Methods of sports metrology.

The role of sports metrology in physical education and sports.

Measurement of physical quantities.

Parameters measured in physical culture and sports

Measurement scales

Accuracy of measurements.

1.1. The subject and objectives of the course "Sports metrology"

In the daily practice of mankind and each individual, measurement is quite a common procedure. Measurement, along with calculation, is directly related to the material life of society, since it has been developed in the process of practical development of the world by man. Measurement, like counting and calculation, has become an integral part of social production and distribution, an objective starting point for the emergence of mathematical disciplines, and primarily geometry, and hence a necessary prerequisite for the development of science and technology.

At the very beginning, at the moment of their appearance, measurements, no matter how different they may be, were, of course, of an elementary nature. Thus, the calculus of the set of objects a certain kind based on comparison with the number of fingers. The measurement of the length of certain objects was based on comparison with the length of a finger, foot or step. This accessible method was originally in literally"Experimental Computing and Measurement Technology". It has its roots in the distant era of the "childhood" of mankind. Whole centuries passed before the development of mathematics and other sciences, the emergence of measuring technology, caused by the needs of production and trade, communications between individuals and nations, led to the emergence of well-developed and differentiated methods and technical means in various fields of knowledge.

Now it is difficult to imagine any human activity in which measurements would not be used. Measurements are carried out in science, industry, agriculture, medicine, trade, military affairs, labor protection and the environment, in everyday life, sports, etc. Measurement makes it possible to control technological processes, industrial enterprises, the training of athletes and the national economy as a whole. The requirements for the accuracy of measurements, the speed of obtaining measurement information, and the measurement of a complex of physical quantities have sharply increased and continue to grow. The number of complex measuring systems and measuring and computing complexes is increasing.

Measurements at a certain stage of their development led to the emergence of metrology, which is currently defined as "the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and the required accuracy." This definition testifies to the practical orientation of metrology, which studies the measurements of physical quantities and the elements that form these measurements and develops the necessary rules and regulations. The word "metrology" is composed of two ancient Greek words: "metro" - measure and "logos" - teaching, or science.

Modern metrology includes three components: legal metrology, fundamental (scientific) and practical (applied) metrology.

Sports metrology is the science of measurement in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, as one of the components of practical (applied) metrology. However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology for the following reasons. In physical education and sports, some of the physical quantities (time, mass, length, force), on the problems of unity and accuracy, which metrologists focus on, are also subject to measurement. But most of all, specialists in this industry are interested in pedagogical, psychological, social, biological indicators, which in their content cannot be called physical. General metrology practically does not deal with the methods of their measurements, and therefore it became necessary to develop special measurements, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes. A feature of sports metrology is that the term “measurement” is interpreted in it in the broadest sense, since in sports practice it is not enough to measure only physical quantities. In physical culture and sports, in addition to measurements of length, height, time, mass and other physical quantities, it is necessary to evaluate technical mastery, expressiveness and artistry of movements, and similar non-physical quantities.

The subject of sports metrology are comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

Along with the development of fundamental and practical metrology, the formation of legal metrology took place.

legal metrology is a branch of metrology, including complexes of interrelated and interdependent general rules, as well as other issues that need regulation and control by the state, aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments.

Legal metrology serves as a means of state regulation of metrological activities through laws and legislative provisions that are put into practice through the State Metrological Service and the metrological services of state authorities and legal entities. The field of legal metrology includes testing and approval of the type of measuring instruments and their verification and calibration, certification of measuring instruments, state metrological control and supervision of measuring instruments.

Metrological rules and norms of legal metrology are harmonized with the recommendations and documents of relevant international organizations. Thus, legal metrology contributes to the development of international economic and trade relations and promotes mutual understanding in international metrological cooperation.

Sports metrology methods

The main method of sports metrology is complex control. There are three main forms of control over the state of the athlete:

A) Staged control, the purpose of which is to assess the staged state of the athlete;

B) current control, the main task of which is to determine everyday, current fluctuations in the athlete's condition;

C) Operational control, the purpose of which is an express assessment of the athlete's condition at the moment.

The ultimate goal of integrated control is to obtain reliable and reliable information for managing the process of physical education and sports training.

In all cases of control, any measurements or tests - tests - are used to judge the condition of an athlete. Their construction and selection must satisfy certain requirements, which are considered in the so-called test theory . After testing has been carried out, its results must be evaluated. Analysis various ways evaluation is given in the so-called valuation theory . The theory of tests and the theory of assessments are those sections of sports metrology that are of general importance for all specific types of control used in the process of training an athlete.

In addition, the methods of mathematical statistics, also used in sports metrology, are a significant help in data analysis. These methods are used to analyze the results of mass repetitive measurements. The results of such measurements always differ from each other due to numerous reasons that are not controllable and vary from one measurement to another. Mass measurements of homogeneous objects with qualitative commonality reveal certain regularities. When using statistical methods, three stages of the study are distinguished:

A) statistical observation, which is a systematic, scientifically based collection of data characterizing the object under study;

B) statistical summary and grouping, which are an important preparatory part for statistical analysis data;

C) analysis of statistical material, which is the final stage of the statistical approach.

Similar information.

M. A. Godik

SPORTS

METROLOGY

Approved by the State Committee of the USSR

on physical culture and sports as a textbook

for institutes of physical culture

"PHYSICAL CULTURE AND SPORT"

LBC 75.1

Reviewers:

doctor biological sciences, Professor A. N. LAPUTIN, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor I. P. RATOV

Godik M. A.

G59 Sports metrology: A textbook for institutes of physics. cult. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1988.-

192 p., ill.

AT The textbook outlines the metrological foundations of complex control in physical education and sports, the technology and methodology for recording the results of measurements in tests, measuring and evaluating the indicators of competitive and training activities of athletes, as well as their level of preparedness.

The metrological aspects of selection, forecasting and modeling in physical education are considered. sports.

For students of institutes of physical culture.

© Publishing house "Physical culture and sport", 1988.

FOREWORD

When writing the textbook "Sports Metrology", the author proceeded from the fact that coaches (teachers, instructors of physical education, organizational workers) can effectively plan the content of their activities only if they have constant information about the athlete (athlete, sports team and his activities). The processing and analysis of this information allows you to choose the main areas of work, make quality plans and training programs. Therefore, already in chapter 1 this provision is revealed on specific example the relationship between training loads and indicators characterizing the preparedness of athletes.

The key chapters in the textbook are chapters 2, 3 and 4, which set out the issues of measurement accuracy, test requirements, and evaluation of their results. The theoretical and especially practical material of these chapters should form the following basic rules for students: 1) strive for the highest possible measurement accuracy, be able to determine the magnitude, type and causes of errors, learn how to eliminate them; 2) out of a huge number of tests, use only those that meet metrological requirements.

The student should be well aware that the variability in the results of repeated measurements in any test is due to three reasons. The first is systematic and random errors in the operation of measuring equipment. The second is the errors that arise due to the non-standard testing procedure. And finally, the third reason is the constant variability functional systems athlete's body as a socio-biological object.

The elimination of errors caused by the first two reasons is mandatory. The third reason is an objectively existing reality that characterizes the stability of the actions and functions of an athlete. It may indicate the adaptive processes that occur during training. It is impossible to eliminate this reason by means of metrology, but it is necessary to know it and take it into account when planning.

The assimilation of this section is possible only if there is a good laboratory workshop, the content of which is formed on the basis of the material of chapters 6 and 7. In addition to practical exercises in sports metrology, classes at the departments of specialization and medical and biological departments will be useful, during which a wide variety of measurements should be taken.

operational control as the basis for constant correction of the load of training sessions. At the same time, the main provisions of the control of technical and tactical skills, physical qualities, loads are revealed on the examples of groups of sports (as it was done in Chapter 9).

There is no section "Statistical Methods for Processing Measurement Results" in this textbook, since a special edition is planned for 1988. study guide on statistics in physical education and sports.

When presenting a number of sections of the course, indicators (tests, criteria) were used, with the content and essence of which many first-year students are unfamiliar. This applies primarily to biomechanical, physiological, biochemical tests. Naturally, a detailed description of all of them will be given when studying the relevant disciplines. But since they are studied after sports metrology, we considered it appropriate to briefly, without delving into specific features, to explain their essence as criteria for integrated control. Such an explanation is given in the reference material at the end of the textbook.

To preserve the continuity of the course, some basic concepts and definitions are used here, the authors of which in the textbook "Sports Metrology" (1982) were prof. V.M.Zatsiorsky and prof. V. L. Utkin. Basically, the structure of the previous textbook has also been preserved, since both of them reflect the content of the same program.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS METROLOGY

1.1. SUBJECT OF SPORTS METROLOGY

Sports metrology is the science of measurements in physical

skom education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, the main task of which, as is well known, is to ensure the accuracy and uniformity of measurements. However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology. This is due to the following circumstances.

Firstly, metrologists focus their attention on the problems of unity and accuracy of measurements of physical quantities. These include: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, light intensity, and amount of matter.

AT physical education and sports, some of these quantities (time, mass, length, strength) are also subject to measurement. But most of all, specialists in our industry are interested in pedagogical, psychological, social, biological indicators, which cannot be called physical in their content. General metrology practically does not deal with the methods of their measurements, and therefore it became necessary to develop special measurements, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes.

Secondly, in the curriculum of physical culture institutes there are sections from other areas of knowledge (for example, the basics of mathematical statistics, instrumental methods, expert assessments). The volume of teaching these sections is small, and in essence they are very close to the issues that should be dealt with by metrologists in sports. It is not advisable to introduce these sections of knowledge as special subjects into the curriculum and create the corresponding departments. Therefore, they were included in the course of sports metrology.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

AT In the practice of physical education and sports, there are quite widespread ideas that such control can be called complex, during which pedagogical, psychological, sociological and other indicators are used. This approach, as a rule, is one-sided, since it does not allow realizing the ultimate goal of control - to obtain reliable and reliable information for managing the process of physical education and sports training. Can be used,

for example, all existing methods of control, evaluating only competitive (or only training) activity, and not getting a comprehensive assessment. Therefore, only such control can be called complex, during which various indicators of competitive and training activity, as well as the condition of athletes are recorded. Only in this case it is possible to compare their values, to establish causal relationships between loads and results in competitions and tests. After such a comparison and analysis, you can begin to develop programs and training plans.

There are three types of integrated control: staged, current and operational. The general scheme illustrating the relationship between the directions and varieties of integrated control is presented in Table. one.

1.2. MANAGEMENT OF THE PROCESS OF PREPARATION OF ATHLETES

Managing the process of training athletes includes five stages:

1) collecting information about the athlete, as well as the environment in which he lives, trains and competes;

2) analysis of the received information;

3) making decisions on training strategies and drawing up training programs and plans;

4) implementation of training programs and plans;

5) monitoring the progress of implementation, making the necessary corrections to planning documents and drawing up new programs

and plans.

It is known that the goal of any control is the transfer of an object (system) from one state to another. With regard to the training of athletes, this translation is expressed primarily in improving the result in competitions. On the individual stages training, there may be more local tasks - improving technical and tactical skills, the level of volitional and motor qualities. Ultimately, the solution to each of them will affect the achievement of more high results in competitions.

The transfer of an object from one state to another is carried out with the help of actions. In the preparation of athletes, they should include the performance of various exercises, as well as the use of some other factors - the external environment (for example, mid-mountain conditions), special nutrition, etc. changes in the preparedness of athletes correspond to those planned by the coach.

These changes can be assessed by many indicators, but in practice the most significant or informative ones are used.

* It should be noted that specialists receive significant information about the preparedness of athletes in the course of monitoring their competitive and training activities. However, the conditions under which competitions and training take place are difficult to standardize; in addition, their results give an integral estimate. The coach, on the other hand, often needs information about individual aspects of preparedness, which can only be obtained in specially organized standard conditions.

The collection of information (the first stage of the management process) must be considered as the most important stage in the management of the training process. The content of the decisions made on load planning depends on the reliability of the information.

As shown in section 1.1, meaningful analysis requires information about the competitive and training loads and the condition of athletes. Having it, the trainer will be able to analyze the initial data, placing the actual

Rice. 1. Dynamics of load volume and some physiological indicators in the annual training cycle of cyclists (according to V. M., Zatsiorsky et al.)

rial as it is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The figure shows how different load ratios lead to a change in the state of athletes. So, for example, a constant increase in April-August of the volume of loads performed with a heart rate of 150-180 beats / min leads to an increase in physical performance (test -PWC 170 ) and anaerobic capacity (TAN test - anaerobic metabolism threshold).

When drawing up such schemes, the most crucial moment is the choice of specific indicators, the relationship of the dynamics of which will serve as the basis for managing the training process.

Theoretically, there can be a lot of such indicators, which is clearly seen from the following example. Suppose that we need to analyze information about the state of competitive and training activities of sprinters-athletes *.

In competitive sprinting, the following indicators can be measured: reaction time; time to reach υ max , its retention and reduction, speed at various points of the distance; length and frequency of steps; fluctuations of the common center of mass and segments of the body, their speed and acceleration; the time of the reference and flight phases at different points of the distance; vertical and horizontal repulsive forces; energy costs, etc.

The training activity of sprinters is characterized by the following indicators: the number of training sessions; the time spent on them; private volumes of exercises

* From this point of view, this sport is one of the simplest. First, most of the indicators in it can be objectively measured. Secondly, there are much fewer of them than, for example, in games and martial arts.

personal orientation (running on segments up to 80 m, over 80 m, exercises with weights, etc.).

The physical condition of sprinters, assessed under standard conditions, is characterized by:

- physique level (body length and weight, volume of muscle and adipose tissue, length of body segments, etc.);

- health status (dozens of different medical indicators);

- the degree of development of motor qualities, measured under standard conditions (maximum aerobic and anaerobic capacity, power and efficiency; strength indicators of the flexors and extensors of the legs, torso, etc.).

In addition, it is necessary to evaluate mental qualities athletes - this is dozens of indicators.

Thus, it is theoretically possible to measure hundreds (1) of different indicators, but in practice this cannot be done: firstly, it will take too much time; secondly, a lot of expensive equipment and maintenance personnel will be required; thirdly, and most importantly, many of the indicators are not sufficiently reliable and informative. Therefore, the main task in such a situation is to choose the minimum number of indicators with which you can get the most useful information and use it in managing the process of training athletes. How this is done will be discussed in subsequent chapters of the tutorial.

BASICS OF THE THEORY OF MEASUREMENTS

The measurement of a physical quantity is an operation, as a result of which it is determined how many times this quantity is greater (or less) than another quantity taken as a standard. So, a meter is taken as the standard of length, and by taking measurements in competitions or in a test, we find out how many meters, for example, are contained in the result shown by an athlete in a long jump, in a shot put, etc. Similarly, you can measure the time of movements, the power developed during their execution, etc.

But not only such measurements have to be performed in sports practice. Very often it is necessary to evaluate the expressiveness of the exercises in figure skating or rhythmic gymnastics, the complexity of the movements of jumpers into the water, fatigue marathon runners, tactical skills of football players and fencers. There are no legalized standards here, but it is these measurements that are the most informative in many sports.

mative. In this case measurement will be called the establishment of a correspondence between the phenomena under study, on the one hand, and numbers, on the other.

The introduction of scientific and technological progress in physical education and sports begins with a comprehensive control. Information,

received here, serves as a basis for all subsequent actions of trainers, scientific and administrative workers. Thousands of coaches and professionals evaluating something (such as the endurance of sprinters or the effectiveness of boxers) should do it the same way. There are measurement standards for this.

A standard is a regulatory and technical document that establishes a set of norms, rules, requirements for an object of standardization (in this case to sports measurements) and approved

issued by the competent authority. The use of the standard improves the accuracy, economy and uniformity of measurements. For amplification

organizational, legal, methodological and practical foundations of this activity.

Management of work on metrology and standardization of the

a series of standardization and measurement business, prospects for their development, monitors the unity and correctness of any measurements in the country. All this is done to speed up scientific and technical progress in all industries National economy, improve product quality, improve the organization and management of production.

Management of standardization in physical education and sports

Research Institute of Physical Education (VNIIFK). They establish industry standards that are mandatory for all workers in physical culture and sports.

2.1. METROLOGICAL SUPPORT OF MEASUREMENTS IN SPORTS

Metrological support is the application of scientific and organizational foundations, technical means, rules and norms necessary to achieve the unity and accuracy of measurements in physical

physical education and sports. The scientific basis of this provision is metrology, the organizational one is the metrological service of the State Committee for Sports of the USSR. Technical basis includes: 1) a system of state standards; 2) a system for the development and release of measuring instruments; 3) metrological certification and verification of measuring instruments and methods; 4) a system of standard data on indicators to be controlled in the process of training athletes.

Metrological support is aimed at ensuring the unity and accuracy of measurements. The unity of measurements is achieved by the fact that their results must be presented in legal units and with a known probability of errors. Currently used international

"Sports Metrology"

The subject, tasks and content of "Sports metrology", its place among other academic disciplines.

Sports metrology- is the science of measurement in physical education and sport. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, the main task of which, as is well known, is to ensure the accuracy and uniformity of measurements.

In this way, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes. The word "metrology" in translation from ancient Greek means "the science of measurements" (metron - measure, logos - word, science).

The main task of general metrology is to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements. Sports metrology as a scientific discipline is part of general metrology. Its main tasks include:

1. Development of new means and methods of measurements.

2. Registration of changes in the state of those involved under the influence of various physical loads.

3. Collection of mass data, formation of assessment systems and norms.

4. Processing of the obtained measurement results in order to organize effective control and management of the training process.

However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology. So, in physical education and sports, in addition to ensuring the measurement of physical quantities, such as length, mass, etc., pedagogical, psychological, biological and social indicators are subject to measurement, which cannot be called physical in their content. General metrology does not deal with the methodology of their measurements and, therefore, special measurements have been developed, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes.

The use of mathematical statistics methods in sports metrology made it possible to get a more accurate idea of ​​the measured objects, compare them and evaluate the measurement results.

In the practice of physical education and sports, measurements are taken in the process of systematic control (fr. checking something), during which various indicators of competitive and training activities are recorded, as well as the condition of athletes. Such control is called complex.

This makes it possible to establish causal relationships between loads and results in competitions. And after comparison and analysis, develop a program and plan for the training of athletes.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

Systematic monitoring of athletes makes it possible to determine the measure of their stability and take into account possible measurement errors.

2.Scales and units of measurement. SI system.

Name scale

Actually measurements corresponding to the definition of this action are not made in the scale of names. Here we are talking about grouping objects that are identical in a certain way, and assigning them designations. It is no coincidence that another name for this scale is nominal (from the Latin word nome - name).

The designations assigned to objects are numbers. For example, track and field athletes-long jumpers in this scale can be designated by number 1, high jumpers - 2, triple jumpers - 3, pole vaulters - 4.

With nominal measurements, the introduced symbolism means that object 1 only differs from objects 2, 3 or 4. However, how much it differs and in what exactly, it cannot be measured on this scale.

order scale

If some objects have a certain quality, then ordinal measurements allow us to answer the question about the differences in this quality. For example, the 100m race is

determination of the level of development of speed-strength qualities. The athlete who won the race, the level of these qualities at the moment is higher than that of the second one. The second, in turn, is higher than the third, and so on.

But most often the order scale is used where qualitative measurements in the accepted system of units are impossible.

When using this scale, you can add and subtract ranks or perform any other mathematical operations on them.

Interval scale

The measurements in this scale are not only ordered by rank, but also separated by certain intervals. The interval scale has units of measurement (degree, second, etc.). The measured object here is assigned a number equal to the number of units it contains.

Here you can use any methods of statistics, except for the definition of relationships. This is due to the fact that the zero point of this scale is chosen arbitrarily.

Relationship scale

In the scale of ratios, the zero point is not arbitrary, and therefore, at some point in time, the quality being measured can be equal to zero. In this regard, when evaluating the results of measurements in this scale, it is possible to determine “how many times” one object is larger than another.

In this scale, one of the units of measurement is taken as a standard, and the measured value contains as many of these units as it is many times larger than the standard. The results of measurements in this scale can be processed by any methods of mathematical statistics.

Basic SI units

Value Unit Name Designation

Russian international

Length L Meter m m

Weight M Kilogram kg kg

Time T Second s S

The strength of el. current Amp A A

Temperature Kelvin K K

Quantity of substance Mole mole mol

Light intensity Candella cd cd

3. Measurement accuracy. Errors and their varieties and methods of elimination.

No measurement can be made absolutely accurate. The measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is the smaller, the more accurate the measurement method and the measuring device.

Basic error is the error in a measurement method or measuring instrument that occurs under normal conditions of use.

Additional error- this is the error of the measuring device, caused by the deviation of its operating conditions from normal.

The value D A \u003d A-A0, equal to the difference between the reading of the measuring device (A) and the true value of the measured value (A0), is called the absolute measurement error. It is measured in the same units as the measurand itself.

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the value of the measured quantity:

A systematic error is called, the value of which does not change from measurement to measurement. Due to this feature, the systematic error can often be predicted in advance or, in extreme cases, detected and eliminated at the end of the measurement process.

Taring (from German tarieren) is the verification of the readings of measuring instruments by comparison with the readings of exemplary values ​​​​of measures (standards *) in the entire range of possible values ​​​​of the measured value.

Calibration is the definition of errors or correction for a set of measures (for example, a set of dynamometers). Both during taring and calibration, instead of the athlete, a source of a reference signal of a known value is connected to the input of the measuring system.

Randomization (from the English random - random) is the transformation of a systematic error into a random one. This technique is aimed at eliminating unknown systematic errors. According to the randomization method, the measurement of the studied quantity is performed several times. In this case, the measurements are organized in such a way that the constant factor influencing their result acts differently in each case. For example, in the study of physical performance, it can be recommended to measure it repeatedly, each time changing the method of setting the load. At the end of all measurements, their results are averaged according to the rules of mathematical statistics.

Random errors arise under the influence of various factors that cannot be predicted in advance or accurately taken into account.

4. Fundamentals of the theory of probability. Random event, random variable, probability.

Probability theory- Probability theory can be defined as a branch of mathematics that studies the patterns inherent in mass random phenomena.

Conditional Probability- conditional probability PA(B) of event B is the probability of event B found under the assumption that event A has already occurred.

elementary event- events U1, U2, ..., Un, forming a complete group of pairwise incompatible and equally possible events, will be called elementary events.

random event - an event is called random if it can objectively occur or not occur in a given test.

Event - the result (outcome) of a test is called an event.

Any random event has some degree of possibility, which in principle can be measured numerically. In order to compare events according to the degree of their possibility, it is necessary to associate with each of them some number, which is the greater, the greater the possibility of the event. We will call this number the probability of the event.

Characterizing the probabilities of events by numbers, you need to establish some kind of unit of measurement. As such a unit, it is natural to take the probability of a certain event, i.e. an event which, as a result of experience, must inevitably occur.

The probability of an event is a numerical expression of the possibility of its occurrence.

In some of the simplest cases, the probabilities of events can be easily determined directly from the test conditions.

Random value- this is a quantity that, as a result of experience, takes one of the many values, and the appearance of one or another value of this quantity before its measurement cannot be accurately predicted.

5. General and sample populations. Sample size. disordered and ranked sampling.

In sample observation, the concepts of "general population" are used - the population of units being studied, which is to be studied according to the characteristics of interest to the researcher, and "sample population" - some part of it randomly selected from the general population. This sample is subject to the requirement of representativeness, i.e. when studying only a part of the general population, the findings can be applied to the entire population.

The characteristics of the general and sample populations can be the average values ​​of the characteristics under study, their variances and standard deviations, mode and median, etc. Researchers may also be interested in the distribution of units according to the characteristics under study in the general and sample populations. In this case, the frequencies are called general and sample frequencies, respectively.

The system of selection rules and ways of characterizing the units of the population under study is the content of the sampling method, the essence of which is to obtain primary data when observing the sample, followed by generalization, analysis and distribution to the entire population in order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon under study.

The representativeness of the sample is ensured by the observance of the principle of random selection of objects in the population in the sample. If the population is qualitatively homogeneous, then the principle of randomness is realized by a simple random selection sample objects. Simple random selection is such a sampling procedure that provides for each unit of the population the same probability of being selected for observation for any sample of a given size. Thus, the purpose of the sampling method is to draw a conclusion about the meaning of the characteristics of the general population based on information from a random sample from this population.

Sample size - in an audit - the number of units selected by the auditor from the audited population. Sample called disordered if the order of the elements in it is not significant.

6. Basic statistical characteristics of the position of the center of the series.

Indicators of the location of the distribution center. These include power mean in the form of arithmetic mean and structuralthe averages are the mode and the median.

arithmetic mean for a discrete distribution series is calculated by the formula:

Unlike the arithmetic mean, calculated on the basis of all variants, the mode and median characterize the value of a feature in a statistical unit that occupies a certain position in the variation series.

Median ( Me) -the value of a feature of a statistical unit that is in the middle of the ranked series and divides the population into two parts equal in number.

Fashion (Mo) - the most common feature value in the population. Mode is widely used in statistical practice for studying consumer demand, price registration, etc.

For discrete variational series Mo and Me are selected in accordance with the definitions: mode - as the value of the feature with the highest frequency : the position of the median for an odd population size is determined by its number, where N is the volume of the statistical population. For an even length of the series, the median is equal to the average of the two options in the middle of the series.

The median is used as the most reliable indicator typical values ​​of a heterogeneous population, since it is insensitive to extreme values ​​of the trait, which may differ significantly from the main array of its values. In addition, the median finds practical application due to a special mathematical property: Consider the definition of mode and median in the following example: there is a number of distribution of work sites by skill level.

7. Basic statistical characteristics of dispersion (variations).

The homogeneity of statistical populations is characterized by the magnitude of the variation (scattering) of the attribute, i.e. mismatch of its values ​​for different statistical units. To measure variation in statistics, absolute and relative indicators are used.

To absolute indicators of variation relate:

Range of variation R is the simplest indicator of variation:

This indicator is the difference between the maximum and minimum values ​​of features and characterizes the spread of the population elements. The range captures only the extreme values ​​of the trait in the aggregate, does not take into account the frequency of its intermediate values, and also does not reflect the deviations of all variants of the trait values.

The scope is often used in practice, for example, the difference between max and min pension, salary in various industries, etc.

Average linear deviationd is more strict characterization variation of a feature that takes into account the differences of all units of the studied population. Average linear deviation represents arithmetic mean of absolute values deviations of individual options from their arithmetic mean. This indicator is calculated using the simple and weighted arithmetic mean formulas:

In practical calculations, the average linear deviation is used to assess the rhythm of production, the uniformity of supplies. Since the modules have poor mathematical properties, in practice other indicators of the average deviation from the mean are often used - variance and standard deviation.

Standard deviation is the root mean square of the deviations of the individual values ​​of the attribute from their arithmetic mean:

8. Reliability of differences in statistical indicators.

AT statistics the quantity is called statistically significant, if the probability of its occurrence by chance is small, that is, null hypothesis may be rejected. A difference is said to be "statistically significant" if there are data that would be unlikely to occur, assuming that the difference does not exist; this expression does not mean that this difference should be large, important, or significant in the general sense of the word.

9. Graphic representation of variation series. Polygon and distribution histogram.

Graphs are a visual form of displaying distribution series. To display the series, line graphs and planar diagrams are used, built in a rectangular coordinate system.

Various charts are used for graphical representation of distribution attribute series: bar, line, pie, curly, sector, etc.

For discrete variational series, the graph is a distribution polygon.

A distribution polygon is a broken line connecting points with coordinates or where is the discrete value of the feature, is the frequency, is the frequency. A polygon is used for a graphical representation of a discrete variational series, and this graph is a kind of statistical broken lines. Variants of a feature are plotted along the abscissa axis in a rectangular coordinate system, and the frequencies of each variant are plotted along the ordinate axis. At the intersection of the abscissa and the ordinate, the points corresponding to this distribution series are fixed. Connecting these points with straight lines, we get a broken line, which is a polygon, or an empirical distribution curve. To close the polygon, the extreme vertices are connected to points on the abscissa axis that are one division apart on the accepted scale, or to the midpoints of the previous (before the initial) and subsequent (behind the last) intervals.

To display interval variation series, histograms are used, which are stepped figures consisting of rectangles, the bases of which are equal to the width of the interval, and the height is equal to the frequency (frequency) of an equal-interval series or the distribution density of an unequal interval. ) variation series. At the same time, the intervals of the series are plotted on the abscissa axis. Rectangles are built on these segments, the height of which along the ordinate axis in the accepted scale corresponds to the frequencies. At equal intervals along the abscissa, rectangles are laid, closed with each other, with equal bases and ordinates proportional to the weights. This stepped polygon is called a histogram. Its construction is similar to the construction of bar charts. The histogram can be converted into a distribution polygon, for which the midpoints of the upper sides of the rectangles are connected by straight line segments. Two extreme points rectangles are closed along the abscissa in the middle of the intervals, similar to closing a polygon. In case of inequality of intervals, the graph is built not by frequencies or frequencies, but by distribution density (the ratio of frequencies or frequencies to the interval value), and then the heights of the graph rectangles will correspond to the values ​​of this density.

When plotting distribution series great importance has a ratio of scales along the abscissa axis and the ordinate axis. In this case, it is necessary to be guided by the "golden section rule", according to which the height of the graph should be approximately two times less than its base.

10. Normal distribution law (essence, value). Normal distribution curve and its properties. http://igriki.narod.ru/index.files/16001.GIF

A continuous random variable X is called normally distributed if its distribution density is equal to

where m is the mathematical expectation of a random variable;

σ2 - variance of a random variable, a characteristic of the dispersion of the values ​​of a random variable around the mathematical expectation.

The condition for the emergence of a normal distribution is the formation of a sign as the sum of a large number of mutually independent terms, none of which is characterized by an exceptionally large dispersion compared to other ones.

The normal distribution is limiting, other distributions approach it.

The mathematical expectation of a random variable X. is distributed according to the normal law, equal to

mx = m, and the variance Dx = σ2.

The probability of hitting a random variable X, distributed according to the normal law, in the interval (α, β) is expressed by the formula

where is a tabulated function

11. The rule of three sigma and its practical application.

When considering the normal distribution, an important special case is highlighted, known as the three-sigma rule.

Those. the probability that a random variable deviates from its mathematical expectation by an amount greater than three times the standard deviation is practically zero.

This rule is called the three sigma rule.

In practice, it is considered that if for any random variable the rule of three sigma is satisfied, then this random variable has a normal distribution.

12. Types of statistical relationship.

A qualitative analysis of the phenomenon under study makes it possible to single out the main cause-and-effect relationships of this phenomenon, to establish factorial and effective signs.

Relationships studied in statistics can be classified according to a number of features:

1) By the nature of the dependence: functional (hard), correlation (probabilistic) Functional relationships are relationships in which each value of the factor attribute corresponds to a single value of the effective attribute.

In the case of correlations, different values ​​of the resultant attribute may correspond to a separate value of a factor attribute.

Such connections are manifested with a large number of observations, through a change in the average value of the resulting trait under the influence of factor traits.

2) By analytical expression: rectilinear, curvilinear.

3) In direction: direct, reverse.

4) According to the number of factor signs that influence the resultant sign: single-factor, multi-factor.

Tasks of statistical study of relationships:

Establishing the presence of a direction of communication;

Quantitative measurement of the influence of factors;

Measurement of tightness of communication;

Assessment of the reliability of the obtained data.

13. Main tasks of correlation analysis.

1. Measuring the degree of connectivity of two or more variables. Our general knowledge of objectively existing causal relationships must be supplemented by scientifically based knowledge of quantitative measure of dependence between variables. This paragraph means verification already known links.

2. Finding unknown causal relationships. Correlation analysis does not directly reveal causal relationships between variables, but establishes the strength of these relationships and their significance. The causal nature is clarified with the help of logical reasoning, revealing the mechanism of connections.

3. Selection of factors that significantly affect the trait. The most important factors are those that correlate most strongly with the traits being studied.

14. Correlation field. Relationship forms.

An auxiliary tool for analyzing sample data. If the values ​​of two features xl. . . xn and yl. . . yn, then when compiling the K. p., points with coordinates (xl, yl) (xn ... yn) are applied to the plane. The location of the points allows you to make a preliminary conclusion about the nature and form of dependence.

To describe the causal relationship between phenomena and processes, the division of statistical features is used, reflecting separate aspects of interrelated phenomena, on the factor and result.Factors are signs that cause a change in other related signs., being the causes and conditions of such changes. The characteristics that change under the influence of factor factors are effective..

The forms of manifestation of existing relationships are very diverse. The most common types are functional and statistical relationships.

functionalcall such a relationship in which a certain value of a factor attribute corresponds to one and only one value of the effective. Such a connection is possible with provided that the behavior of one sign (effective) is affected by only the second sign (factorial) and no others. Such connections are abstractions; in real life they are rare, but are widely used in the exact sciences and in First of all, in mathematics. For example: the dependence of the area of ​​a circle on radius: S=π∙ r 2

The functional relationship is manifested in all cases of observation and for each specific unit of the studied population. In mass phenomena appear statistical relationships in which a strictly defined value of a factor attribute is associated with a set of values ​​of the effective. Such links take place if a resultant sign is affected by several factorial, and one or more determining (accounted for) factors.

A strict distinction between functional and statistical relationships can be obtained from their mathematical formulation.

The functional connection can be represented by the equation:
due to uncontrollable factors or measurement errors.

An example of a statistical relationship is the dependence of the cost of a unit of production on the level of labor productivity: the higher the productivity of labor, the lower the cost. But in addition to labor productivity, other factors also influence the unit cost of production: the cost of raw materials, materials, fuel, general production and general business expenses, etc. Therefore, it cannot be argued that a change in labor productivity by 5% (increase) will lead to a similar cost reduction. The opposite picture can also be observed if other factors influence the cost to a greater extent, for example, prices for raw materials and materials will rise sharply.

ISBN 5900871517 The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of physical culture faculties of pedagogical universities and institutes. And the term measurement in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers. In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. Multidimensionality big number variables you need...

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Page 2

UDC 796

Polevshchikov M.M. Sports metrology. Lecture 3: Measurements in physical culture and sports. / Mari State University. Yoshkar-Ola: MarSU, 2008. - 34 p.

ISBN 5-900871-51-7

The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of physical culture faculties of pedagogical universities and institutes. The collections contain theoretical material on the basics of metrology, standardization, and reveal the content of management and control in the process of physical education and sports.

The proposed manual will be useful not only for students in the study of the discipline "Sports Metrology", but also for university professors, graduate students involved in research work.

Mari State

University, 2008.

MEASUREMENTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Testing indirect measurement

Grade unified meter

Sports results and tests

Features of measurements in sports

The subjects of sports metrology, as part of general metrology, are measurements and control in sports. And the term "measurement" in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers.

In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. These tasks relate to the direct study of the pedagogical and biomechanical parameters of sportsmanship, the diagnosis of energy-functional parameters of sports performance, the consideration of anatomical and morphological parameters. physiological development, control of mental states.

The main measurable and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in sports research are: physiological (“internal”), physical (“external”) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and dexterity; functional parameters of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; linear and arc parameters of body dimensions.

Like every living system, an athlete is a complex, non-trivial object of measurement. From the usual, classical objects of measurement, the athlete has a number of differences: variability, multidimensionality, quality, adaptability and mobility. Variability impermanence variables characterizing the state of the athlete and his activities. All indicators of an athlete are constantly changing: physiological (oxygen consumption, pulse rate, etc.), morpho-anatomical (height, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psycho-physiological and etc. Variability makes necessary multiple measurements and processing of their results by methods of mathematical statistics.

Multidimensionality - a large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the condition and performance of an athlete. Along with the variables that characterize the athlete, "output variables", one should also control the "input variables" that characterize the influence of the external environment on the athlete. The role of input variables can be played by: intensity of physical and emotional stress, oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is caused not only by organizational difficulties that arise when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also by the fact that with an increase in the number of variables, the complexity of their analysis increases sharply.

Qualitativenessqualitative character (from Latin qualitas quality), i.e. lack of precise, quantitative measure. The physical qualities of an athlete, the properties of an individual and a team, the quality of equipment and many other factors of a sports result cannot yet be accurately measured, but nevertheless should be assessed as accurately as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is difficult both in elite sports and in sports. mass physical culture, in dire need of monitoring the health status and workload of those involved.

Adaptability the property of a person to adapt (adapt) to environmental conditions. Adaptability is the basis of learning and gives the athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in normal and difficult conditions (in heat and cold, with emotional stress, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time, adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With multiple studies, the athlete gets used to the research procedure (“learns to be researched”) and, as such training, begins to show different results, although his functional state may remain unchanged.

Mobility - a feature of an athlete, based on the fact that in the vast majority of sports, the activity of an athlete is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies conducted with a stationary person, measurements in sports activities are accompanied by additional distortions of the recorded curves and measurement errors.

Testing indirect measurement.

Testing replaces the measurement whenever the object under study is not available for direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of an athlete's heart during strenuous muscular work. Therefore, indirect measurement is used: heart rate and other cardiological indicators characterizing cardiac performance are measured. Tests are also used in cases where the phenomenon being studied is not quite specific. For example, it is more correct to talk about testing dexterity, flexibility, etc. than about measuring them. However, flexibility (mobility) at a specific joint and under specific conditions can be measured.

Test (from English test sample, test) in sports practice is called a measurement or test carried out to determine the state or abilities of a person.

A lot of different measurements and tests can be made, but not all measurements can be used as tests. A test in sports practice can only be called a measurement or test that meets the followingmetrological requirements:

• the purpose of the test should be defined; standardization (the methodology, procedure and conditions of testing should be the same in all cases of applying the test);
• the reliability and informativeness of the test should be determined;
• the test requires a grading system;
• it is necessary to indicate the type of control (operational, current or staged).

Tests that meet the requirements of reliability and informativeness are calledgood or authentic.

The testing process is called testing , and the numerical value obtained as a result of the measurement or test istest result(or test result). For example, running 100 meters is a test, the procedure for conducting races and timing testing, running time is the result of the test.

As for the classification of tests, the analysis of foreign and domestic literature shows that there are different approaches to this problem. Depending on the field of application, there are tests: pedagogical, psychological, achievements, individually-oriented, intelligence, special abilities etc. According to the methodology for interpreting test results, tests are classified into normative-oriented and criterion-oriented.

Normative Test(in English norm - referenced test ) allows you to compare the achievements (level of training) of individual subjects with each other. Normative tests are used to obtain reliable and normally distributed scores for comparing test-takers.

score (individual score, test score) a quantitative indicator of the severity of the measured property in a given subject, obtained using this test.

Criteria Based Test(in English criterion - referenced test ) allows assessing the extent to which the subjects have mastered the necessary task (motor quality, movement technique, etc.).

Tests based on motor tasks are calledpropulsion or motor. Their results can be either motor achievements (distance passing time, number of repetitions, distance traveled, etc.), or physiological and biochemical indicators. Depending on this, as well as on the goals, motor tests are divided into three groups.

Table 1. Varieties of motor tests

Name of the test Task for the athlete Test result Example

Control Show maximum motor run 1500 m,

exercise result achievement running time

Standard Same for all, Physiological or Heart rate recording

At

Functional dosed: a) by value - biochemical parameters - standard work

Samples of non-performed work whether at standard work- 1000 kGm/min

Or those.

B) according to the size of the physiological

Gic shifts. with a standard value of heart rate 160 beats / min

Not physiological

shifts.

Maximum Show maximum Physiological or Determine maximum

Functional result of biochemical display of oxygen

Debt or poppy

Simulation samples

consumption

Oxygen

Tests whose results depend on two or more factors are called heterogeneous , and if predominant from one factor, then - homogeneous tests. More often in sports practice, not one, but several tests are used that have a common ultimate goal. This group of tests is called complex or battery of tests.

Correct Definition the purpose of testing contributes to the correct selection of tests. measurements various parties fitness of athletes should be carried out systematically . This makes it possible to compare the values ​​of indicators at different stages of training and, depending on the dynamics of gains in tests, to normalize the load.

The efficiency of normalization depends on accuracy control results, which, in turn, depends on the standard of conducting tests and measuring results in them. To standardize testing in sports practice, the following requirements should be observed:

1) the mode of the day preceding the test should be built according to the same scheme. It excludes medium and heavy loads, but classes of a restorative nature can be held. This will ensure the equality of the current conditions of the athletes, and the initial level before testing will be the same;

2) warm-up before testing should be standard (in terms of duration, selection of exercises, sequence of their implementation);

3) testing, if possible, should be carried out by the same people who can do it;

4) the test execution scheme does not change and remains constant from testing to testing;

5) the intervals between repetitions of the same test should eliminate the fatigue that arose after the first attempt;

6) the athlete must strive to show the maximum possible result in the test. Such motivation is real if a competitive environment is created during testing. However, this factor works well in monitoring the readiness of children. For adult athletes, a high quality of testing is possible only if the comprehensive control is systematic and the content of the training process is adjusted based on its results.

The description of the methodology for performing any test should take into account all these requirements.

Testing accuracy is evaluated differently than measurement accuracy. When evaluating the measurement accuracy, the measurement result is compared with the result obtained by a more accurate method. When testing, the possibility of comparing the results obtained with more accurate ones is most often not available. And therefore, it is necessary to check not the quality of the results obtained during testing, but the quality of the measuring tool itself - the test. The quality of the test is determined by its informativeness, reliability and objectivity.

Test reliability.

Reliability of testscalled the degree of agreement between the results when retesting the same people in same conditions. It is quite clear that the complete coincidence of the results with repeated measurements is practically impossible.

The variation in results with repeated measurements is calledintra-individual or intragroup, or intraclass. The main reasons for such a variation in test results, which distorts the assessment of the true state of the athlete's preparedness, i.e. introduces a certain error or error in this estimate, are the following circumstances:

1) random changes in the state of the subjects during testing (psychological stress, addiction, fatigue, change in motivation to perform the test, change in concentration, instability of the initial posture and other conditions of the measurement procedure during testing);

2) uncontrolled changes external conditions (temperature, humidity , wind, solar radiation , the presence of unauthorized persons, etc.);

3) instability of metrological characteristicstechnical measuring instruments(TSI), used in testing. Instability can be caused by several reasons due to the imperfection of the applied TSI: measurement error due to changes in the mains voltage, instability of the characteristics of electronic measuring instruments and sensors with changes in temperature, humidity, the presence of electromagnetic interference, etc. It should be noted, that for this reason measurement errors can be significant;

1. changes in the state of the experimenter (operator, trainer, teacher, judge), performing or evaluating test results

And the replacement of one experimenter by another;

1. the imperfection of the test for assessing a given quality or a specific indicator of preparedness.

There are special mathematical formulas to determine the test reliability factor.

Table 2 shows the gradation of test reliability levels.

Tests whose reliability is less than the values ​​indicated in the table are not recommended.

Speaking about the reliability of tests, they distinguish between their stability (reproducibility), consistency, equivalence.

Under stability test understand the reproducibility of the results when it is repeated after a certain time in the same conditions. Retesting is commonly referred to as retest . The stability of the test depends on:

type of test;

The contingent of subjects;

Time interval between test and retest.

To quantify stability, we use analysis of variance, according to the same scheme as in the case of calculating the ordinary reliability.

Consistencytest is characterized by the independence of test results from the personal qualities of the person conducting or evaluating the test. If the results of athletes in the test, which is carried out by different specialists (experts, judges), are the same, then this indicates

high degree of test consistency. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods by different specialists.

When a new test is created, it must be checked for consistency. This is done as follows: a unified test methodology is developed, and then two or more specialists take turns testing the same athletes under standard conditions.

Test equivalence.Same motor quality(ability, preparedness side) can be measured using several tests. For example, the maximum speed according to the results of running segments of 10, 20 or 30 m on the move. Strength endurance - according to the number of pull-ups on the bar, push-ups, the number of barbell lifts in the supine position, etc. Such tests are called equivalent .

The equivalence of tests is defined as follows: athletes perform one type of test and then, after a short rest, the second, etc.

If the results of the assessments are the same (for example, the best in pull-ups turn out to be the best in push-ups), then this indicates the equivalence of the tests. The equivalence ratio is determined using correlation or dispersion analysis.

The use of equivalent tests increases the reliability of assessing the controlled properties of athletes' motor skills. Therefore, if you need to conduct an in-depth examination, then it is better to apply several equivalent tests. Such a complex is called homogeneous . In all other cases it is better to use heterogeneous complexes: they consist of non-equivalent tests.

There are no universal homogeneous or heterogeneous complexes. So, for example, for poorly trained people, such a complex as running 100 and 800 meters, jumping and length from a place, pulling up on the crossbar will be homogeneous. For highly qualified athletes, it can be heterogeneous.

To a certain extent, the reliability of tests can be improved by:

More stringent standardization of testing,

An increase in the number of attempts

Increasing the number of evaluators (judges, experts) and increasing the consistency of their opinions,

Increasing the number of equivalent tests,

• better motivation of the examinees,
• metrologically substantiated choice of technical means of measurements, providing the specified accuracy of measurements in the testing process.

Informativeness of tests.

Informativeness of the test- this is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.) for which it is used. Before 1980, the term “informativeness” was replaced by the adequate term “validity” in the literature.

Currently, information content is subdivided, classified into several types. The structure of information types is shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. The structure of the types of information.

So, in particular, if the test is used to determine the state of the athlete at the time of the examination, then one speaks ofdiagnosticinformative. If, on the basis of test results, they want to draw a conclusion about the possible future performance of an athlete, the test must havepredictiveinformative. A test may be diagnostically informative, but not prognostic and vice versa.

The degree of informativeness can be characterized quantitatively on the basis of experimental data (the so-called empirical informative) and qualitative based on a meaningful analysis of the situation (meaningful or logicalinformative). In this case, the test is called meaningful or logically informative based on the opinions of expert experts.

factorial informativeness one of the very frequent models theoretical informative. The informativeness of tests in relation to the hidden criterion, which is artificially compiled from their results, is determined on the basis of the indicators of the battery of tests using factor analysis.

Factor information content is associated with the concept of test dimension in the sense that the number of factors also necessarily determines the number of hidden criteria. At the same time, the dimension of tests depends not only on the number of motor abilities being assessed, but also on other properties of the motor test. When this influence can be partially eliminated, then the factor information content remains a mobile model approximation of theoretical or constructive information content, i.e. validity of motor tests for motor abilities.

Simple or complexinformativeness is distinguished by the number of tests for which the criterion is chosen, i.e. for one or two or more tests. With questions mutual relationship simple and complex information content are closely related to the following three types of information content. Pure Informativeness expresses the degree to which the complex informativeness of a battery of tests increases when a given test is included in a battery of tests of a higher order. Paramorphic information content expresses the internal information content of the test within the framework of the forecast of giftedness for a particular activity. It is determined by specialist experts, taking into account the professional assessment of giftedness. It can be defined as the hidden (for specialists "intuitive") informativeness of individual tests.

obvious informativeness is largely related to the content and shows how obvious the content of the tests is for the tested persons. It is related to the motivation of the subjects. informativeinternal or externalarises depending on whether the informativeness of the test is determined on the basis of comparison with the results of other tests or on the basis of a criterion that is external to this battery of tests.

Absolute Informativeness refers to the definition of one criterion in the absolute sense, without involving any other criteria.

differentialinformative characterizes the mutual differences between two or more criteria. For example, when choosing sports talents, there may be a situation where the test person shows abilities in two different sports disciplines. In this case, it is necessary to decide which of these two disciplines he is most capable of.

In accordance with the time interval between the measurement (testing) and the determination of the results of the criterion, two types of informativeness are distinguished -synchronous and diachronic. Diachronic information content, or information content to non-simultaneous criteria, can take two forms. One of them is the case when the criterion would be measured before the testretrospectiveinformative.

If we talk about assessing the preparedness of athletes, then the most informative indicator is the result in a competitive exercise. However, it depends on a large number factors, and the same result in a competitive exercise can be shown by people who differ markedly from each other in the structure of preparedness. For example, an athlete with excellent swimming technique and relatively low physical performance and an athlete with medium technique, but with high performance will compete equally well (ceteris paribus).

Informative tests are used to identify the leading factors on which the result in a competitive exercise depends. But how to find out the measure of informativeness of each of them? For example, which of the following tests are informative in assessing the readiness of tennis players: simple reaction time, choice reaction time, jump up from a place, 60-meter run? To answer this question, it is necessary to know the methods for determining information content. There are two of them: logical (meaningful) and empirical.

Boolean Methoddetermination of informativeness of tests. The essence of this method of determining the informativeness lies in the logical (qualitative) comparison of biomechanical, physiological, psychological and other characteristics of the criterion and tests.

Suppose we want to select tests to assess the readiness of highly qualified 400m runners. Calculations show that in this exercise, with a result of 45.0, about 72% of the energy is supplied by anaerobic mechanisms of energy production and 28% due to aerobic ones. Therefore, the most informative tests will be those that allow to reveal the level and structure of the runner's anaerobic capabilities: running on segments of 200 300 m at maximum speed, jumping from foot to foot at a maximum pace at a distance of 100200 m, repeated running on segments up to 50 m s very short rest intervals. As shown by clinical and biochemical studies, the results of these tasks can be used to judge the power and capacity of anaerobic energy sources and, therefore, they can be used as informative tests.

The simple example given above is of limited value, since in cyclic sports the logical information content can be tested experimentally. Most often, the logical method for determining information content is used in sports where there is no clear quantitative criterion. For example, in sports games logical analysis of game fragments allows you to first construct a specific test, and then check its informativeness.

empirical methoddetermining the information content of tests in the presence of measured criterion. Earlier we mentioned the importance of using a single logical analysis for preliminary assessment informativeness of tests. This procedure allows you to weed out obviously uninformative tests, the structure of which does not correspond much to the structure of the main activity of athletes or athletes. The rest of the tests, the informative content of which is recognized as high, must undergo additional empirical testing. To do this, the test results are compared with the criterion. The criterion is usually used:

1) result in a competitive exercise;

2) the most significant elements of competitive exercises;

3) the results of tests, the information content of which for athletes of this qualification was established earlier;

4) the amount of points scored by the athlete when performing a set of tests;

5) qualification of athletes.

When using the first four criteria general scheme determining the information content of the test is as follows:

1) the quantitative values ​​of the criteria are measured. For this, it is not necessary to hold special competitions. You can, for example, use the results of previous competitions. It is only important that the competition and testing are not separated by a long period of time.

If any element of a competitive exercise is supposed to be used as a criterion, it must be the most informative.

Let's consider the methodology for determining the information content of the indicators of a competitive exercise using the following example.

At the national championship in cross-country skiing at a distance of 15 km on a slope with a steepness of 7 °, the length of steps and running speed were recorded. The obtained values ​​were compared with the place occupied by the athlete in the competition (see table).

Correlation between results in a 15 km cross-country race, stride length and uphill speed

Already a visual assessment of the ranked series indicates that high results in competitions were achieved by athletes with more speed on the rise and with a longer stride length. Calculation rank coefficients correlation confirms this: between the place in the competition and the length of the step rtt = 0.88; between the place in the competition and the speed on the rise - 0.86. Therefore, both of these indicators are highly informative.

It should be noted that their meanings are also interrelated: r = 0.86.

So, the length of the step and the speed of running on the rise - equivalent tests and to control the competitive activity of skiers, you can use any of them.

2) the next step- testing and evaluation

results;

3) the last stage of work is the calculation of the correlation coefficients between the values ​​of the criterion and tests. The highest correlation coefficients obtained in the course of calculations will indicate the high informativeness of the tests.

An empirical method for determining the informativeness of testsin the absence of a single criterion. This situation is most typical for mass physical culture, where there is either no single criterion, or the form of its presentation does not allow using the methods described above to determine the information content of tests. Suppose that we need to make a set of tests to control the physical fitness of students. Taking into account the fact that there are several million students in the country and such control should be massive, certain requirements are imposed on the tests: they must be simple in technique, performed in the simplest conditions and have a simple and objective system of measurements. There are hundreds of such tests, but you need to choose the most informative.

This can be done in the following way: 1) select several dozen tests, the informative content of which seems undeniable; 2) with their help to assess the level of development of physical qualities in a group of students; 3) process the obtained results on a computer, using factor analysis for this.

This method is based on the premise that the results of many tests depend on a relatively small number of reasons, which are named for convenience. factors . For example, the results in the standing long jump, grenade throwing, pull-ups, maximum weight bench press, 100 and 5000 m runs depend on endurance, strength and speed qualities. However, the contribution of these qualities to the result of each of the exercises is not the same. So, the result in a 100-meter run strongly depends on speed-strength qualities and a little on endurance, bench press - on maximum strength, pull-ups - on strength endurance, etc.

In addition, the results of some of these tests are interrelated, since they are based on the manifestation of the same qualities. Factor analysis allows, firstly, to group tests that have a common quality basis, and, secondly (and most importantly), to determine their proportion in this group. Tests with the highest factor weight are considered the most informative.

best example the use of such an approach in domestic practice is presented in the work of V. M. Zatsiorsky and N. V. Averkovich (1982). 108 students were examined on 15 tests. With the help of factor analysis, it was possible to identify the three most important factors for this group of subjects: 1) the strength of the muscles of the upper limbs; 2) the strength of the muscles of the lower extremities; 3) the strength of the abdominal muscles and hip flexors. For the first factor heaviest weight had a test - push-ups in emphasis, on the second - a long jump from a place, on the third - raising straight legs in the hang and transitions to a gray position from a supine position for one minute. These four tests out of 15 surveyed were the most informative.

The value (degree) of informativeness of the same test varies depending on a number of factors influencing its performance. The main of these factors are shown in the figure.

Rice. 2. The structure of factors affecting the degree

Informativeness of the test.

When evaluating the information content of a particular test, it is necessary to take into account factors that largely affect the value of the coefficient of information content.

Score unified measure of sports results and tests.

As a rule, any integrated control program involves the use of not one, but several tests. Thus, the complex for monitoring the fitness of athletes includes the following tests: running time on the treadmill, heart rate, maximum oxygen consumption, maximum strength, etc. If one test is used for control, then there is no need to evaluate its results using special methods: and so you can see who is stronger and how much. If there are many tests and they are measured in different units (for example, force in kg or N; time in s; MPC - in ml / kg min; HR - in beats / min, etc.), then compare the achievements by absolute values indicators is not possible. This problem can be solved only if the test results are presented in the form of assessments (points, points, marks, categories, etc.). The final assessment of the qualifications of athletes is influenced by age, health status, environmental and other features of the control conditions. With the receipt of the results of the measurement or testing, the athlete's control test does not end. It is necessary to evaluate the results obtained.

Assessment (or pedagogical assessment)called uniform measure success in any task, in a particular case in the test.

There are educational grades that the teacher gives to students in the course of the educational process, andqualifying,which refers to all other types of assessments (in particular, the results of official competitions, testing, etc.).

The process of determining (deriving, calculating) estimates is called evaluation . It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected, with the help of which it is possible to translate the test results into grades;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted into points (points);

3) the points obtained are compared with the norms, and the final score is displayed. It also characterizes the level of preparedness of an athlete in relation to other members of the group (team, collective).

Action Name Used

Testing

Measurement Measurement scale

test result

Intermediate assessment Grading scale

Glasses

(intermediate estimate)

Final assessment Norms

final grade

Rice. 3. Scheme for evaluating sports results and test results

Not in all cases, the assessment takes place according to such a detailed scheme. Sometimes midterm and final grades are merged.

The tasks that are solved in the course of assessment are diverse. Among them are the main ones:

1) according to the results of evaluation, it is necessary to compare different achievements in competitive exercises. Based on this, it is possible to create scientifically based discharge standards in sports. The consequence of lower standards is an increase in the number of dischargers who are not worthy of this title. Inflated norms become unattainable for many and force people to stop playing sports;

2) comparison of achievements in different types sports allows you to solve the problem of equality and their rank norms (the situation is unfair if we assume that in volleyball it is easy to fulfill the norm of the 1st rank, and in athletics difficult);

3) it is necessary to classify many tests according to the results that a particular athlete shows in them;

4) it is necessary to establish the training structure of each of the athletes subjected to testing.

You can convert test results into points different ways. In practice, this is often done by ranking, or ordering, a recorded set of measurements.

Example such a ranking is given in the table.

Table. Ranking of test results.

It can be seen from the table that the best result is worth 1 point, and each subsequent one point more. Despite the simplicity and convenience of this approach, its injustice is obvious. If we take a 30-meter run, then the differences between the 1st and 2nd places (0.4 s) and between the 2nd and 3rd (0.1 s) are evaluated equally, at 1 point. Similarly, in the assessment of pull-ups: the difference in one repetition and in seven is evaluated equally.

Evaluation is carried out in order to stimulate the athlete to achieve maximum results. But with the approach described above, athlete A, pulling up 6 times more, will receive the same points as for the increase in one repetition.

In view of all that has been said, the transformation of test results and evaluation should be carried out not by ranking, but by using special scales for this. The law of converting sports results into points is called rating scale. The scale can be specified as a mathematical expression (formula), table or graph. The figure shows four types of such scales found in sports and physical education.

Glasses Glasses

A B

600 600

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Glasses Glasses

C D

600 600

12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0 12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Rice. four. Types of scales used in evaluating the results of control:

A - proportional scale; B - progressive; B - regressive,

G - S-shaped.

First (A) proportionalscale. When using it, equal gains in test results are encouraged by equal gains in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from the figure, a decrease in running time by 0.1 s is estimated at 20 points. They will be given to an athlete who ran 100 m in 12.8 s and ran this distance in 12.7 s, and an athlete who improved his result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are accepted in modern pentathlon, speed skating, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, biathlon and other sports.

Second type progressivescale (B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal gains in results are evaluated differently. The higher the absolute gains, the greater the increase in valuation. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s 30 points. Progressive scales are used in swimming, certain types of athletics, and weightlifting.

The third type is regressive scale (B). In this scale, as in the previous one, equal gains in test results are also evaluated differently, but the higher the absolute gains, the smaller the increase in the score. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points ... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points . Scales of this type are accepted in some types of athletics jumps and throws.

Fourth type sigmoid (or S-shaped)) scale (D). It can be seen that here the highest value is given to the increments in middle zone, and improving very low or very high results is poorly encouraged. So, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are awarded, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s 30 points. In sports, such scales are not used, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, this is how the scale of physical fitness standards for the US population looks like.

Each of these scales has its own advantages and disadvantages. You can eliminate the latter and strengthen the former by correctly applying one or another scale.

Evaluation, as a unified measure of sports results, can be effective if it is fair and usefully applied in practice. And it depends on the criteria on the basis of which the results are evaluated. When choosing criteria, one should keep in mind the following questions: 1) what results should be put into zero point scales? And 2) how to evaluate intermediate and maximum achievements?

It is advisable to use the following criteria:

1. Equality of time intervals required to achieve results corresponding to the same categories in different sports. Naturally, this is possible only if the content and organization of the training process in these sports do not differ sharply.

2. Equality of the volume of loads that must be spent to achieve the same qualification standards in different sports.

3. Equality of world records in different sports.

4. Equal Ratios between the number of athletes who have fulfilled the discharge standards in different sports.

In practice, several scales are used to evaluate test results.

standard scale. It is based on a proportional scale, and it got its name because the scale in it is the standard (root mean square) deviation. The most common T-scale.

When using it, the average result is equal to 50 points, and the whole formula looks like this:

X i -X

Т = 50+10  = 50+10  Z

where T is the result score in the test; X i the result shown;

Xaverage result; — standard deviation.

For example , if the average standing long jump was 224 cm and the standard deviation was 20 cm, then 222 cm is worth 49 points and 266 cm is worth 71 points (check that these calculations are correct).

In practice, other standard scales are also used.

Table 3 Some standard scales

Scale name Basic Formula Where and what is it used for?

С scale С=5+2  Z During mass surveys, when

Not much precision required

School marks scale H=3-Z In a number of European countries

Binet scale B =100+16  Z In psychological research

Vaniyah intellect

Examination scale E =500+100  Z In the USA, upon admission to higher

educational institution

Percentile scale. This scale is based on the following operation: each athlete from the group receives for his result (in competitions or in the test) as many points as the percentage of athletes he outperformed. Thus, the score of the winner is 100 points; the score of the last one is 0 points. The percentile scale is most suitable for evaluating the results of large groups of athletes. In such groups statistical distribution results are normal (or nearly normal). This means that only a few of the group show very high and low results, and the majority show average results.

The main advantage of this scale is simplicity, no formulas are needed here, but the only thing that needs to be calculated how many results of athletes fit into one percentile (or how many percentiles fall on one person). Percentile is the interval of the scale. With 100 athletes in one percentile, one result; at 50 , one result fits into two percentiles (i.e. if an athlete beats 30 people, he gets 60 points).

Fig.5. An example of a percentile scale built based on the results of testing students of Moscow universities in long jumps (n=4000, data from E. Ya. Bondarevsky):

abscissalong jump result, ordinatepercentage of students who showed a result equal to or better than this one (for example, 50% of students in the long jump 4 m 30 cm and beyond)

The ease of processing the results and the clarity of the percentile scale led to their widespread use in practice.

Scales of selected points.When developing tables for sports, it is not always possible to obtain a statistical distribution of test results. Then they proceed as follows: they take some high sports result (for example, a world record or the 10th result in the history of this sport) and equate it to, say, 1000 or 1200 points. Then, based on the results of mass tests, the average achievement of a group of poorly trained individuals is determined and equated to, say, 100 points. After that, if a proportional scale is used, all that remains is to perform arithmetic calculations because two points uniquely define a straight line. A scale constructed in this way is calledscale of selected points.

The next steps for building tables by sports the choice of a scale and the establishment of interclass intervals are not yet scientifically substantiated, and a certain subjectivity based on

on the personal opinion of experts. Therefore, many athletes and coaches in almost all sports where scoring tables are used, consider them not quite fair.

Parametric scales.In sports of a cyclical nature and in weightlifting, the results depend on such parameters as the length of the distance and the weight of the athlete. These dependencies are called parametric.

One can find parametric dependencies, which are the locus of equivalent achievement points. Scales built on the basis of these dependencies are called parametric and are among the most accurate.

GTSOLIFK scale. The scales discussed above are used to evaluate the results of a group of athletes, and the purpose of their application is to determine interindividual differences (in points). In the practice of sports, coaches constantly face another problem: the evaluation of the results of periodic testing of the same athlete at different periods of the cycle or stage of preparation. For this purpose, the GTSOLIFK scale is proposed, expressed in the formula:

Best result Estimated result

Score in points =100 x (1-)

Best Score Worst Score

The meaning of this approach is that the test result is considered not as an abstract value, but in relation to the best and worst results shown in this test by the athlete. As you can see from the formula, the best result is always estimated at 100 points, the worst - at 0 points. It is expedient to use this scale to evaluate variable indicators.

Example. Best result in standing triple jump10m 26cm, worst result9m 37cm. Current result10m exactly.

10.26 10.0

His score=100 x (1- -) =71 points.

10,26 - 9,37

Evaluation of a set of tests. There are two main options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a set of tests. The first is to derive a generalized assessment, which informatively characterizes the preparedness of an athlete in competitions. This allows you to use it for prediction: a regression equation is calculated, solving which, you can predict the result in the competition based on the sum of points for testing.

However, simply summing up the results of a particular athlete in all tests is not entirely correct, since the tests themselves are not equivalent. For example, of the two tests (response time to a signal and the time to maintain maximum running speed), the second is more important for a sprinter than the first. This importance (weight) of the test can be taken into account in three ways:

1. An expert assessment is given. In this case, experts agree that one of the tests (for example, retention time V ma x ) a coefficient of 2 is assigned. And then the points awarded for this test are first doubled, and then added to the points for the reaction time.

2. The coefficient for each test is set on the basis of factor analysis. It is known that it allows you to select indicators with a greater or lesser factor weight.

3. A quantitative measure of the weight of a test can be the value of the correlation coefficient calculated between its result and achievement in the competition.

In all these cases, the estimates obtained are called "weighted".

The second option for evaluating the results of integrated control is to build " profile » athlete a graphical form of presentation of test results. The lines of the graphs clearly reflect the strengths and weaknesses of the preparedness of athletes.

Norms bases of comparisons of results.

Norma in sports metrology is called the boundary value of the test result, on the basis of which the classification of athletes is made.

There are official standards: discharge in the EVSK, in the past - in the TRP complex. Unofficial norms are also used: they are established by coaches or specialists in the field of sports training to classify athletes according to some qualities (properties, abilities).

There are three types of norms: a) comparative; b) individual; c) due.

Comparative normsare established after comparing the achievements of people belonging to the same population. The procedure for determining comparative norms is as follows: 1) a set of people is selected (for example, students of liberal arts universities in Moscow); 2) their achievements in a set of tests are determined; 3) mean values ​​and standard (root mean square) deviations are determined; 4) value X±0.5 is taken as an average norm, and the remaining gradations (low - high, very low - very high) - depending on the coefficient at .For example, the value of the result in the test is over X + 2 considered a “very high” standard.

The implementation of this approach is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Classification

Men by level

Health

(according to K. Cooper)

Individual normsbased on comparison of indicators

the same athlete in different states. These norms are extremely important for the individualization of training in all sports. The need to determine them arose due to significant differences in the structure of athletes' fitness.

The gradation of individual norms is established using the same statistical procedures. For the average norm here, you can take the test indicators corresponding to the average result in a competitive exercise. Individual rates are widely used in monitoring.

due standards are established on the basis of the requirements that the living conditions, profession, and the need to prepare for the defense of the Motherland impose on a person. Therefore, in many cases they are ahead of the actual indicators. In sports practice, due standards are established as follows: 1) informative indicators of an athlete's preparedness are determined;

2) results in a competitive exercise and corresponding achievements in tests are measured; 3) a regression equation of the type y=kx+b is calculated, where x is the proper result in the test, and y is the predicted result in the competitive exercise. Proper results in the test are the proper norm. It must be achieved, and only then it will be possible to show the planned result in the competition.

Comparative, individual and due standards are based on a comparison of the results of one athlete with the results of other athletes, the performance of the same athlete in different periods and different conditions, the available data with due values.

Age norms. In the practice of physical education, age norms are most widely used. A typical example is the norms of a comprehensive program of physical education for students secondary school, the norms of the TRP complex, etc. Most of these norms were compiled in the traditional way: the test results in different age groups were processed using a standard scale, and norms were determined on this basis.

This approach has one significant drawback: focusing on the passport age of a person does not take into account the significant impact on any indicators of biological age and body size.

An experience shows that among 12-year-old boys there are great differences in body length: 130 - 170 cm (X = 149 ± 9 cm). The higher the height, the longer, as a rule, the length of the legs. Therefore, in running 60 meters with the same frequency of steps, tall children will show less time.

Age norms, taking into account biological age and physique. Indicators of the biological (motor) age of a person are devoid of the shortcomings inherent in the indicators of passport age: their values ​​correspond to the average calendar age of people. Table 5 shows the motor age according to the results in two tests.

Table 5. Motor

Boys age

According to the results

long jump with

Run and throw

Ball (80 g)

In accordance with the data of this table, a boy of any passport age will have a motor age of ten years, jumping in length from a run of 2 m 76 cm and throwing a ball at 29 m. More often, however, it happens that one test (for example , jump) the boy is ahead of his passport age by two or three years, and in another way (throwing) by one year. In this case, the average for all tests is determined, which comprehensively reflects the motor age of the child.

The definition of norms can also be carried out taking into account the joint effect on the results in tests of passport age, length and body weight. Held regression analysis and the equation is:

Y \u003d K 1 X 1 + K 2 X 2 + K 3 X 3 + b,

where Y is the proper result in the test; x1 - passport age; X 2 - length and X 3 - body weight.

Based on the solutions of the regression equations, nomograms are compiled, according to which it is easy to determine the proper result.

suitability of standards.Norms are drawn up for certain group people and are only suitable for this group. For example, according to Bulgarian experts, the norm in throwing a ball weighing 80 g for ten-year-old children living in Sofia is 28.7m, in other cities30.3m, in rural areas31.60m. our country: the norms developed in the Baltics are not suitable for the center of Russia, and even more so for Central Asia. The suitability of norms only for the population for which they are developed is called the relevance of the rules.

Another characteristic of the norms -representativeness. It reflects their suitability for assessing all people in the population (for example, for assessing physical condition all first-graders of the city of Moscow). Only norms obtained on typical material can be representative.

The third characteristic of norms is their modernity . It is known that the results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and it is not recommended to use the norms developed long ago. Some norms established many years ago are now perceived as naive, although at one time they reflected the actual situation that characterizes the average level of a person's physical condition.

Quality measurement.

Quality this is a generalized concept that can refer to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical culture and sports.

quality indicators are called indicators that do not have specific units of measurement. There are many such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, diving; entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetry methods are used.

Qualimetry is a branch of metrology that studies the issues of measuring and quantifying qualitative indicators. Quality measurement- this is the establishment of a correspondence between the characteristics of such indicators and the requirements for them. At the same time, the requirements (“standard of quality”) cannot always be expressed in an unambiguous and unified form for all. A specialist who evaluates the expressiveness of an athlete's movements mentally compares what he sees with what he imagines as expressiveness.

In practice, however, quality is assessed not by one, but by several criteria. At the same time, the highest generalized score does not necessarily correspond to the maximum values ​​for each attribute.

Qualimetry is based on several starting points:

• any quality can be measured; quantitative methods have long been used in sports to assess the beauty and expressiveness of movements, and are currently used to assess all aspects of sportsmanship without exception, the effectiveness of training and competitive activities, the quality of sports equipment, etc.;
• quality depends on a number of properties that form "quality tree.

Example: a tree of the quality of the performance of exercises in figure skating, consisting of three levels the highest (the quality of the performance of the composition as a whole), the average (performance technique and artistry) and the lowest (measurable indicators characterizing the quality of the performance of individual elements);

• each property is defined by two numbers:relative indicator K and weight M;
• the sum of the weights of properties at each level is equal to one (or 100%).

The relative indicator characterizes the revealed level of the measured property (as a percentage of its maximum possible level), and the weightiness characterizes the comparative importance of different indicators. For example, the skater received an assessment for the performance technique K c = 5.6 points, and for artistry mark K t = 5.4 points. The weights of performance technique and artistry in figure skating are recognized as the same(M c \u003d M t \u003d 1.0). Therefore, the overall score Q = M c K c + M t K t was 11.0 points.

Methodological methods of qualimetry are divided into two groups: heuristic (intuitive) based on expert assessments and questionnaires and instrumental or instrumental.

Conducting an examination and questioning is partly a technical job, requiring strict adherence to certain rules, and partly an art that requires intuition and experience.

Method of expert assessments. Expert called an assessment obtained by asking for the opinions of specialists. Expert (from Latin e xpertus experienced) a knowledgeable person who is invited to solve a problem that requires special knowledge. This method allows using a specially selected scale to make the required measurements by subjective assessments of specialist experts. Such estimates are random variables, they can be processed by some methods of multivariate statistical analysis.

As a rule, expert evaluation or examination is carried out in the form survey or questionnaire expert groups. Questionnaire called a questionnaire containing questions that must be answered in writing. The technique of examination and questioning is the collection and generalization of the opinions of individuals. The motto of the examination "Mind is good, but two is better!". Typical examples expertise: judging in gymnastics and figure skating, competition for the title of the best in the profession or the best scientific work etc.

Experts are consulted whenever it is impossible or very difficult to make measurements using more accurate methods. Sometimes it is better to get an approximate solution immediately than to look for ways of an exact solution for a long time. But the subjective assessment depends on individual characteristics expert: qualifications, erudition, experience, personal tastes, state of health, etc. Therefore, individual opinions are considered as random variables and are processed by statistical methods. Thus, modern expertise is a system of organizational, logical and mathematical-statistical procedures aimed at obtaining information from specialists and analyzing it in order to develop optimal solutions. And the best coach (teacher, manager, etc.) is the one who simultaneously relies on own experience, and on the data of science, and on the knowledge of other people.

The method of group examination includes: 1) the formulation of tasks; 2) selection and staffing of a group of experts; 3) drawing up an examination plan; 4) conducting a survey of experts; 5) analysis and processing of the received information.

Selection of experts – milestone expertise, since reliable data can not be obtained from any specialist. An expert can be a person: 1) having a high level vocational training; 2) capable of critical analysis past and present and to forecasting the future; 3) psychologically stable, not inclined to conciliation.

There are other important qualities of experts, but the above must be mandatory. For example, professional competence the expert is determined: a) by the degree of proximity of his assessment to the group average; b) according to the indicators of solving test problems.

For an objective assessment of the competence of experts, special questionnaires can be drawn up, answering the questions of which within a strictly defined time, candidates for experts must demonstrate their knowledge. In addition, it is useful to invite them to complete a self-assessment of their knowledge. Experience shows that people with high self-esteem make fewer mistakes.

Another approach to the selection of experts is based on determining the effectiveness of their activities.Absolute EfficiencyThe activity of an expert is determined by the ratio of the number of cases when the expert correctly predicted the further course of events, to the total number of examinations conducted by this specialist. For example, if an expert participated in 10 examinations and 6 times his point of view was confirmed, then the effectiveness of such an expert is 0.6.Relative efficiencyexpert activity is the ratio of the absolute effectiveness of his activity to the average absolute efficiency of the group of experts.Objective assessmentsuitability of an expert is determined by the formula:

 M=| M - M east | ,

Where is M ist true assessment; M expert assessment.

It is desirable to have a homogeneous group of experts, but if this fails, then a rank is introduced for each of them. It is obvious that the expert is the more valuable, the higher the performance indicators. To improve the quality of expertise, they try to improve the qualifications of experts by special education, training and familiarization with the most extensive objective information on the problem being analyzed. Judges in many sports can be considered as a kind of experts who evaluate the skill of an athlete (for example, in gymnastics) or the course of a fight (for example, in boxing).

Preparation and conduct of the examination. The preparation of the examination is reduced mainly to the preparation of a plan for its implementation. Its most important sections are the selection of experts, the organization of their work, the formulation of questions, and the processing of results.

There are several ways to conduct an examination. The simplest of them ranging , which consists in determining the relative importance of the objects of expertise based on their ordering. Usually, the most preferred object is assigned the highest (first) rank, and the least preferred object is assigned the last rank.

After evaluation, the object that received the highest preference from the experts receives the smallest sum of ranks. Recall that in the accepted rating scale, the rank determines only the place of the object relative to other objects that have undergone examination. But the ranking does not allow to estimate how far these objects are from each other. In this regard, the ranking method is used relatively rarely.

The more widely used methoddirect evaluationobjects on a scale, when the expert places each object in a certain estimated interval. The third method of examination:sequential comparison of factors.

Comparison of objects of examination using this method is carried out as follows:

1) first they are ranked in order of importance;

2) the most important object is assigned a score, equal to one, and the rest (also in order: significance) estimates less than one to zero;

3) experts decide whether the assessment of the first object will surpass all others in importance. If so, then the "weight" estimate of that object increases even more; if not, then a decision is made to reduce its estimate;

4) this procedure is repeated until all objects are evaluated.

And finally, the fourth methodpair comparison methodbased on pairwise comparison of all factors. In this case, the most significant one is established in each compared pair of objects (it is estimated with a score of 1). The second object of this pair is estimated at 0 points.

Such a method of expert assessments has become widespread in physical culture and sports. questioning . The questionnaire is presented here as a sequential set of questions, the answers to which are judged on the relative importance of the property in question or on the likelihood of any events occurring.

When compiling questionnaires, the greatest attention is paid to a clear and meaningful formulation of questions. By their nature, they are divided into the following types:

1) a question, in answering which it is necessary to choose one of the pre-formulated opinions (in some cases, each of these opinions must be quantified by the expert on a scale of order);

2) the question of what decision the expert would make in a certain situation (and here it is possible to choose several decisions with a quantitative assessment of the preference for each of them);

3) a question that requires estimating the numerical values ​​of some quantity.

The survey can be conducted both in person and in absentia in one or more rounds.

The development of computer technology makes it possible to conduct a survey in the mode of dialogue with a computer. A feature of the dialogue method is the compilation of a mathematical program that provides for the logical construction of questions and the sequence of their playback on the display, depending on the types of answers to them. Standard situations are stored in the memory of the machine, allowing you to control the correctness of entering answers, the correspondence of numerical values ​​to the range of real data. The computer controls the possibility of errors and, if they occur, finds the cause and points to it.

Recently, qualimetric methods (expertise, questioning, etc.) are increasingly used to solve optimization problems(optimization of competitive activity, training process). Modern approach to optimization problems is associated with simulation modeling of competitive and training activities. Unlike other types of modeling, when synthesizing a simulation model, along with mathematically accurate data, qualitative information is used, which is collected by methods of examination, questioning and observation. For example, when modeling the competitive activity of skiers, it is impossible to accurately predict the glide coefficient. Its likely value can be estimated by interviewing ski waxers who are familiar with the climatic conditions and features of the track on which the competition will take place.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CHECKING

1. What parameters are the main measured and controlled in the modern theory and practice of sports?
2. Why is variability one of the characteristics of an athlete as an object of measurement?
3. Why should we strive to reduce the number of measurable variables that control the athlete's condition?
4. What characterizes the quality in sports research?
5. What opportunity does adaptability provide to the athlete?
6. What is called a test?
7. What are the metrological requirements for tests?
8. What tests are called good?
9. What is the difference between normative and criteria based testing?
10. What are the types of motor tests?
11. What is the difference between homogeneous tests and heterogeneous ones?
12. What requirements must be met to standardize testing?

13. What is called the reliability of the test?

14. What introduces an error in the test results?

15. What is meant by test stability?

16. What determines the stability of the test?

1. What is test consistency?

18. What tests are called equivalent?

1. What is meant by the information value of a test?
2. What are the methods for determining the information content of tests?
3. What is the point logical method determination of informativeness of tests?
4. What is usually used as a criterion in determining the information content of tests?
5. What is done in determining the informativeness of tests when there is no single criterion?
6. What is a pedagogical assessment?
7. What is the method of evaluation?
8. In what ways can test results be converted into points?
9. What is a rating scale?
10. What are the characteristics of a proportional scale?
11. What is the difference between a progressive scale and a regressive scale?
12. When are sigmoid rating scales used?
13. What is the advantage of a percentile scale?
14. What can scales of selected points be used for?
15. For what purposes is the GTSOLIFKa scale used?
16. What are the options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a set of tests?
17. What is the norm in sports metrology?
18. What are individual norms based on?
19. How are proper standards established in sports practice?
20. How the majority is formed age norms?
21. What are the characteristics of the norms?
22. What does qualimetry study?
23. What type of peer review is carried out?
24. What qualities should an expert have?
25. How is an objective assessment of the suitability of an expert determined?

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All training and organizational activity in sports is aimed at ensuring its competitiveness, mass character and entertainment

All training and organizational activities in sports are aimed at ensuring its competitiveness, mass character and entertainment. The modern world sports movement has about 300 different sports, each of which has an urgent need for various kinds of measurements (Fig. 1). Here, we only consider measurement issues in Olympic sports.

First of all, measurements are used to determine the actual sports result. The main Olympic motto sounds like this: Faster! Above! Stronger! That is why a necessary condition for the inclusion of a candidate in the family of Olympic sports has always been his competitiveness, i.e. the possibility of identifying the winner according to obvious quantitative criteria. There are only three such criteria in sports (Fig. 2).

1st criterion result measured in SI units (second, meter, kilogram);
2nd number of earned, received, won, knocked out points;
3rd number of points awarded by the judges.

It is worth noting that these three criteria can be used to evaluate the results of athletes both in individual and team performances.

More often than others, the result evaluated by the 1st criterion is the time to overcome a certain distance. AT various types sports, depending on the speed of movement of athletes, different accuracy of time measurement is used. As a rule, it is in the range of 0.001 0.1 s. In this case, the athlete can walk, run, ride a bike, ski or skate, ride a sleigh, swim, sail or row

In itself, ensuring the necessary accuracy of measuring the time interval from a technical point of view is not particularly difficult, however, the specifics of sports impose their own characteristics on this process, which is primarily due to the problems of determining the moment of start and finish. Improving the measurements of these elements of the competitive process follows the path of using technical innovations. These include various photo sensors and microchips, false start registration systems, photo finish systems, etc., among the currently common devices.

Today, technological progress has made it possible to combine measuring, demonstration and television systems into a single complex. All this has led to the fact that the sport began to invade the latest Information Technology and show business. Now the spectators who are in stadiums, sports grounds and sitting at the TV screens are almost leveled: everyone can see what is happening in real and slow time, see a close-up of the wrestling, including with a repetition of the most interesting and controversial moments, watch the athletes pass the lines, control intermediate and final results, to be a witness to everyone's favorite action This applies to almost all sports, but such technologies are especially important for time trial sports such as skiing, bobsleigh, speed skating, etc.

Relevant for sports is also the registration of speeds and trajectories in certain moment time, in certain places and in controversial situations. Such recorded parameters include, for example, the speed of a skier when jumping from a springboard during take-off or at the moment of landing, the speed of a tennis or volleyball ball when serving, its trajectory when determining a touch of the net or out, etc. Currently behind the competition high level watched by hundreds of millions of viewers. It is important that all judges, spectators, athletes are confident in the objectivity of determining the winners. For this purpose, even special mathematical models and imitators.

In addition to time control, in the process of registering a sports result according to the 1st criterion, it is also necessary to measure distances, for example, in throwing or various jumps, and the weight of the barbell in weightlifting.

If during long jumps (distances 6 9 m) measurements with a simple tape measure are still acceptable, because possible mistakes(a few millimeters) are very insignificant, then in throwing a spear or a hammer (a distance 10 times greater), the error in measuring the result with a tape measure will already be significant (several centimeters). The difference between the results of rivals can be only 1 cm. Since the victory is of great importance in modern sports, the objectivity and accuracy of measuring such distances has long been provided with the help of special laser rangefinders.

The bar is another matter. Here big problems no, because the neck and additional weights themselves are a kind of measurement measures. Therefore, the control weighing of the raised bar, as a rule, is carried out only when setting records, when distributing prizes and at points of contention.

A special case is the 2nd criterion for determining the winners by points won. Many experts define this procedure not as measurements, but as evaluation. Due to the fact that measurements in the generally accepted sense represent the identification of a quantitative characteristic of the results of observations in various ways and methods, it seems appropriate in sports to combine these two concepts or consider them equivalent. This decision is also supported by the fact that in a number of sports disciplines the winners are identified by points calculated on the basis of the achieved metric result (pentathlon, triathlon, curling, etc.), and in biathlon, on the contrary, the points obtained (knocked out) during shooting can affect the final metric result. athlete's score.

The winner on points can be both an individual athlete and whole team. This criterion is used, as a rule, in team sports: football, hockey, basketball, volleyball, badminton, tennis, water polo, chess, etc. In some of them, the time of wrestling is limited, for example, football, hockey, basketball. In others, the game continues until a certain result is reached: volleyball, tennis, badminton. The procedure for determining the winner here takes place in several stages. First, the outcome of a particular match is recorded by the scored (winn) goals, pucks, balls and its winner is determined. Each of the participants after the games in a circle receives the corresponding points, which are entered in the standings. Points are summed up and the winners are revealed at the second stage. It can be final (national championships) or the next stage can come if the tournament is qualifying (European championships, world championships, Olympic Games).

Of course, in every game form sports have their own specifics, but the principle of scoring is the same.

There are several martial arts, such as boxing, wrestling, fencing, in which the outcome of the competition is also evaluated by points (takes made, injections). But in the first two sports, fights can be ended before the time limit expires: by knockout or if the opponent is put on the shoulder blades.

According to the 3rd criterion of the accrued points, the winner is identified by a group of expert experts. In sports that are judged in such a highly biased way, claims, protests, and even litigation are the most frequent, just remember the last Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. But it happened historically: in figure skating, gymnastics and other similar competitions a few years ago it was impossible to evaluate the performance of athletes objectively with the help of technical means, as, for example, in athletics. Today, technological progress already makes it possible to make quantitative assessments using special video and measuring systems. I would like to hope that the Olympic Committee in the very near future will use such methods of evaluating the performances of athletes.

It is also very important to ensure equality of conditions, objectivity and comparability of competition results (Fig. 3).

Here, along with determining the quality of competitive tracks, fields, sectors, tracks, ski tracks, slopes, their physical dimensions are subject to accurate measurement: length, width, relative and absolute heights. In this direction in modern sports, the latest technical achievements are often used. For example, for one of the European championships in athletics, which was supposed to be held in Stuttgart, the sponsor of the competition, the Mercedes automobile concern, created a special car to accurately measure the length of the marathon distance. The error in measuring the distance traveled by this unique machine was less than 1 m per 50 km.

When organizing major competitions, much attention is paid to the condition and parameters of sports equipment and equipment.

So, for example, all projectiles for throwing, according to the rules of the competition, must strictly comply with certain sizes and weights. In winter sports where gliding performance is important, such as bobsledding, there are limits on the temperature of the runners, which are carefully measured just before the start. The parameters of the gates, marking of fields and grounds, balls and nets, backboards, baskets, etc. are strictly controlled. In some cases, the equipment of athletes is carefully checked, for example in ski jumping, so that it does not represent a kind of sail.

Sometimes a necessary procedure is the weighing of athletes. This is required, for example, by the rules of competitions in weightlifting, where there are weight categories, or in equestrian sports, where the athlete must not be too light.

In a number of sports disciplines, weather conditions are important. Thus, in track and field athletics, wind speed measurements are made, which can affect the results of running and jumping, in sailing regattas, where competition is generally impossible in calm conditions, in ski jumping, where side wind can threaten the lives of athletes. The temperature of snow and ice in winter sports is subject to control, the temperature of water in aquatic activities sports. If the competition is held on outdoors, then in case of precipitation of a certain intensity, they can be interrupted (for example, tennis, badminton, pole vault).

In sports, doping control is of particular importance. For this purpose, expensive equipment is being developed that modern anti-doping laboratories are equipped with. The problem of doping in sport today is so acute that no great sporting nation can do without its system of laboratories equipped in accordance with the latest achievements in this field. And this despite the fact that anti-doping laboratories cost tens of millions of dollars. In addition to stationary laboratory equipment, in recent years, portable biochemical express blood analyzers have been used in the fight against so-called blood doping.

This is far from a complete range of issues related to the metrological support of sports competitions. Athletes and coaches have no less need for measurements during the training process. Here, in addition to the measurement procedures listed above, there is an urgent need to control the physical condition of athletes, their preparedness at a given time.

For this purpose, the most modern medical equipment is used in sports. Among such equipment, the most significant are various kinds of gas analyzers, systems for biochemical control and diagnostics of the state of the cardiovascular system. All diagnostic sports laboratories are equipped with such equipment. In addition, diagnostic laboratories need stationary Treadmills, bicycle ergometers and others modern appliances. All this laboratory equipment has high-precision measuring technology and is carefully calibrated. Highly qualified athletes undergo a staged comprehensive examination two or three times a year, the purpose of which is to diagnose the state of various functional systems of the body.

In addition to in-depth but episodic laboratory examinations, there is an urgent need for daily monitoring of athletes' tolerance to strenuous and regular training loads. To solve these problems, various types of mobile diagnostic systems are widely used. To date, such systems include computers for reliable and fast processing of the information received.

An important element of the training process is the analysis of the technique of performing competitive exercises. In recent years, this direction has been rapidly developing: video analyzers, devices with very high accuracy and discreteness of displaying body parts of an athlete or a sports equipment, have become widely introduced in sports. A distinctive principle of operation of these devices is three-dimensional laser scanning of moving objects.

It is impossible not to mention two industrial areas related to sports and measurements, sometimes very complex and in some cases unique. This is the design and construction of sports facilities, as well as the development and production of sports equipment. But these serious questions require separate coverage.

Thus, the need for measuring instruments during major sports forums, such as the Olympic Games, World and European Championships, is huge. Only for the registration of sports achievements, thousands of different devices and systems are needed to ensure objectivity, fairness and comparability of results. All of them must pass not only national certification, but must also be approved for use by the relevant international sports federations.

In the article, we have outlined a far from complete range of problems associated with sports measurements, and were not able to display all sports. A close-up covered only the fundamental points of sports metrology, its classification. We hope that experts in specific areas will continue to discuss the issues raised.

V.N. Kulakov, Doctor of Pedagogy, Master of Sports of the RSSU, Moscow
A.I. Kirillov, RIA Standards and Quality, Moscow