record the results of his observations in a notebook in order to understand what makes them so special.

This was his first step in the study of the problem of self-actualization, which subsequently lasted for the rest of his life.

The far reaches of the human psyche is one of the best works of Abraham Maslow, his final work, a book about mental health, creativity, values, education, society, transcendence and metamotivation.

In order to explore the limits of human possibilities, it is necessary to study the best of individuals; According to Maslow, to find out how fast people can run, you need to study the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to make an "average sample" of the population of the city.

Abraham Harold Maslow was a theoretical psychologist. He did not conduct large and thorough experimental studies, according to him, he simply did not have enough time for this. He conducted pilot studies more, but not for publications, but to confirm his own hypothesis.

For his first study, Maslow chose people who did not have

significant personal problems who are not subject to neurosis and, most importantly, who make the best use of their talents and abilities. His sample consisted of eighteen people, nine of whom were Abraham Maslow's contemporaries and nine of whom were historical figures:

Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams, Aldous Huxley, Baruch Spinoza and others.

By according to Maslow, the self-actualizing people he studied were not perfect and were not without the opportunity to make big mistakes.

In addition, they had many of the problems of ordinary average people:

anxiety, guilt, internal conflicts, etc.

Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not the absence of problems, but the movement from transient and unreal problems to real problems.

Maslow's book Far Beyond the Human Psyche is the culmination of his reflections on self-actualization. In it, Maslow describes the ways in which an individual can self-actualize:

On the path of human incarnation

Self-actualization is an experience full, alive, selfless, with full concentration and full absorption;

Taking responsibility for your actions;

To be actualized means to exist really, physically, and not only potentially;

–  –  –

Self-actualization is not a thing, it is a long process like the Buddhist path of enlightenment;

Self-actualization is a test of peak experiences. Peak experiences are transitional moments of self-actualization, the pinnacle of our experiences that arise when strong feeling love, exceptional beauty, works of art... "Peak Experience" is a summary of the best moments of human life.

As a result of the study Maslow's self-actualization revealed that some of the self-actualizing individuals tended to experience many peak experiences, while others experienced them very rarely or not at all. He divided self-actualizing people into mentally healthy, productive people with little or no experience of peak experiences, and people for whom the experience of peak experiences was important and central.

In the chapter Transcendence and the Psychology of Being, Maslow describes over twenty ways of experiencing transcendence. This is the Transcendence of time, culture, the past, the inner Ego, basic needs, love, other people's opinions, one's own weakness, one's own will, dichotomy, mystical experience, the Transcendence of vice, etc. Maslow claims that transcendent personalities tend to identify themselves with their abilities, profession. For example, I am a doctor, I am a mathematician.

Many people who have access to mystical experiences are not mentally healthy and not productive, which Maslow considered essential properties of self-actualization, further noting that he met as many transcending people among businessmen, teachers, politicians, as among those who are considered closer to this musicians, poets, priests, etc.

Before Maslow, there were many different theories of motivation. However, they did not differ in the necessary completeness. Maslow brought some clarity to this problem. He made an attempt to hierarchize motives. According to its hierarchy, physiological needs (food, sleep, etc.) form the basis. More levels follow high needs: the need for security, love and respect. The highest level is occupied by meta-needs - the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth. As lower needs are met

stey immediately appear others - higher needs, and begin to dominate in the body. When they are satisfied, new needs come on the scene, of an even higher level, and so on. Metamotivation is based on the needs and values ​​of growth. It is precisely this motivation, according to Maslow, that is inherent to a greater extent in self-actualizing individuals, in whom, in his opinion, lower motives are satisfied. Each level of metamotivation corresponds to certain levels of complaints. Complaints concerning the lack of safety precautions, the arbitrariness of the authorities, irregular working hours, etc. - these are complaints of the level of fundamental needs. The levels of higher complaints lie in the areas of recognition and self-esteem: at these "levels, the problems of pride, autonomy, self-esteem, respect from others are important, feelings of self-worth, encouragement, praise, trust from others are relevant. Complaints of the highest level relate to what is detrimental to self-esteem person.

www.koob.ru Meta-complaints are about the frustration of meta-needs. These include the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth, etc.

When representatives of the women's committee burst in and complain excitedly that the roses in the park are not well maintained, this in itself is wonderful, because it indicates the high standard of living of those who complain.

In the book The Far Beyond the Human Psyche, Maslow introduces a new concept - mentally healthy individuals, which should be understood as mature people, with a high degree self-actualization, and develops the theory of a mentally healthy society, a society that favors the most full development and realization of human potential. Maslow believed that society should consist of mentally healthy, pre-human, self-actualized individuals. However, even an ideal society cannot create them. According to Maslow, the teacher or culture does not make the person. Rather, they enable, encourage, encourage to become real and relevant.

Maslow describes a mentally healthy society as opposed to authoritarian business management, where the authoritarian manager believes that workers and management have completely opposite, incompatible goals: workers want to earn as much as possible with minimal effort, and therefore they must be well looked after.

Democratic management assumes that workers want to be creative and productive, that they need support and approval; suspicious, hostile people, perhaps, will work better in an authoritarian system and use freedom unproductively. The theory of a mentally healthy society applies only to those who can take responsibility and enjoy self-government. Therefore, a mentally healthy society should consist of self-actualized people.

On the way to the incarnation of man

In the chapter Synergy (the term was first used by Ruth Benedict and means joint action) Maslow writes about synergy in individuals when the success of others is the basis complete satisfaction for the individual, and help is offered freely and for granted. Thus, identification with others promotes high individual synergy.

Synergy can exist within the individual. In the long term, a person must do what he needs to do, because he wants to do it.

In his book The Far Reach of the Human Psyche, Maslow touches upon the problems of education. He rightly believes that teaching dance, art, or other physical means of expression is important point traditional education: physically and sensory oriented academic subjects require the active participation of students. According to Maslow, love, respect, a sense of security, fundamental needs are equally important for everyone, but, unfortunately, in most psychology textbooks, the word "love" is not even mentioned.

Maslow introduces a new concept of plateau-experience, plateau-cognition.

The key is the plateau experience. This type of consciousness has something in common with the peak experience, but it is a different type of experience. Here the author used the image of a high plateau. According to Maslow, a plateau experience means to live at a constantly high level in the sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen, in the ease of the miraculous...

www.koob.ru this means accepting the sharpness and accuracy of the beauty of things, but not making a big fuss out of it ... But at the heart of plateau experiences, peak experiences, according to Maslow, are only positive emotions.

Maslow's theory of self-actualization is a theory of growth, the consistent satisfaction of higher needs. An individual cannot begin the path to self-actualization if his lower needs are not satisfied: security, love, respect.

Self-actualization involves the development of abilities to the maximum possible, self-actualizing personalities are attracted to difficult, intricate problems that require maximum creative effort.

Abraham Maslow considers defense mechanisms as obstacles to personal growth, and he himself adds two more types of defenses: desacralization and the Jonah complex.

The volitional component is not specifically considered by Maslow; according to Maslow, self-actualization means work - doing well what one wants to do. Becoming a second-rate doctor is not the way to self-actualize. A person wants to be first class, or as good a doctor as possible for him. Maslow believes that on the paths of humanizing a person, a mentally healthy individual is free from internal conflicts, and the will is needed in order to develop one's abilities and talents.

Abraham Maslow is rightfully considered the best specialist in the realm of human potentiality. His merit is colossal, he founded a new "ap^enie in modern psychology, the subject of study of which is

-^ization of personality, its highest values ​​and meanings, -b-^^^^^^ freedom, responsibility, autonomy, mental health, transcendence, etc.

Akulina N.N.

Part I Health and Pathology 1 About Humanistic Biology* My studies in psychology made me think about many things, and some of these reflections did not fit into the framework of traditional psychology - at least not in the framework of the psychology that I once studied.

Having become interested in the problems of psychology in the thirties, I very soon discovered that they could not be solved by obeying the structure psychological science that had developed by that time (behavioristic, positivist, scientific, non-judgmental, mechanomorphic psychology). And then, quite naturally, I had doubts about the correctness of the structure itself, and these doubts prompted me to start looking for other approaches to solving the problems facing psychology. Over time, the results of my research have developed into a philosophical www.koob.ru concept, which includes not only psychology, but also science as such, as well as religion, production, management, and now biology. Essentially, I would call it a worldview (Weltanschauung).

Today's psychology is not united, it is split into many currents.

If we try to somehow streamline the current state of psychological science, we can say that there are at least three psychologies and, accordingly, three disparate groups of scientists.

The first of these are behaviorists1, objectivists, positivists, mechanists. Second * These are extracts from notes I wrote in March-April 1968 at the request of the director of the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, in the hope that they would help to abandon the safe concept of biology and adopt a humanistic philosophy of biology. In these notes, I have left aside questions of what is obviously borderline in biology and have devoted myself to what, in my opinion, has not been considered before, or has not been noticed, or has been misinterpreted - from my psychological point of view.

Health and pathology

includes a friendly growth, nurtured on Freud's psychoanalysis2.

The third group is humanistic psychologists3, or, as it is also called, the Third Force, which united scientists who could not accept the views of the first two groups. It is about this, the third direction in psychology, that I am going to speak. I interpret this third psychology as a science that has absorbed the achievements of the other two psychologies, and therefore I will use such terms as epi-behaviorism and epi-Freudianism (epi means after). These terms will help us avoid superficial oppositions such as Freudian-anti-Freudianism. I am a Freudian, and I am a behaviorist, and I am a humanist, and for that matter, all my activity is aimed at developing the fourth psychology - the psychology of the transcendent.

Here I speak only for myself. Even among humanistic psychologists there are those who are more inclined to write down the behaviorists and psychoanalysts in the camp of their opponents than to admit that they have an equal right with them to occupy their branch on the flowering tree of science. It seems to me that psychologists of this kind fall into an anti-scientific, and perhaps even irrational ecstasy about the role of experience. And since I, in turn, consider experience only as First stage knowledge (a necessary but not sufficient stage) and since I believe that our ultimate goal should be the dissemination of knowledge much more general and comprehensive than the current psychology, it is better for me to speak only on my own behalf.

It is my choice and my mission to think freely, build theories, play with conjectures and assumptions - in a word, try to penetrate into the future. It is rather a pioneering activity, the work of a pioneer to put forward a bold hypothesis and go in search of new, still unexplored lands, rather than development, sowing and care, irrigation and reclamation activities of the painstaking work of experimenters.

Of course, the latter form the backbone of science, but it still seems to me that it would be a mistake to think that the task of scientists consists only in scrupulous work with facts.

A pioneer, creator, researcher, as a rule, acts alone. Tormented by fears and doubts, prone to self-justification, he nevertheless challenges people's ignorance, pride, and sometimes even paranoia4. He must be brave, must not be afraid to look ridiculous, must not be afraid of mistakes and constantly remember that he is, as Polanyi (126) said, a kind of player who is completely absent. Based on the facts, he risks making the most daring assumptions, and then for several years tries to find confirmation of them. If he is not insane, then he cannot fully believe his own assumptions and must be perfectly aware that he is betting on something he is not sure about. This is how I present my conjectures and assumptions here.

About Humanistic Biology

I believe that we cannot avoid discussing the question of evaluative biology, even if by doing so we call into question the entire history and philosophy of Western science. I am convinced that the nonjudgmental, neutral model of science inherited by biology from physics, chemistry, and astronomy, where it was not only desirable but necessary in order to keep the church from interfering with scientific research, is completely unsuitable for the scientific knowledge of the living. And it is even more obvious that this non-judgmental philosophy of science is not suitable for the study of such a complex species what a person is. Here such concepts as values5, aspirations, goals, intentions become of paramount importance:

only by operating with them, one can come closer to comprehending the laws of human life, and, consequently, to solving the classical problems of science - prediction and control.

I am well aware of the heated debates that take place within the framework of evolutionary theory, in which such words as directions, goals, teleology, vitalism are exaggerated. These debates, in my opinion, are confusing and unproductive. I want to move the discussion of these problems to the realm of psychology, where they can be presented more prominently and where more direct ways to solve them can be found.

Within the framework of evolutionary theory, disputes are still possible about autogenesis in evolution, about whether the movement and direction of development are not caused solely by a combination of circumstances, pure chance. To me, such reasoning seems to be an excessive luxury, they are simply impossible when we are dealing with living people. After all, no one will undertake to claim that this or that person became a good doctor by chance - no one will take such a statement seriously. That is why I reject all arguments about mechanical determinism6 and do not consider it necessary to put forward any arguments in favor of my decision.

Good people and statistics of the best

I dare say that in order to explore the possibilities human nature it is necessary to select from the population its healthiest, best specimens, those that would surpass the rest in many respects. Let me give you some good evidence to support this assertion.

In my research, I came across the fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization7 - the most psychologically healthy people have very high rates of development of cognitive and perceptual abilities8. Their superiority over other people can be detected even at the sensory level; it would not surprise me in the least if, for example, some experiment discovered in them the ability to distinguish the subtlest shades of color. One experiment that I once started and not completed can serve as a model for this kind of trials with

www.koob.ruHealth and pathology

biological material. My idea was to test all the first-year students at Brandeis University using the best methods of the time, namely, the psychiatric interview9, projective tests, achievement tests10, - and break them into several groups. The first of them would include two percent of the most psychologically healthy students, the second - two percent of average healthy, and, finally, the third - two percent of the least healthy representatives of the population. These three groups were then planned to be explored in depth with a battery of tests that identified sensory, perceptual and cognitive characteristics of a person, in order to test the assumption based on clinical observations that people with higher scores mental health more accurately and accurately reflect reality. I had no doubt that this assumption would be confirmed. Then we were supposed to observe these people, and not only during their four years of study at the university, when we could compare the data obtained with their academic performance and achievements in various fields university life.

I was hoping that we could start a longitudinal study." The idea was that by observing these people throughout their lives, get irrefutable evidence of our hypothesis about human health. Some evaluation criteria were obvious, such as, for example, longevity , resistance to psychosomatic diseases, infections, etc.

P. But we also hoped that the study would reveal other characteristics that we did not expect. In essence, that study was to repeat the California study of Lewis Terman, who selected children with high IQ12 scores about forty years ago and then observed them for several decades, and continues to do so today.His discovery was that people who were selected in childhood to the experimental group13 only on the basis of intelligence, now adults, are superior to their peers from control group for all parameters tested. From this, Lewis draws the following conclusion: all the best in a person, all the qualities that one can wish for him, are positively correlated14 with each other.

The significance of this kind of research lies primarily in the fact that it radically changes our view of statistics, and especially of that section of it that is in charge of selecting material for experiment. I want to bluntly call it the statistics of the best.

If one asks what are the capabilities of man as a biological species,15 then this question should be attributed to a small select group of people rather than to the entire population as a whole. In my opinion, main reason The failure of hedonistic and ethical theories lies in the fact that philosophers confused the pathological desire for pleasure with healthy ones and did not even mark the line between normal and pathological, between biologically healthy and unhealthy individuals.

About Humanistic Biology

In order to find out how tall a person can be, it is quite obvious that you need to select the most tall people and study them. In order to find out how fast a person can run, you do not need to calculate the arithmetic average speed of all mankind as a whole, you just need to take the Olympic champions in running and see how well they do it. If we want to know the possibilities of the spiritual and personal growth man, his moral development, then here, I am sure, we will learn more by studying the most righteous, most respectable representatives of the human race.

www.koob.ru On the whole, I think it would be fair to say that the history of mankind is a series of testimonies of how society does not value the individual. The highest impulses human soul almost always underestimated. And even when good people - saints, sages, great figures of the era - attracted the attention of philosophers and scientists, the latter rarely resisted the temptation to explain their spiritual superiority by the presence of the divine principle.

Humanistic biology and the good society

Now it is already obvious that the full actualization of human capabilities, meaning society as a whole, can take place only under certain favorable conditions. Or, to put it even more directly, for a person to be good, he needs good living conditions and a good environment. On the other hand, I believe that the normative philosophy of biology should adopt the theory of the good society, which could be based on the following definition: A good society is a society that favors the fullest development and development of human potential. Probably, such terminology initially shocks classical biologists, who are inclined only to describe the human environment and have learned to avoid such words as good and bad. But if they think carefully, they will find that similar image thoughts and terminology are far from new to classical biology. For example, biologists have long used the term possibilities when they talk about genes, the actualization of which depends on how favorable the conditions are in the plasma of the embryo, in the cytoplasm, in the body as a whole, and also on geographical conditions that surround this organism.

Summarizing the results of experiments on laboratory rats, monkeys and human beings (11), it can be argued that the stimulating effect of the environment in the early life of an individual has a very specific effect on the development of the cerebral cortex, to which stimulation is usually directed. Behaviorists studying primate behavior at Harlow Laboratories came to a similar conclusion. Animals, on wounds

Health and pathology

At these stages of life, isolated from their own kind, they lose the possibilities genetically inherent in them, and one day these losses become irreplaceable. One more example. Scientists at Jackson's laboratory at Bar Harbor have found that feral dogs, accustomed to life in a pack, can no longer be tamed again.

Finally, many Indian children have recently been reported to have irreversible brain changes due to a lack of protein in their diet. If we agree with the obvious assumption that the reasons for this lie in a certain political and economic structure of Indian society, in the features of its cultural and historical development, then it becomes impossible to deny that a person, as a representative of a biological species, at least for the reproduction of full-fledged, healthy individuals, needs a good society.

Is it possible for the philosophy of biology to develop in social exclusion, was politically neutral, not utopian, not eupsychic, so that she would not preach reformist and revolutionary ideas? Of course, I am far from thinking that the task of biology is the social reorganization of society. I suppose this is a matter of personal taste, and I fully admit that some biologists, concerned about that their knowledge remains unclaimed, wanting to put their discoveries into practice, they will go into politics. But I'm not talking about that now. I suggest that www.koob.ru biologists study humans like any other species, not only by describing and stating facts, but also by evaluating them. And when they take this approach, they will understand that the main task of human biology is the breeding of a full-fledged, healthy breed of man, and that the fulfillment of this task is unthinkable without studying all those conditions that favor or, on the contrary, hinder the full disclosure of human capabilities. And for this, obviously, biologists will have to leave their laboratories and plunge headlong into public life.

Good people as an example for everyone

Numerous studies conducted by me in the thirties allow me to assert that the most psychologically healthy people (as well as the most creative, strongest, most intelligent, most righteous) should be used as biological material for research, or, metaphorically speaking, they can and should be used as trailblazers to tell us, show us, and lead us, less curious, less sensitive, less courageous, into yet unknown, unexplored territories. Let me give you an example as an illustration. It is easy to find people who are especially sensitive to the perception of color and form, and rely on their judgments regarding color, dressing, shape of furniture, fabrics and other things. Even without intruding into the pro-humanist biology of the perception process16 of these people, just by carefully observing it, I will soon be able to predict with certainty which shades and shapes they will like and which they will not. In a month or two I will find that I like the same things that they like - as if they, these people, settled in me and at the same time I became more sensitive or, if you like, more confident and decisive in my assessments. That is, I can use them as a kind of expert, just like a collector who buys something for his collection seeks the advice of an art historian. (This idea is supported by the research of Child (22), who found that good painters have similar tastes regardless of their artistic preferences and the cultural environment that raised them.) I also suggest that such people in lesser degree than others, are subject to various kinds of predilections and that their tastes and evaluations depend less on external influences, fashion than the tastes and evaluation of the majority.

Thus, based on the above example, I conclude that by identifying the qualities that distinguish the most psychologically healthy individuals17 from the rest, I will understand what a person should be like. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of Aristotle: If a good person says that this is good, then this is really good.

It is an empirically established fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization are much less likely than the bulk of people to doubt themselves, think less about whether they are doing right or wrong. They are not at all embarrassed that ninety-five percent of humanity does otherwise. And I must say that these people - at least those of whom I studied - showed a tendency to evaluate the facts, what is good and what is bad, in the same way, as if they sensed some higher reality that lies beyond human consciousness, and did not base their assessments on worldly experience, which, as you know, often suffers from one-sidedness and bias. In a word, I used them to produce value, or, better to say, they helped me get closer to understanding what is most important for a person.

In other words, I made the following assumption: what is valuable to these people will eventually become valuable to me; I will agree with them, I will accept their values ​​as extrapersonal, universal, as something that sooner or later will confirm life.

My theory of metamotivation"8 (chapter 23) is based on this. I selected these prominent people who not only have the ability to perceive facts, but also know how to identify the most important, isolate the valuable, in order to use these values ​​as an example to follow and a model for the whole species.

I understand that I am saying almost provocative things now, but I do it deliberately. If I wanted to, I could put my thought in a much more innocent way, for example, simply by asking questions like: Yes, Health and pathology, let's select the most psychologically healthy people, I wonder what they like? What drives them? What are they striving for, what are they fighting for? What do they value? But I want to be understood correctly, and therefore I deliberately pose questions about norms and values ​​to biologists (as well as to psychologists and social scientists).

It may be useful to look at the problem from a different angle. If we agree with the conventional wisdom that man is an animal capable of choosing and making decisions, then the theme of choice and decision must inevitably be present in any attempt to describe man. But a good choice the right decision are directly related to the quality specific person, from his wisdom, from his determination. And then you have to answer the following questions: What kind of people make good choices? Where do such people come from? How do they grow? How do they learn to do it? What stops you from making a good choice? What helps it?

Of course, this is just another way of asking the old philosophical question: What is wisdom? Who is the sage?, and behind him the ancient axiological questions: What is good? What is desired? What should you desire?

I repeat: humanity has reached a point in biological development where it is responsible for its own evolution. We have become self-evolvers.

And evolution involves selection, choice and decision-making, and therefore - the distribution of assessments.

The connection between consciousness and body It seems to me that we are about to make a leap towards bringing the subjective indicators of our life and external, objective indicators of the environment into a qualitatively new ratio. And in this regard, I expect a powerful breakthrough in the study of the human nervous system.

The following two examples may serve as confirmation that future research in this direction is not far off. First, the study of Olds (122), now widely known, who, by implanting electrodes into the septal zone of the rhinencephalon, found that this zone was essentially a pleasure center.

When a lab rat found that it could stimulate its brain, it repeated the auto-stimulation over and over again as long as the electrodes were implanted in that very pleasure center. Needless to say, when the animal was given the opportunity to stimulate the found centers of displeasure and pain, it refused to do so. The stimulation of the pleasure center was, apparently, so significant (or rather, desirable, pleasant, beneficial, useful) for the animal that it even refused all other sources of joy, such as food, sex, any. Now www.koob.ru we have enough data obtained on humans, and they allow us to assume that in humans it is possible - in About Humanistic Biology in a certain sense of this word is to evoke such experiences of pleasure.

If we connect these data with others, for example, with those obtained by Kamiyya (58) in his experiments, then interesting possibilities open up before us. Kamiyya, taking electroencephalograms from his subjects, notified them when the frequency of their alpha waves reached a certain level. Thus, the subject, having the opportunity to correlate external event, or a signal about it, with a subjective feeling of its state, could arbitrarily control its EEG. In essence, Kamiya showed that a person can bring the frequency of their brain's alpha waves to a certain desired level.

But the most important and exciting part of this research is that Kamiya discovered, and discovered quite by accident, that bringing the frequency of alpha waves to some specific level causes a state of serene peace, meditative T and even a feeling of happiness in the subject. Further study of people practicing Eastern contemplation and meditation techniques showed that they spontaneously produce the same serene EEGs that Kamiya taught his subjects. From this it follows irrefutably that people can be taught happiness and peace of mind. The revolutionary consequences of this discovery are obvious and numerous - not only for the improvement of the human race, but also for biological and psychological science. This discovery alone is fraught with so many possibilities that scientists would have enough work for the next century. The problem of the relationship between the body and consciousness, the problem of the connection between them, which until now seemed insoluble, is now becoming quite operable.

Such data allow us to take a different look at the problem of evaluative biology. Today, without any reservations, we can say that healthy body tells us clearly and distinctly what he considers important to himself, what he is inclined to choose, or what state of affairs he considers desirable for himself. Does it still look too bold if I call it values? Biological values? Instinct-like values? If we write: A laboratory rat, having the ability to press two buttons that cause stimulation of its brain, in almost a hundred percent of cases presses the one that causes stimulation of the pleasure center, is this description really fundamentally different from what we would say: For a rat, autostimulation of the pleasure center is important, does the rat appreciate this opportunity?

I must say that it doesn't matter to me whether I use the word value or not. It is possible to perfectly state everything that I state without using this term at all. Perhaps, for the purposes of scientific strategy, or at least in order to be understood by the general scientific community, I should have been more diplomatic and avoided the word. But I really don't think it matters. It is important that we seriously rush from Health and Pathology to these new developments that help to understand the psychology and biology of choice, preferences, pleasures and the like.

I should also stress that we are going to be faced with the logical circularity dilemma that inevitably arises when designing www.

Koob.ru this kind of theories and research. It is most obvious when we are talking about human material, although I suppose that it cannot be avoided in the study of other animals. It is already contained in the very statement that good people or healthy animals choose or prefer this and that. Where do we get away from the fact that sadists, perverts, masochists, homosexuals, neurotics, psychotics, suicidals prefer and choose something completely different than good people do? Perhaps it would be appropriate here to draw a parallel between this fact and the fact that the choice of an animal with a high content of adrenaline in the blood differs from the choice of the so-called normal individual? I must immediately clarify that I do not consider this problem insoluble at all - it does not need to be avoided, it can and should be worked with. It's quite easy to pick healthy people using psychiatric and psychological tests vi then conclude that subjects who perform such and such results on, say, a Rorschach test19 or on intelligence tests will be the most effective relative to others in food selection. Selection criteria in this case will be completely different from the behavioral criterion. I consider it possible, and even very likely, that we are now closer than ever to proving, through experiments with autoneurostimulation, that the so-called feeling of pleasure experienced by murderers, sadists, fetishists, is not inherently the same pleasure that was evoked in their experiments Olds and Kamiya.

Actually, this has long been known to psychiatry. Any experienced psychotherapist knows that behind neurotic pleasures or perversions, as a rule, there are resentment, pain and fear. Yes, and our subjective experience says the same. We know enough people who have experienced both healthy and unhealthy feelings of pleasure in their lives. As a rule, they prefer the first and learn to suppress the second. Colin Wilson (161) has clearly shown us that people who commit sexual crimes have very weak sexual responses. Kirkendel (61) also showed that for a person, sex as a manifestation of love is subjectively more significant than sex in its pure form.

I work with a number of assumptions generated by the humanistic approach I mentioned above. These assumptions show the possibility of radical consequences for human philosophy and biology.

We can definitely say that they make us more more attention focus on self-regulation of the body, its self-government and self-fulfillment. The body has a much stronger drive for health, growth, and biological success than we might have imagined a hundred years ago. In cehumanistic biology, this tendency expresses the desire of the organism for autonomy and independence; it is anti-authoritarian in nature. In this regard, I want to turn to Taoism. Its founding principles have already been learned modern ecology and ethology, where researchers have learned not to interfere in the phenomena and processes they study, and I believe that a similar position must be held when we are dealing with a person, and especially with a small person. Such a position means trust in the craving inherent in every child to spiritual growth and self-actualization, here the emphasis is on the spontaneity and independence of the organism, the predictability of the result and external control are denied. I will quote the main thesis from my The Psychology of Science (81).

In the light of these data, can we seriously continue to believe that the goals of science are prediction and control? After all, almost every one of us is more likely to say the exact opposite - at least in relation to a person www.koob.ru. Do we want others to predict our actions? Do we want to be controlled and managed?

I won't go too far and bring up the old classic question of free will again. But I will say that the questions that arise here and need to be considered really concern the fact that any person wants to feel free rather than enslaved, with the right to choose than without such a right, etc. In any case, I can confidently state that any normal person does not like to be controlled. He prefers both to feel free and to be free.

There is one more, very general, atmospheric, consequence this method thinking, namely - it will help to change the image of a scientist, change not only in his own eyes, but also in the representation of the entire population.

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- Another one.

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Notes

1

An abridged version of the French notary Roche-Étienne Marin's report on the autopsy of the Beast of Gévaudan.

2

In particular, in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.

3

White Camisars are young Catholic nobles.

4

Black Camisars are Huguenots.

5

Flagellation is an educational measure used as a method of killing the flesh, widespread among some orders.

6

Scandinavian legend about the wolf Fenrir.

7

The following fact testifies to the connections of the count: on February 11, 1773, he ended up in the Conciergerie prison for debts. Litigation in parliament followed, resulting in a significant reduction in the amount of the debt (to 25,000 pounds instead of the million declared by the creditors). The count was acquitted and released, and the unjust creditors went to jail.

8

In 1774, de Moranges left France, settling in Metz, where he married a woman who was already married. He returns to Paris with his illegitimate wife, goes back to prison and gets out again to eventually settle in the Château de Saint-Alban, the only thing left of the vast estate.

9

The de Moranger family ends in 1888 with the death of the last member of the family, Christophe-Theodore. However, Saint Alban Castle was sold back in 1821.

10

On August 16, 1773, Pope Clement XIV signs the bull "Dominus ac Redemptor noster", which became a death sentence not only for the order, but also for the pope himself - on September 22, 1774, after a long agony, he dies, allegedly being poisoned by "aqueta". The body decomposed so quickly that, contrary to all customs, it was buried without embalming and bypassing many rites.

11

On August 7, 1814, Pope Pius VII issues the bull "Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum", restoring the "Society of Jesus" with all its former rights.

Current page: 1 (the book has 29 pages in total)

Maslow Abraham Harold.

The far reaches of the human psyche

/ Transl. from English. A. M. Tatly-

Abraham Harold Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow

HUMAN

St. Petersburg

For help in the publication of this book

the publisher thanks

Kiprushkin

Vadim Albertovich

Maslow Abraham Harold.

Far limits of the human psyche / Perev. from English. A. M. Tatly-

buy. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia,

ISBN 5-8071-0018-2

This book is the second revised edition of the final

th work of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. AT

The basis of this theory is the difference between inferior (imperfect) and

higher (growing) needs.

The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in history.

and the theory of psychology, the sciences of man.

ISBN 5-8071-0018-2

c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1997

c Losev P. P., design, 1999

c Publishing house, 1999

Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY

1.0 humanistic biology

2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development

3. About self-actualization and what comes out

outside of it

Part P. CREATIVITY

4. Creativity and readiness for it

5. Holistic approach to creativity

6. Emotional barriers to creativity

7. The need for creative people

Part III. VALUES

8. Merging the real and the valuable

9. Notes on the Psychology of Being

10. Documents of the symposium on the problem

human values

Part IV. EDUCATION

11. The Knower and the Known

12. Learning and higher experiences

13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education

PART V SOCIETY

14. Synergy in society and in man 211

15. Questions for the normative social psychologist 224

16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238

17. On Eupsychic Management 249

18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 251

Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE

19. Notes on Naive Cognition 263

20. Further Notes on Cognition 271

Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND

PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING

21. Various Meanings of Transcendence 281

22. Theory Z 292

Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION

23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots

higher values ​​313

APPS

Appendix A: Comments on the work

Values, and Peak-Experiences > 357

Appendix B: Some analogies between

sexually dominant behavior of the lower

primates and fantasies of patients

in psychotherapy (A. G. Maslow,

X. Rand, S, Newman) 365

Appendix C: Adolescence and Youth

delinquency in two different cultures

(A. G. Maslow, R. Diaz-Guero) 383

Appendix D: Criteria for Attributing Needs

into the category of instinct-like 393

Appendix E: Abraham G. Maslow:

Bibliography 405

Notes 416

Bibliography 424

incarnation

human

Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. annual

postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell

University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he

transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in

psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were

Behaviorists: Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon and Harry

Harlow. His dissertation research on dominant T and

sexuality in primates was done under the guidance of Harlow.

After two years as an assistant to Thorndike at Columbia

Maslow College took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and

left him only in 1951.

During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow

communicated with a large number of scientists, mainly associated with

Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. He

met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan,

Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Ansh-

Baher and fell under the influence of their ideas.

At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research in

Indian Reservation and wrote a section on intercultural psychology in a book

Ross Stagner. In the mid 40s. Maslow

contacted Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who

conducted medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study

sexual behavior of women at Brooklyn College. But potential

the cooperation of the two scientists was upset. However, Maslow's discovery

research method was used by Kinsey later.

Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his

On the ways of humanization

zation> i. This topic was them in detail

developed in a book (1954).

Abraham Harold Maslow - a brilliant thinker dealing with questions

abnormal psychology, human motivation and personality, famous

as the founder of humanistic psychology, as the creator of the theory

self-actualization.

His theory, focusing on the difference between inferior (imperfect)

and higher (growing) needs is not accidental. At that time in the world

psychology was dominated by two major currents: behaviorism, which

criticized for the mechanistic approach to human psychology according to

analogies with animal psychology, for considering the human

behavior as completely dependent on external stimuli, and psychoanalysis,

which was considered the best system of analysis for psychopathology and

possible psychotherapy, but insufficient to explain

human thinking and behavior in general, since, according to Maslow,

No less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the works

Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Goldstein, whom he

dedicated his book. In the preface, Maslow wrote:

psychology, then I would say that this is Goldstein integration (and

Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic

psychology), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers at Wisconsin

university>.

It is Kurt Goldstein Maslow who owes his theory, he and

borrowed the term. Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of

self-actualization, but, being a neurophysiologist, I understood by this

a certain voltage

orderly activity of the organism. Goldstein claims that

a normal body can temporarily delay eating, sleeping, sex, and so on.

Maslow, self-actualization does not mean the end of problems, on the contrary, growth

can often bring a certain amount of suffering. Goldstein wrote,

that the abilities of an organism determine its needs, for example,

the presence of muscles requires movement, etc.

Maslow freely defines self-actualization as

talents, abilities, opportunities and the like>, as a process

self-realization of human potential.

self-actualizing person, not like an ordinary person who

something is added, but like an ordinary person from whom nothing is taken away.

The average person is a kind of human being, with muted and

suppressed abilities and talents>.

Maslow's early research on self-actualization was

motivated by his desire to more fully understand his two most inspiring

t / a ways of humanizing a person

teachers - Ruth Benedict, who originally used the term

to indicate the degree of interpersonal cooperation and

harmony in society, and Max Wertheimer, whose work is about

productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on

knowledge and creativity. Although they were very different from each other

people, and they were engaged in research in different areas, Maslow

felt they had some level of personal accomplishment as in

professional as well as in his personal life, which he rarely observed in

others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant scientists, but also deeply

perfect, creative people. He began to record the results of his

observations in a notebook to understand what makes them so special.

This was his first step in investigating the problem of self-actualization,

which subsequently lasted the rest of his life.

- one of the best work

Abraham Maslow, his final work, a book on mental health,

creativity, values, education, society, transcendence and

metamotivations.

To explore the limits of human possibilities,

it is necessary to study the best of individuals; according to Maslow,

the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to do an "average

sample" from

population of the city.

Abraham Harold Maslow was a theoretical psychologist. He didn't spend

large and rigorous experimental studies, he said,

he just didn't have time for it. He spent more

research>, but not for publications, but to confirm their own

hypotheses.

For his first study, Maslow chose people who did not have

significant personal problems that are not subject to neurosis and, most importantly,

making the best use of their talents and abilities. His

The sample consisted of eighteen people, nine of whom were

contemporaries of Abraham Maslow, and nine historical figures:

Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams,

Aldous Huxley, Baruch Spinoza and others.

According to Maslow, the self-actualizing people he studied did not

were perfect and were not deprived of the opportunity to make major mistakes.

In addition, they had many of the problems of ordinary average people:

anxiety, guilt, internal conflicts, etc.

Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not the absence of problems, but

transient and unreal problems to real problems>.

Maslow's book is the culmination of his

reflections on self-actualization. In it, Maslow describes the ways in which

An individual can self-actualize:

On the path of human incarnation

- self-actualization

full concentration and complete absorption>;

- accepting responsibility for one's actions;

To be actualized means to exist really, physically, and not only

potentially;

- to be updated - to develop abilities,

choices in food, music, profession, marriage;

– self-actualization is not, it is a long process, similar to

the Buddhist path of enlightenment;

Self-actualization test. - this is

transitional moments of self-actualization, the pinnacle of our experiences,

that arise with a strong feeling of love, exceptional beauty,

works of art...

moments of human life.

As a result of studying self-actualization, Maslow found that some of the

self-actualizing individuals sought to experience many

While others have experienced them extremely rarely

or not experienced at all. He divided people self-actualizing

on mentally healthy, productive with little experience

and generally without it, and on people for whom experience

was important and central.

In the chapter Maslow describes from above

twenty ways to experience transcendence. This is the transcendence of time

culture, past, inner ego, basic needs, love,

someone else's opinion, own weakness, own will, dichotomy,

mystical experience, Transcendence of vice, etc. Maslow claims that

transcending personalities tend to identify themselves with their

abilities, profession. For example, .

Many people who have access to mystical experiences are not

mentally healthy and not productive that Maslow

considered essential properties of self-actualization, further noting that

he met as many transcending people among businessmen,

teachers, politicians, as well as among those who are considered closer to this -

musicians, poets, priests, etc.

Before Maslow, there were many theories of various nature.

motivation. However, they did not differ in the necessary completeness. Maslow

brought some clarity to the problem. He made an attempt

hierarchy of motives. According to its hierarchy, the basis is

physiological needs (food, sleep, etc.). Next come the levels

higher needs: the need for security, love and

respect. The highest level is occupied by meta-needs - the need for

perfection, justice, beauty, truth. As satisfied

lower needs

On the way to the incarnation of man

other needs immediately appear - higher needs, and begin

dominate the body. When they are satisfied, they go out to

scene new needs, even higher levels, and so on. AT

metamotivation is based on the needs and values ​​of growth. Just such

Motivation, according to Maslow, is inherent in a greater degree of self-actualizing

individuals who, in his opinion, are satisfied with lower

motives. Each level of metamotivation corresponds to certain levels

complaints. Complaints regarding lack of safety, arbitrariness

bosses, irregular working hours, etc. - these are complaints of the level

fundamental needs. The levels of higher complaints lie in the spheres

recognition and self-respect: at these "levels, issues of pride are important,

autonomy, self-respect, respect from others, relevant

feelings of self-importance, encouragement, praise, trust from

surrounding. Top-level complaints are about what is detrimental

person's self-esteem.

Meta-complaints are about the frustration of meta-needs. These include

the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth, etc.

excitedly complaining that the roses in the park are not well cared for,

wonderful in itself, because it indicates the height of the standard of living

complaining>.

In Maslow's book, he introduces a new

concept - to be understood

how and develops

theory of a mentally healthy society, a society that

favors the fullest development and realization of human

opportunities. Maslow believed that society should be made up of

mentally healthy, self-actualized

individuals. However, even an ideal society cannot create them. By

Maslow's words,

enable, favor, encourage to become real and

up-to-date>.

Maslow describes a mentally healthy society as opposed to

that workers and management have completely opposite,

incompatible goals: workers want to earn as much as possible with

with minimal effort, and therefore they must be well looked after.

Democratic governance assumes that workers want to be

creative and productive that they need support and

approval; people are suspicious, hostile, maybe

use freedom. The theory of a mentally healthy society is applicable

only to those who can take responsibility and enjoy

self-government. Therefore, a mentally healthy society should be

of self-actualized people.

On the way to the incarnation of man

In chapter (the term was first used by Ruth Benedict and

stands for joint action) Maslow writes about synergy in

individuals when the success of others is the basis of complete

satisfaction for the individual, and help is offered freely and as

due. Thus, identification with others promotes

high individual synergy.

Synergy can exist within the individual. In perspective man

must do what he has to do, because he wants to do

In his work, Maslow

touches on educational issues. He rightly believes that education

dance, art or other physical means of expression is an important

moment of traditional education: physically and sensually

oriented subjects require active participation

students. According to Maslow, love, respect, a sense of security -

fundamental needs equally important to all,

Unfortunately, most psychology textbooks don't even mention

the word "love".

Maslow introduces a new concept, .

The key is. This type of consciousness has something

in common with, but it is a different type of experience. Here the author

used the image. According to Maslow,

means

sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen, in the lightness of the miraculous...

it means accepting the sharpness and precision of the beauty of things, but not making them

this big noise...> But basically,

lie, according to Maslow, only positive emotions.

for example, under the influence of fear.

Maslow's theory of self-actualization is a theory of growth, consistent

satisfaction of higher needs. The individual cannot begin the path to

self-actualization, if his lower needs are not satisfied:

security, love, respect.

Self-actualization involves the development of abilities to the maximum

possible, self-actualizing personalities are attracted to difficult,

intricate problems that require maximum creative effort.

Defense mechanisms Abraham Maslow considers as obstacles

personal growth, and itself adds two more types of defenses: desacralization

The volitional component is not specifically considered by Maslow; according to Maslow,

wants to do. Becoming a second rate doctor is not the way to go.

self-actualization. Man wants to be first class, or so

a good doctor, as far as it is possible for him>. Maslow believes that

On the paths of incarnating man

a mentally healthy individual is free from internal conflicts, and

the will is needed in order to develop one's abilities and talents.

Abraham Maslow is rightfully considered the best specialist in the field

human potentiality. His merit is colossal, he founded

new development in modern psychology, the subject of which is

yav ^ t ^ osny ch ^ man of the highest manifestations. ^

-^ization of personality, its highest values ​​and meanings, -b-^^^^^^ freedom,

responsibility, autonomy, mental health, transcendent

tion, etc.

Akulina N.N.

Health and pathology

About Humanistic Biology*

My studies in psychology made me think about many things, and

some of these reflections did not fit into the traditional

psychology - at least within the framework of the psychology that once

I was trained.

Having become interested in the problems of psychology in the thirties, very soon

I found that they cannot be solved by obeying the structure

psychological science that had developed by that time (behavioristic,

positivist, nonjudgmental, mechanomorphic

psychology). And then, quite naturally, I had doubts about

the correctness of the structure itself, and these doubts prompted me to start

the search for other approaches to solving the problems facing psychology. So

over time, the results of my research have developed into a philosophical

concept that includes not only psychology, but also science as

such, as well as religion, production, management, and henceforth

biology. Essentially, I would call it a worldview (Weltanschauung).

Today's psychology is not united, it is split into many currents.

If you try to somehow streamline the current situation

psychological science, it can be said that there are at least

at least three psychologies and, accordingly, three disparate groups of scientists.

The first of these are behaviorists1, objectivists, positivists,

mechanists. Second

* These are excerpts from notes written by me in March-April 1968 on

at the request of the director of the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, in the hope that

they will help to abandon the safe concept of biology and take on

arming the humanistic philosophy of biology. In these notes I

left aside questions of the apparently borderline in biology and devoted himself to

to what, in my opinion, has not been considered before, or was not

noticed, or was misinterpreted - from my, psychological,

points of view.

Health and pathology

includes a friendly growth, nurtured on Freud's psychoanalysis2.

The third group are humanistic psychologists3, or, as

it is also called, uniting scientists who do not

were able to accept the views of the first two groups. It is about this, the third

direction in psychology, I'm going to talk. I interpret this

third psychology as a science that absorbed the achievements of the other two

psychology, and therefore I will use terms such as

and (means). These terms

help us avoid superficial oppositions, such as

I am a Freudian, and I am a behaviorist, and I am

humanist, and if it comes to that, then all my activities are aimed at

the development of the fourth psychology - the psychology of the transcendent.

Here I speak only for myself. Even among psychologists

of the humanistic direction, there are those who are rather inclined

record behaviorists and psychoanalysts in the camp of their opponents than

to admit that they have an equal right with them to occupy their branch on

flowering tree of science. I think that this kind of psychologists fall into

into anti-scientific, and perhaps even irrational ecstasy about the role

And as I in turn consider

only as an initial stage of cognition (a necessary stage, but

insufficient) and since I believe that our ultimate goal should

become the dissemination of knowledge much more general and comprehensive,

than modern psychology, it is better for me to speak only from my own

It is my choice and my mission to think freely, to build theories,

play with conjectures and assumptions - in a word, try to penetrate into

future. It is rather a pioneering activity, the work of a pioneer -

put forward a bold hypothesis and go in search of new, more

unexplored lands than development, sowing and care, irrigation and

land reclamation measures of painstaking work of experimenters.

Of course, the latter form the backbone of science, but it still seems to me that

scrupulous work with facts.

A pioneer, creator, researcher, as a rule, acts in

alone. Tormented by fears and doubts, prone to self-justification,

he nevertheless challenges human ignorance, pride, sometimes even

paranoia4. He must be brave, must not be afraid to look

funny, should not be afraid of mistakes and constantly remember that he and

is, as Polanyi said (126), a kind of player who, with full

missing facts, runs the risk of making the most daring assumptions, and

then for several years trying to find confirmation of them. If a

he is not a madman, then he cannot fully believe his own

assumptions and should be well aware of the fact that he

puts on what is not sure. This is how I present mine here.

conjectures and assumptions.

About Humanistic Biology

I think we can't avoid discussing evaluative biology,

even if by doing so we call into question the whole history and philosophy

western science. I am convinced that the nonjudgmental, neutral model of science,

inherited by biology from physics, chemistry and astronomy, where it was

not only desirable but necessary to keep the church from

intervene in scientific research - this model is completely unsuitable for

scientific knowledge of the living. And it is even more obvious that this priceless

philosophy of science is not suited to the study of such a complex biological

the kind that a person is. Here such concepts as values5,

aspirations, goals, intentions are of paramount importance:

only by operating with them, one can approach the comprehension of the laws

human life, and consequently to the solution of classical

tasks of science - prediction and control.

I am well aware of the heated debates going on within

evolutionary theory and in which such words as

directions, goals, teleology, vitalism. These debates, in my opinion,

confusing and unproductive. I would like to move this discussion to

sphere of psychology, where they can be represented more convexly and where one can

find more direct ways to solve them.

Within the framework of evolutionary theory, disputes about autogenesis in

evolution, about whether the movement and direction of development are caused

purely by coincidence, pure coincidence. me

such reasoning seems to be an excessive luxury, it is simply

impossible when we are dealing with living people. After all, no one

will undertake to assert that this or that person has become a good doctor

accidentally - no one will take such a statement seriously. Exactly

therefore I reject any discussion of mechanical determinism6 and do not

I consider it necessary to put forward any arguments in favor of my decision.

Good people and statistics

I dare say that in order to explore the possibilities of human

nature must be selected from the population of its healthiest, best

specimens, such as would excel the rest in many

indicators. Let me give you some good reasons to support this.

statements.

In my research, I have come across the fact that people with a high degree of

self-actualization7 - the most psychologically healthy people -

have very high rates of development of cognitive and perceptual

abilities8. them over the rest of the people can

be detected even at the sensory level; I wouldn't be surprised at all

if, for example, some experiment found in them

the ability to distinguish subtle shades of color. One once begun

by me and an experiment that has not been completed can serve as a model for

samples of this kind

Health and pathology

My intention was to

test all freshmen at Brandeis University,

using the best methods of that time, namely, psychiatric

interviews9, projective tests, achievement tests10 – and break them down into

several groups. The first of these would include the two percent of the healthiest

in the psychological sense of students, in the second - two percent

average healthy, and finally, in the third - two percent of the least healthy

representatives of the population. These three groups then we planned

explore thoroughly with a battery of tests that identify

sensory, perceptual and cognitive characteristics of a person in order to

to test the hypothesis based on clinical observations about

that people with higher mental health scores

more accurately and accurately reflect reality. I had no doubt that

this assumption is confirmed. Then we were supposed to watch

these people, and not only during the four years of their training in

university, when we could compare the received data with their

performance and achievements in various areas of university life.

I hoped that we would be able to start a longitudinal study. "The idea

was to observe these people throughout

their lives, to obtain irrefutable evidence of our hypothesis about

human health. Some evaluation criteria were obvious,

such as, for example, longevity, resistance to psychosomatic

diseases, infections, etc. But we also hoped that during

research reveals other characteristics that we do not

assumed. In fact, that study should have been repeated

California study by Lewis Terman, who, for about forty years,

back selected children with high IQ12 scores and then observed

them for several decades, which he continues to do and

now. His discovery was that people selected in childhood

experimental group13 only on the basis of intelligence, now

adults are superior to their peers from the control group in all

the parameters they checked. From this, Lewis draws the following conclusion: all

the best in a person, all those qualities that one can wish for him,

are positively correlated14 with each other.

The significance of this kind of research lies primarily in the fact that it

radically change our view of statistics, and especially that of its

section, which is in charge of the selection of material for the experiment. to me

I want to name it without a hitch.

If you ask yourself what are the capabilities of man as a biological

type15, then this question should be attributed rather to a small selected

group of people than to the population as a whole. In my opinion, the main

the reason for the failure of hedonistic and ethical theories lies in

that philosophers have confused the pathological desire for pleasure with

healthy and did not even mark the line between the norm and pathology, between

biologically healthy and unhealthy individuals.

About Humanistic Biology

To find out how tall a person can be,

it is quite obvious that you need to select the tallest people and study

them. In order to find out how fast a person can run, you do not need

to derive the arithmetic average speed of all mankind as a whole, -

you just need to take the Olympic champions in running and see

how well they do it. If we want to know the possibilities

spiritual and personal growth of a person, his moral development, then

here, I'm sure we'll learn more by studying the most righteous, the most

respectable representatives of the human race.

On the whole, I think it's fair to say that the story

of mankind is a series of testimonies of how society does not

Maslow Abraham Harold.

1999.-432p.

Abraham Harod Masow

THE FARTHER
REACHES OF
HUMAN
NATURE

PENGUIN BOOKS
1971

Abraham Harold Maslow

FAR
LIMITS
HUMAN
PSYCHES

St. Petersburg
1999

For help in the publication of this book
the publisher thanks

Kiprushkin
Vadim Albertovich

Maslow Abraham Harold.

Far limits of the human psyche / Perev. from English. A. M. Tatlybaeva. Teach, ed., entry. article and comment. N. N. Akulina. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia,
1999.-432p.

ISBN 5-8071-0018-2

This book is the second, revised edition of the final work of A.G. Maslow, dedicated to the theory of self-actualization he created. AT
The basis of this theory is the difference between inferior (imperfect) and
higher (growing) needs.

The book is addressed to a wide range of readers interested in history.
and the theory of psychology, the sciences of man.

ISBN 5-8071-0018-2

c Tatlybaeva A. M., translated from English, 1997
c Losev P. P., design, 1999
c Publishing house, 1999

Part I. HEALTH AND PATHOLOGY

1.0 humanistic biology

2. Neurosis as a mistake of personal development

3. About self-actualization and what comes out
outside of it

Part P. CREATIVITY

4. Creativity and readiness for it

5. Holistic approach to creativity

6. Emotional barriers to creativity

7. The need for creative people

Part III. VALUES

8. Merging the real and the valuable

9. Notes on the Psychology of Being

10. Documents of the symposium on the problem
human values

Part IV. EDUCATION

11. The Knower and the Known

12. Learning and higher experiences

13. The purpose and significance of humanistic education

PART V SOCIETY

14. Synergy in society and in man 211

15. Questions for the normative social psychologist 224

16. Synanon and Eupsyche 238

17. On Eupsychic Management 249
18.0 inferior complaints, superior complaints and meta-complaints 251

Part VI. THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE

19. Notes on Naive Cognition 263

20. Further Notes on Cognition 271

Part VII. TRANSCENDATION AND
PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING

21. Various Meanings of Transcendence 281

22. Theory Z 292

Part VIII. METAMOTIVATION

23. Metamotivation Theory: Biological Roots

higher values ​​313

APPS

Appendix A: Comments on the work

Vaues, and Peak-Experiences > 357

Appendix B: Some analogies between

sexually dominant behavior of the lower

primates and fantasies of patients

in psychotherapy (A. G. Maslow,

X. Rand, S, Newman) 365

Appendix C: Adolescence and Youth
delinquency in two different cultures
(A. G. Maslow, R. Diaz-Guero) 383

Appendix D: Criteria for Attributing Needs

into the category of instinct-like 393

Appendix E: Abraham G. Maslow:

Bibliography 405

Notes 416
Bibliography 424

On the way
incarnation
human

Abraham Harold Maslow was born in 1908 in New York, USA. annual
postgraduate course at the City College of New York and Cornell
University stimulated Maslow's interest in psychology. In 1928 he
transferred to the University of Wisconsin, where he majored in
psychology. Maslow's most influential teachers were
Behaviorists: Clark Hull, Norman Cameron, William Sheldon and Harry
Harlow. His dissertation research on dominant T and
sexuality in primates was done under the guidance of Harlow.

After two years as an assistant to Thorndike at Columbia
Maslow College took a teaching position at Brooklyn College and
left him only in 1951.

During his years at Columbia and Brooklyn Colleges, Maslow
communicated with a large number of scientists, mainly associated with
Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. He
met Fromm, Koffka, Wertheimer, Horney, Sullivan,
Benedict, Horkheimer, Kardiner, Adler, Goldstein, Ansh
Baher and fell under the influence of their ideas.

At the end of the 30s. Maslow did anthropological research in
Indian Reservation and wrote a section on intercultural psychology in a book
Ross Stagner. In the mid 40s. Maslow
contacted Alfred Kinsey, a well-known sexologist who
conducted medical research in Wisconsin and planned to study
sexual behavior of women at Brooklyn College. But potential
the cooperation of the two scientists was upset. However, Maslow's discovery
research method was used by Kinsey later.

Maslow's most important contribution to psychological thought was made by two of his
articles published in 1943, -on the way human incarnation

zation> i. This topic was them in detail
developed in a book (1954).

Abraham Harold Maslow - a brilliant thinker dealing with questions
abnormal psychology, human motivation and personality, famous
as the founder of humanistic psychology, as the creator of the theory
self-actualization.

His theory, focusing on the difference between inferior (imperfect)
and higher (growing) needs is not accidental. At that time in the world
psychology was dominated by two major currents: behaviorism, which
criticized for the mechanistic approach to human psychology according to
analogies with animal psychology, for considering the human
behavior as completely dependent on external stimuli, and psychoanalysis,
which was considered the best system of analysis for psychopathology and
possible psychotherapy, but insufficient to explain
human thinking and behavior in general, since, according to Maslow,
.

No less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the works
Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Goldstein, whom he
dedicated his book. In the preface, Maslow wrote:

psychology, then I would say that this is Goldstein integration (and
Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic
psychology), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers at Wisconsin
university>.

It is Kurt Goldstein Maslow who owes his theory, he and
borrowed the term. Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of
self-actualization, but, being a neurophysiologist, I understood by this
a certain tension, ordered activity> of the organism. Goldstein claims that
a normal body can temporarily delay eating, sleeping, sex, and so on.
further, if other motives cause it. For Goldstein, as well as for
Maslow, self-actualization does not mean the end of problems, on the contrary, growth
can often bring a certain amount of suffering. Goldstein wrote,
that the abilities of an organism determine its needs, for example,
the presence of muscles requires movement, etc.

Maslow freely defines self-actualization as talents, abilities, opportunities, etc., as a process
self-realization of human potential. self-actualizing person, not like an ordinary person who
something is added, but like an ordinary person from whom nothing is taken away.
The average person is a kind of human being, with muted and
suppressed abilities and talents>.

Maslow's early research on self-actualization was
driven by his desire to more fully understand his two most inspiring

t / a ways of humanizing a person

teachers - Ruth Benedict, who originally used the term
to indicate the degree of interpersonal cooperation and
harmony in society, and Max Wertheimer, whose work is about
productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on
knowledge and creativity. Although they were very different from each other
people, and they were engaged in research in different areas, Maslow
felt they had some level of personal accomplishment as in
professional as well as in his personal life, which he rarely observed in
others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant scientists, but also deeply
perfect, creative people. He began to record the results of his
observations in a notebook to understand what makes them so special.
This was his first step in investigating the problem of self-actualization,
which subsequently lasted the rest of his life.

One of the best work

Abraham Maslow, his final work, a book on mental health,
creativity, values, education, society, transcendence and
metamotivations.

To explore the limits of human possibilities,
it is necessary to study the best of individuals; according to Maslow,
the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to do an "average
sample" from

population of the city.

Abraham Harold Maslow was a theoretical psychologist. He didn't spend
large and rigorous experimental studies, he said,
he just didn't have time for it. He did more research>, but not for publication, but to confirm his own
hypotheses.

For his first study, Maslow chose people who did not have

significant personal problems that are not subject to neurosis and, most importantly,
making the best use of their talents and abilities. His
The sample consisted of eighteen people, nine of whom were
contemporaries of Abraham Maslow, and nine - historical figures:
Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams,
Aldous Huxley, Baruch Spinoza and others.

According to Maslow, the self-actualizing people he studied did not
were perfect and were not deprived of the opportunity to make major mistakes.
In addition, they had many of the problems of ordinary average people:
anxiety, guilt, internal conflicts, etc.
Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not the absence of problems, but transient and unreal problems to real problems>.

Maslow's book is the culmination of his
reflections on self-actualization. In it, Maslow describes the ways in which
An individual can self-actualize:

On the path of human incarnation

Self-actualization is complete concentration and complete absorption>;

Taking responsibility for your actions;

To be actualized means to exist really, physically, and not only
potentially;

Update - develop skills,
choices in food, music, profession, marriage;

Self-actualization is not, it is a long process like
the Buddhist path of enlightenment;

Self-actualization test. - this is
transitional moments of self-actualization, the pinnacle of our experiences,
that arise with a strong feeling of love, exceptional beauty,
works of art... moments of human life>.

As a result of studying self-actualization, Maslow found that some of the
self-actualizing individuals sought to experience many
, while others rarely experienced them.
or not experienced at all. He divided people self-actualizing
on mentally healthy, productive with little experience
and generally without it, and on people for whom experience
was important and central.

In the chapter Maslow describes from above
twenty ways to experience transcendence. This is the transcendence of time
culture, past, inner ego, basic needs, love,
someone else's opinion, own weakness, own will, dichotomy,
mystical experience, Transcendence of vice, etc. Maslow claims that
transcending personalities tend to identify themselves with their
abilities, profession. For example, .

Many people who have access to mystical experiences are not
mentally healthy and not productive that Maslow
considered essential properties of self-actualization, further noting that
he met as many transcending people among businessmen,
teachers, politicians, as well as among those who are considered closer to this musicians, poets, priests, etc.

Before Maslow, there were many theories of various nature.
motivation. However, they did not differ in the necessary completeness. Maslow
brought some clarity to the problem. He made an attempt
hierarchy of motives. According to its hierarchy, the basis is
physiological needs (food, sleep, etc.). Next come the levels
higher needs: the need for security, love and
respect. The highest level is occupied by meta-needs - the need for
perfection, justice, beauty, truth. As satisfied
lower needs
On the way to the incarnation of man

others immediately appear - higher needs, and begin
dominate the body. When they are satisfied, they go out to
scene new needs, even higher levels, and so on. AT
metamotivation is based on the needs and values ​​of growth. Just such
Motivation, according to Maslow, is inherent in a greater degree of self-actualizing
individuals who, in his opinion, are satisfied with lower
motives. Each level of metamotivation corresponds to certain levels
complaints. Complaints regarding lack of safety, arbitrariness
bosses, irregular working hours, etc. - these are complaints of the level
fundamental needs. The levels of higher complaints lie in the spheres
recognition and self-respect: at these "levels, issues of pride are important,
autonomy, self-respect, respect from others, relevant
feelings of self-importance, encouragement, praise, trust from
surrounding. Top-level complaints are about what is detrimental
person's self-esteem.

Meta-complaints are about the frustration of meta-needs. These include
the need for perfection, justice, beauty, truth, etc.
excitedly complaining that the roses in the park are not well cared for,
wonderful in itself, because it indicates the height of the standard of living
complaining>.

In Maslow's book, he introduces a new
concept - to be understood
how and develops
theory of a mentally healthy society, a society that
favors the fullest development and realization of human
opportunities. Maslow believed that society should be made up of
mentally healthy, self-actualized
individuals. However, even an ideal society cannot create them. By
according to Maslow, enable, favor, encourage to become real and
up-to-date>.

Maslow describes a mentally healthy society as opposed to
authoritarian business management, where the authoritarian manager believes
that workers and management have completely opposite,
incompatible goals: workers want to earn as much as possible with
with minimal effort, and therefore they must be well looked after.
Democratic governance assumes that workers want to be
creative and productive that they need support and
approval; people are suspicious, hostile, maybe
will work better in an authoritarian system and unproductive
use freedom. The theory of a mentally healthy society is applicable
only to those who can take responsibility and enjoy
self-government. Therefore, a mentally healthy society should be
of self-actualized people.

On the way to the incarnation of man

In chapter (the term was first used by Ruth Benedict and
stands for joint action) Maslow writes about synergy in
individuals when the success of others is the basis of complete
satisfaction for the individual, and help is offered freely and as
due. Thus, identification with others promotes
high individual synergy.

Synergy can exist within the individual. In perspective man
must do what he has to do, because he wants to do
this is.

In his work, Maslow
touches on educational issues. He rightly believes that education
dance, art or other physical means of expression is an important
moment of traditional education: physically and sensually
oriented subjects require active participation
students. According to Maslow, love, respect, a sense of security, fundamental needs that are equally important for everyone, unfortunately, are not even mentioned in most psychology textbooks.
the word "love".

Maslow introduces a new concept, .
The key is. This type of consciousness has something
in common with, but it is a different type of experience. Here the author
used the image. According to Maslow,
means the sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen, in the lightness of the miraculous...
it means accepting the sharpness and precision of the beauty of things, but not making them
this big noise...> But basically,
lie, according to Maslow, only positive emotions.
The author does not consider
for example, under the influence of fear.

Maslow's theory of self-actualization is a theory of growth, sequential
satisfaction of higher needs. The individual cannot begin the path to
self-actualization, if his lower needs are not satisfied:
security, love, respect.

Self-actualization involves the development of abilities to the maximum
possible, self-actualizing personalities are attracted to difficult,
intricate problems that require maximum creative effort.
Defense mechanisms Abraham Maslow considers as obstacles
personal growth, and itself adds two more types of defenses: desacralization
and.

The volitional component is not specifically considered by Maslow; according to Maslow,
wants to do. Becoming a second rate doctor is not the way to go.
self-actualization. Man wants to be first class, or so
a good doctor, as far as it is possible for him>. Maslow believes that

On the paths of incarnating man

a mentally healthy individual is free from internal conflicts, and
the will is needed in order to develop one's abilities and talents.

Abraham Maslow is rightfully considered the best specialist in the field
human potentiality. His merit is colossal, he founded
new development in modern psychology, the subject of which is
yav ^ t ^ osny ch ^ man of the highest manifestations. ^

-^ization of personality, its highest values ​​and meanings, -b-^^^^^^ freedom,
responsibility, autonomy, mental health, transcendent

tion, etc.

Akulina N.N.

Health and pathology

About Humanistic Biology*

My studies in psychology made me think about many things, and
some of these reflections did not fit into the traditional
psychology - at least within the framework of the psychology that once
I was trained.

Having become interested in the problems of psychology in the thirties, very soon
I found that they cannot be solved by obeying the structure
psychological science that had developed by that time (behavioristic,
positivist, nonjudgmental, mechanomorphic
psychology). And then, quite naturally, I had doubts about
the correctness of the structure itself, and these doubts prompted me to start
the search for other approaches to solving the problems facing psychology. So
over time, the results of my research have developed into a philosophical
concept that includes not only psychology, but also science as
such, as well as religion, production, management, and henceforth
biology. Essentially, I would call it a world view (Wetanschauung).

Today's psychology is not united, it is split into many currents.
If you try to somehow streamline the current situation
psychological science, it can be said that there are at least
at least three psychologies and, accordingly, three disparate groups of scientists.
The first of these are behaviorists1, objectivists, positivists,
mechanists. Second

* These are excerpts from notes written by me in March-April 1968 on
at the request of the director of the Sak Institute of Bioogica Studies, in the hope that
they will help to abandon the safe concept of biology and take on
arming the humanistic philosophy of biology. In these notes I
left aside questions of the apparently borderline in biology and devoted himself to
to what, in my opinion, has not been considered before, or was not
noticed, or was misinterpreted - from my, psychological,
points of view.

Health and pathology

includes a friendly growth, nurtured on Freud's psychoanalysis2.
The third group are humanistic psychologists3, or, as
it is also called, uniting scientists who do not
were able to accept the views of the first two groups. It is about this, the third
direction in psychology, I'm going to talk. I interpret this
third psychology as a science that absorbed the achievements of the other two
psychology, and therefore I will use terms such as
and (means). These terms
help us avoid superficial oppositions, such as
. I am a Freudian, and I am a behaviorist, and I am
humanist, and if it comes to that, then all my activities are aimed at
the development of the fourth psychology - the psychology of the transcendent.

Here I speak only for myself. Even among psychologists
of the humanistic direction, there are those who are rather inclined
record behaviorists and psychoanalysts in the camp of their opponents than
to admit that they have an equal right with them to occupy their branch on
flowering tree of science. I think that this kind of psychologists fall into
into anti-scientific, and perhaps even irrational ecstasy about the role
. And as I in turn consider
only as an initial stage of cognition (a necessary stage, but
insufficient) and since I believe that our ultimate goal should
become the dissemination of knowledge much more general and comprehensive,
than modern psychology, it is better for me to speak only from my own
name.

It is my choice and my mission to think freely, to build theories,
play with conjectures and assumptions - in a word, try to penetrate into
future. It is rather a pioneering activity, the work of a pioneer to put forward a bold hypothesis and go in search of new, even more
unexplored lands than development, sowing and care, irrigation and
land reclamation measures of painstaking work of experimenters.
Of course, the latter form the backbone of science, but it still seems to me that
that it would be a mistake to think that the task of scientists is only to
scrupulous work with facts.

A pioneer, creator, researcher, as a rule, acts in
alone. Tormented by fears and doubts, prone to self-justification,
he nevertheless challenges human ignorance, pride, sometimes even
paranoia4. He must be brave, must not be afraid to look
funny, should not be afraid of mistakes and constantly remember that he and
is, as Polanyi said (126), a kind of player who, with full
missing facts, runs the risk of making the most daring assumptions, and
then for several years trying to find confirmation of them. If a
he is not a madman, then he cannot fully believe his own
assumptions and should be well aware of the fact that he
puts on what is not sure. This is how I present mine here.
conjectures and assumptions.

About Humanistic Biology

I think we can't avoid discussing evaluative biology,
even if by doing so we call into question the whole history and philosophy
western science. I am convinced that the nonjudgmental, neutral model of science,
inherited by biology from physics, chemistry and astronomy, where it was
not only desirable but necessary to keep the church from
intervene in scientific research - this model is completely unsuitable for
scientific knowledge of the living. And it is even more obvious that this priceless
philosophy of science is not suited to the study of such a complex biological
the kind that a person is. Here such concepts as values5,
aspirations, goals, intentions are of paramount importance:
only by operating with them, one can approach the comprehension of the laws
human life, and consequently to the solution of classical
tasks of science - prediction and control.

I am well aware of the heated debates going on within
evolutionary theory and in which such words as
directions, goals, teleology, vitalism. These debates, in my opinion,
confusing and unproductive. I would like to move this discussion to
sphere of psychology, where they can be represented more convexly and where one can
find more direct ways to solve them.

Within the framework of evolutionary theory, disputes about autogenesis in
evolution, about whether the movement and direction of development are caused
purely by coincidence, pure coincidence. me
such reasoning seems to be an excessive luxury, it is simply
impossible when we are dealing with living people. After all, no one
will undertake to assert that this or that person has become a good doctor
accidentally - no one will take such a statement seriously. Exactly
therefore I reject any discussion of mechanical determinism6 and do not
I consider it necessary to put forward any arguments in favor of my decision.

Good people and statistics

I dare say that in order to explore the possibilities of human
nature must be selected from the population of its healthiest, best
specimens, such as would excel the rest in many
indicators. Let me give you some good reasons to support this.
statements.

In my research, I have come across the fact that people with a high degree of
self-actualization7 - the most psychologically healthy people have very high rates of development of cognitive and perceptual
abilities8. them over the rest of the people can
be detected even at the sensory level; I wouldn't be surprised at all
if, for example, some experiment found in them
the ability to distinguish subtle shades of color. One once begun
by me and an experiment that has not been completed can serve as a model for
samples of this kind

Health and pathology

My intention was to
test all freshmen at Brandeis University,
using the best methods of that time, namely, psychiatric
interview9, projective tests, achievement tests10 - and break them down into
several groups. The first of these would include the two percent of the healthiest
in the psychological sense of students, in the second - two percent
average healthy, and finally in the third - two percent of the least healthy
representatives of the population. These three groups then we planned
explore thoroughly with a battery of tests that identify
sensory, perceptual and cognitive characteristics of a person in order to
to test the hypothesis based on clinical observations about
that people with higher mental health scores
more accurately and accurately reflect reality. I had no doubt that
this assumption is confirmed. Then we were supposed to watch
these people, and not only during the four years of their training in
university, when we could compare the received data with their
performance and achievements in various areas of university life.
I hoped that we would be able to start a longitudinal study. "The idea
was to observe these people throughout
their lives, to obtain irrefutable evidence of our hypothesis about
human health. Some evaluation criteria were obvious,
such as, for example, longevity, resistance to psychosomatic
diseases, infections, etc. But we also hoped that during
research reveals other characteristics that we do not
assumed. In fact, that study should have been repeated
California study by Lewis Terman, who, for about forty years,
back selected children with high IQ12 scores and then observed
them for several decades, which he continues to do and
now. His discovery was that people selected in childhood
experimental group13 only on the basis of intelligence, now
adults are superior to their peers from the control group in all
the parameters they checked. From this, Lewis draws the following conclusion: all
the best in a person, all those qualities that one can wish for him,
are positively correlated14 with each other.

The significance of this kind of research lies primarily in the fact that it
radically change our view of statistics, and especially that of its
section, which is in charge of the selection of material for the experiment. to me
I want to name it without a hitch.

If you ask yourself what are the capabilities of man as a biological
type15, then this question should be attributed rather to a small selected
group of people than to the population as a whole. In my opinion, the main
the reason for the failure of hedonistic and ethical theories lies in
that philosophers have confused the pathological desire for pleasure with
healthy and did not even mark the line between the norm and pathology, between
biologically healthy and unhealthy individuals.

About Humanistic Biology

To find out how tall a person can be,
it is quite obvious that you need to select the tallest people and study
them. In order to find out how fast a person can run, you do not need
to derive the arithmetic average speed of all mankind as a whole, you just need to take the Olympic champions in running and see
how well they do it. If we want to know the possibilities
spiritual and personal growth of a person, his moral development, then
here, I'm sure we'll learn more by studying the most righteous, the most
respectable representatives of the human race.

On the whole, I think it's fair to say that the story
of humanity is a series of testimonies of how society does not
puts the individual. The highest impulses of the human soul
almost always underestimated. And even when the saints, sages, great figures of the era - drew attention to themselves
philosophers and scientists, the latter rarely resisted the temptation
explain their spiritual superiority by the presence of the divine principle.

Humanistic biology and the good society

Now it is already obvious that the full actualization of human capabilities, meaning society as a whole, can take place only under certain conditions.
. Or, to put it even more directly, to
the person was good, he needs good living conditions and good
environment. On the other hand, I think the normative philosophy of biology
should adopt the theory of the good society, based on
could be the following definition: a society that favors the fullest development and
uncovering human potential. Perhaps this terminology
at first shocking to classical biologists, who tend only to describe the environment
human habitation and learned to avoid such words as
. But if they think carefully, they will find that
this way of thinking and terminology is far from new to the classical
biology. For example, biologists have long used the term
when talking about genes, the actualization of which depends on
the extent to which the conditions prevailing in the plasma of the embryo,
in the cytoplasm, in the body as a whole, as well as on geographical conditions,
that surround this organism.

Summarizing the results of experiments on laboratory rats, monkeys
and human beings (11), it can be argued that stimulating
the influence of the environment in the early life of the individual has a completely
specific effect on the development of the cerebral cortex, to which
usually the stimulation is reversed. Behaviorists who have studied behavior
primates at Harlow Laboratories came to a similar conclusion. Animals, on
run
22

Health and pathology

stages of life isolated from their own kind, lose
genetically inherent in them opportunities, and one day these losses
become irreplaceable. One more example. Laboratory scientists
Jackson in Bar Harbor revealed that feral dogs accustomed to life
in a pack, it is no longer possible to tame again.

And finally, in many of the Indian children, as it has recently become known,
irreversible changes in the brain due to a lack of proteins in
their diet. If we accept the obvious assumption that
the reasons for this lie in a certain political and economic structure
society of India, in particular its cultural and historical
development, it becomes impossible to deny that a person, as
representative of a biological species, at least for reproduction
full-fledged, healthy individuals need a good society.

Is it possible for the philosophy of biology to develop in a social
isolation, was politically neutral, not utopian, not eupsychic,
so that she does not preach reformist and revolutionary
ideas? Of course, I am far from thinking that the task of biology is social
the reorganization of society. I guess it's a matter of personal taste and
I fully admit that some biologists, concerned that their knowledge
remain unclaimed, wanting to put their discoveries into practice,
go into politics. But I'm not talking about that now. I suggest to biologists
to study man like any other species, not only by describing and
stating the facts, but also evaluating them. And when they take that approach,
they will understand that the main task of human biology is to develop
full-fledged, healthy breed of man and that the fulfillment of this task
unthinkable without studying all those conditions that favor or
on the contrary, they hinder the full disclosure of human capabilities. BUT
for this, obviously, biologists will have to leave their laboratories and
plunge headlong into social life.

Good people as an example for everyone

Numerous studies carried out by me in the thirties,
allow me to assert that the most psychologically healthy
people (as well as the most creative, strongest, smartest, most
righteous) should be used as a biological
material for research, or, speaking metaphorically, they can be
should be used as pioneers, pioneers, called to tell
us, show us and lead us, less inquisitive, less
sensitive, less courageous, to yet unknown, unmastered
territory. Let me give you an example as an illustration. Not difficult
find people who are especially sensitive to the perception of color and shape, and
rely on their judgments regarding color, dressing, furniture shape,
fabrics and other things. Without even intruding on
0 humanistic biology

process of perception16 of these people, just by carefully observing him, in
I will soon be able to predict with certainty which
they will like the shades and shapes, and which ones they won't. In a month or two I
find that I like the same things that they do - as if they,
these people settled in me and at the same time I became more sensitive
or, if you like, more confident and resolute in assessments. That is, I
I can use them as a kind of expert, just like
a collector who buys something for his collection applies for
consultation with an art historian. (This idea is confirmed
Child's research (22), who found that good painters
have similar tastes regardless of artistic preferences and
cultural environment that raised them.) I also assume that such people
to a lesser extent than others, are subject to various kinds
addictions and that their tastes and evaluations depend less on external
influences, fashion, than the tastes and assessments of the majority.

Thus, based on the above example, I arrive at
the conclusion that, highlighting the qualities that distinguish the most psychologically
healthy individuals17 from the rest, I will understand what should be
human. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of Aristotle: a person says that this is good, then this is real.

It is an empirically established fact that people with a high degree
self-actualization is much less common than most people doubt themselves,
think less about whether they are doing right or wrong. Them
It doesn't bother me at all that ninety-five percent of humanity
acts differently. And I must say that these people - in any case
those of them that I studied - found a tendency to the same
assessment of the facts, of what is good and what is bad, as if they felt
some higher reality that lies beyond the limits of human consciousness,
rather than based their assessments on worldly experience, which, as you know,
often suffers from one-sidedness and bias. In a word, I used
them so that they produce value, or rather, they help
I get closer to understanding what is most important for a person.
In other words, I made the following assumption: what is valuable
for these people, in the end it will become valuable for me; I agree with
them, I will accept their values ​​as extrapersonal, universal, as
something that sooner or later will confirm life.

My theory of metamotivation"8 (chapter 23) is based on this. I
selected these outstanding people, who not only have the ability
to perceive the facts, but also able to identify the most important, isolate
valuable, in order to use these values ​​as an example
for imitation and a model for the whole species.

I know I'm saying almost provocative things now, but I'm doing it
deliberately. If desired, I could submit my thought much more
in an innocent way, like just asking questions like: 24

Health and pathology

let's select the most psychologically healthy people, I wonder what they like? What drives them? What are they striving for?
struggling? What do they value?> But I want to be understood correctly, and
therefore, I deliberately pose questions to biologists about the norm and values
(as well as before psychologists and before representatives of social sciences).

It may be useful to look at the problem from a different angle. If a
agree with the conventional wisdom that man is an animal,
able to choose and make decisions, then the topic of choice and acceptance
solution must inevitably be present in any attempt to describe
person. But a good choice and the right decision directly depend on
qualities of a particular person, from his wisdom, from his determination. And
then you have to answer the following questions: What kind of people do
a good choice? Where do such people come from? How do they grow? How they study
doing so? What stops you from making a good choice? What helps it?

Of course, this is just a different way of presenting the old philosophical
question: and after him the ancient
axiological questions: desire?>

I repeat: mankind has reached such a point of biological development,
when it is responsible for its evolution. We have become self-evolvers.
And evolution involves selection, choice and decision making, and
hence - the distribution of estimates.

The connection between mind and body

It seems to me that we are about to make a leap towards bringing into
a qualitatively new ratio of the subjective indicators of our life and
external, objective indicators of the environment. And with that, I expect
a powerful breakthrough in the study of the human nervous system.

The following two examples may serve to confirm that future
research in this direction is not far off. First, research
Olds (122), now widely known, who through
implantation of electrodes in the septal zone of the rhinencephalon found that
this zone is essentially. When
a lab rat discovered that he could stimulate his brain,
she repeated auto-stimulation over and over all the time until
electrodes were implanted in this very center of pleasure. No need
to say that when the animal was given the opportunity
stimulate also the discovered centers of displeasure and pain, it
refused to do so. Stimulation of the pleasure center was
apparently so (or rather,
,) for an animal that it even refused all
other sources of joy, such as food, sex - from any. Now have
we have enough data obtained on humans, and they allow
assume that in humans it is possible - in

About Humanistic Biology

in a certain sense of the word - to cause similar experiences
pleasure.

If we connect this data with others, for example, with those received in
experiments of Kamiyya (58), interesting
capabilities. Kamiya, taking electroencephalograms from his subjects,
alerted them when the frequency of their alpha waves reached a certain
level. Thus, the subject, having the opportunity to correlate the external
an event, or a signal about it, with a subjective feeling of one's state,
could voluntarily control his EEG. In essence, Kamiya showed that
a person can adjust the frequency of their brain's alpha waves to
certain desired level.

But the most important and exciting part of this study is
what Kamiya discovered, and discovered quite by accident, that
bringing the frequency of alpha waves to some specific level
induces a state of serene peace, meditative T and
even happiness. Further study of people practicing
oriental techniques of contemplation and meditation showed that they spontaneously
produce the same EEGs as they taught their subjects
Camiya. It follows irrefutably that people can be trained
happiness and peace of mind. revolutionary consequences of this
discoveries are obvious and numerous - not only to improve
human breed, but also for biological and psychological
science. This discovery alone holds so many possibilities that scientists
enough work for the next century. relationship problem
body and mind, the problem of connection between them, which until now seemed
unsolvable, now it becomes quite operable.

Such data allow us to take a different look at the problem of appraisal
biology. Today, without any reservations, we can say that a healthy
the body clearly and clearly tells us what it considers for itself
important that he is inclined to choose or what state of affairs he considers
desired for yourself. Does it still look too bold if I
shall I call it? Biological values? instinct-like
values? If we write: to press two buttons that cause stimulation of her brain, almost in
one hundred percent of the time clicks on the one that causes stimulation
pleasure center>, then is this description really important
different from what we would say: autostimulation of the pleasure center, the rat appreciates this opportunity>?

I must say that it doesn't matter to me whether I use the word
or not. You can perfectly state everything that I state, not at all
using this term. Probably for the purposes of scientific strategy, or for
at least in order to be understood by a wide scientific
public, I should have been more diplomatic and avoided
this word. But I really don't think it matters. Important,
to get us in earnest off
26

Health and pathology

rushed to these new developments, helping to understand the psychology and
the biology of choice, preference, pleasure, and the like.

I must also stress that we are faced with the dilemma
logical circularity that inevitably arises when developing
similar theories and studies. It is most obvious when
we are talking about human material, although I assume that it is not
avoid when studying other animals. It is already contained in
a statement that good people or healthy animals choose or
prefer this or that. Where can we get away from the fact that sadists,
perverts, masochists, homosexuals, neurotics, psychotics,
suicidal people prefer and choose something completely different than this
do? Or maybe it would be appropriate to spend here
parallel between this fact and the fact that the choice of an animal with increased
the content of adrenaline in the blood differs from the choice of the so-called
individuals? I must immediately clarify that I do not at all consider this
unsolvable problem - it does not need to be avoided, with it you can and should
work. It is quite easy to select people with the help of
psychiatric and psychological tests vi then conclude that
subjects who show such and such results, say,
in the Rorschach test19 or in intelligence tests, will be the most
effective compared to others in food selection. Selection criteria in
in this case will be completely different from the behavioral criterion. I
I consider it possible, and even very probable, that we are now more than ever
close to the fact that through experiments with autoneurostimulation
to prove that the so-called, tested
murderers, sadists, fetishists, is not inherently
, which was called in their experiments by Olds and Kamiya.
Actually, this has long been known to psychiatry. Any experienced
the psychotherapist knows what is behind the neurotic or
perversions, as a rule, are resentment, pain and fear. Yes, and our
subjective experience says the same. We know enough people who
have experienced both healthy and unhealthy feelings in their lives
pleasure. As a rule, they prefer the former and learn
suppress the second. Colin Wilson (161) has clearly shown us that
people who commit sexual crimes have very weak
sexual reactions. Kirkendel (61) also showed that for a person
subjectively, sex is more significant as a manifestation of love than sex in
pure form.

I work with a range of assumptions generated by that humanistic
the approach mentioned above. These assumptions show
the possibility of radical consequences for the philosophy and biology of man.
We can definitely say that they make us pay even more attention.
focus on self-regulation of the body, its self-government and
self-realization. The body has a much stronger craving for
health, growth, and biological success than we might have imagined
a hundred years ago. In tse
0 humanistic biology

Scrap this tendency expresses the organism's desire for autonomy and
independence, it is inherently anti-authoritarian. In this regard, I
I want to turn to Taoism. Its founding principles are already

Part I Health and Pathology Abraham Maslow's numerous studies led him to the conclusion that the most psychologically healthy people (as well as the most creative, strongest, most intelligent, most righteous) should be used as biological material for research, highlighting the qualities , which distinguish the most psychologically healthy individuals from the rest, one can assume what a person should be. It is an empirically established fact that people with a high degree of self-actualization are much less likely than the bulk of people to doubt themselves, think less about whether they are doing right or wrong. The human body strives for autonomy (independence from anything). If you believe in this ability, you can become more Taoist.

Important human problems: 1. The importance and necessity of the appearance good man 2. The problem of creating a good society 3. Satisfaction of basic needs, which then lead to the satisfaction of higher values. Failure to satisfy these needs leads to neurosis, "subhumanity".

Self-actualization: 1. this is an experience, an all-consuming experience, bright, selfless, with full concentration and absolute immersion in it. 2. it is a process when we make each of the choices we face in favor of personal growth. 3. already in the very concept is the assertion that there is a certain subject to actualization. 4. a choice in favor of development, the need to listen to internal signals and the benefits of honesty and responsibility. 5. When you realize who you are and what you are, you will understand your defense mechanisms and gather all your courage to give them up.

Part II Creativity primary secondary What happens to a person in moments of creativity? Rejection of the past Rejection of the future Naivety Rejection of self-control The restraining power of consciousness Shutdown defense mechanisms and self-restraint Strength and courage Integration of a person who comprehends Being Aesthetic comprehension instead of abstract cognition Absolute spontaneity

Src="https://site/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:Part III"> Часть III Ценности Чем глубже человек познает свою природу, желания своего внутреннего, свой темперамент, свою конституцию, свои потребности и устремления, чем отчетливее он осознает, что на самом деле доставляет ему радость, тем легче, естественнее, автоматичнее будет решена им проблема !} value choice. Highest Values or values ​​of Being: (characteristics) Truthful Good Beautiful Whole-hearted Living Unique Perfect Fair Simple Self-sufficient

Part IV Education The main purpose of education is to help a person realize his full potential. One of the main processes of education is all perceptual and cognitive processes, learning processes, all forms of art and creative creation. 1. 2. Intrapersonal Interpersonal There are two systems of education: Traditional Humanistic

Src="https://site/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:Part V Society Concepts Those societies whose social institutions are organized"> Часть V Общество Понятия Высоким синергизмом обладают те общества, социальные институты которых организованы так, чтобы преодолевать полярность между эгоизмом и неэгоизмом, между личным интересом и альтруизмом, так, чтобы человек, добиваясь своих эгоистичных целей, заслужил награды для себя. Если в обществе вознаграждается добро, это - общество с высоким синергизмом. Человек как вид нуждается в очень немногих и очень простых вещах: Во-первых, человеку нужно чувство безопасности, а маленькому человеку нужно ощущать заботу, что равно для него чувству защищенности. Во-вторых, человеку необходимо чувство принадлежности - семье, клану, группе он должен ощущать, что он часть чего-то, и должен знать, что это его право неотъемлемо. В-третьих, человек нуждается в любви, ему необходимо чувствовать, что он любим и заслуживает этого. В-четвертых, ему необходимо уважение и чувство собственной значимости.!}

The level of complaint - and after all, a complaint is nothing more than an expression of a person's desires and aspirations - can serve as an indicator of the motivational level at which a person lives. Inferior complaints are those that come from biological level, from the level of security Higher complaints (meta-complaints) - levels of higher needs are in the areas of recognition and self-esteem; at these levels for a person become important issues pride, autonomy, self-respect, respect from others, feelings of self-worth, encouragement, praise, trust from others become relevant.

Part VI Higher comprehension Characteristics of higher cognition: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Complete, complete, self-sufficient, unitary The object corresponds to the needs of a person, the cognizer reveals to what extent the object, for which it can be used, is useful, dangerous etc. Enriches the object. Makes it more attractive. Separated from time and space. Eternal and universal. Essential values ​​are means-values ​​such as usefulness, desirability and undesirability. Exceptionally abstract. One of the most important aspects of higher realization is naive perception.

Part VII Transcendence and the Psychology of Being Meanings of transcendence: Transcendence as a loss of self-awareness Transcendence of a metapsychological sense Transcendence of time Transcendence of culture Transcendence of the past Transcendence as a mystical experience Transcendence of death, illness, etc. Transcendence of polarity Transcendence of basic needs Love-identification as a form of transcendence Ego Transcendence of one's own weakness, dependence Transcendence means striving for holiness Transcendence by a person of his creed

Src="https://website/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG: Differences between people who have achieved transcendence and people: 1. 2. 3. 4.5."> Различия между людьми, достигшими трансценденции, и людьми: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Для людей, достигших трансценденции, высшие переживания и платопознание становятся самым важным в их жизни Они ясно, просто, естественно и безотчетно могут изъясняться на языке высшего Бытия Они воспринимают мир унитивно, или сакрально Они более ответственно относятся к прекрасному Такие люди, как и все, пришедшие к самоактуализации, вызывают у окружающих любовь!}

Part VIII Metamotivation Motivation - any activity is based on a motive. Motivation comes from needs. activity - when the motive is hidden from the individual. Self-actualized individuals act as people who have satisfied their basic needs, people whose life is controlled by higher motives. They can be called ". Metamotivation is defined: Calls - indulgence of one's own weakness, rather than fulfilling a duty. Calls that oblige us, impose responsibility, force us to act, regardless of what we are doing and what we want.

Src="https://site/presentation/1/37659332_33403014.pdf-img/37659332_33403014.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:People who have satisfied their basic needs become, turn to higher values. Self-actualized people already"> Люди, удовлетворившие свои базовые потребности, становятся, обращаются к высшим ценностям. Самоактуализированные люди уже не первично мотивированы (то есть, мотивированы не базовыми потребностями), они главным образом метамотивированы (мотивированы метапотребностями, высшими ценностями). Высшие ценности имеют инстинктоподобную природу, то есть человек нуждается в них, чтобы а) избежать болезни и б) достичь вочеловеченности или приблизиться к ней. , вызванные депривацией этих потребностей (метапотребностей), метапатологии. Базовые потребности инстинктоподобны по многим причинам но прежде всего потому, что человек нуждается в их удовлетворении, чтобы избежать болезни и недочеловечности, или, говоря позитивно, чтобы двигаться вперед и выше к самоактуализации и вочеловеченности.!}