Geographic description of the area

Analysis topographic maps is carried out in order to study the study area, its features, patterns of placement, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to choose the right map of a certain scale depending on the direction of the intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation in the area, as basis for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for the scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The choice of maps is accompanied by an assessment of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is supposed to be obtained using the maps. At the same time, it should be taken into account that enlargement of the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing the visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of information. The time when maps were published determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographical phenomena is revealed by comparing maps of different times for the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

visual way based on visual perception images of the terrain, comparing graphically shown elements of the terrain in shape, size, structure, etc. It presupposes mainly a qualitative description of objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists in the study of constructions made according to the maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using techniques graphical analysis patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphical analysis subdivided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist in measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques allow you to determine the average height, thickness, power of the phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, sinuosity of lines, contours and etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, the relationship between them, the degree of influence of various factors allow us to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. With the use of mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models terrain.

Geographic description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on a comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, a scale of foundations, etc. The basic principle of description is from the general to the particular. The description is structured as follows:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristic(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, marks of absolute and relative heights, the main watersheds, the shape and steepness of the slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, barrows, etc.);

4) hydrographic network- names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of the flow of rivers, slope, nature of the banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and the depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

terrain I Locality

in physical geography one of the morphological parts of a geographic landscape (See Geographic landscape). It is a group of conjugated tracts (See tract) associated with individual large forms relief (for example, with watersheds, river valleys and terraces, etc.) or with fluctuations in the depth of occurrence of the same bedrock (pre-anthropogenic) rocks (for example, limestones subject to karst under the cover of loess-like loams). Landscape science also considers complex systems of stows of the same type that have merged in the course of their development (for example, systems of upland bog massifs in taiga landscapes) and parts of the landscape that differ from each other in the quantitative ratio of areas occupied by stows of different types (for example, pine forests, swamps in the taiga, etc.) with a homogeneous qualitative composition of the latter. In geographical literature, the term "M." is also used in a general sense (as a landscape, a territory with a peculiar combination of natural conditions).

A. G. Isachenko.

II Locality (military)

part (plot), a region of a territory with all its natural components: topography, soils, waters, vegetation, etc., as well as communication routes, settlements, industry, and agriculture. and social cultural objects; one of the most important elements of the situation in which hostilities are conducted. Various properties of M. contribute to military operations or make them difficult, having a great influence on the organization and conduct of a battle or operation. M. is divided into the following main types: according to the relief - into flat, hilly, mountainous; according to the conditions of passability - to slightly crossed (passable), medium crossed, strongly crossed (hard to pass); according to the conditions of observation and camouflage - open, half-closed, closed; about the peculiarities of natural conditions - on the desert (desert-steppe), forest (wooded-swampy) and the terrain of the northern regions (Arctic, Arctic, flat and mountain tundra). The operational significance of large water barriers and mountain ranges is especially great. The properties of M that have an impact on combat operations (conditions for the patency of troops and military equipment, protection, observation, orientation, firing, water supply, etc.) are called its operational-tactical properties. M. conditions are taken into account when planning a battle and an operation, organizing the interaction of troops, a system of fire and camouflage, and it has a great influence on command and control, communications, surveillance, and the work of the rear. Tactical properties of M. change depending on a season and weather. The study and evaluation of M. is organized by the commanders and staffs of all military branches, taking into account the tasks they solve. M. is studied and evaluated according to personal observations, reconnaissance results, topographic and special cards. The conclusions from M.'s assessment are taken into account when deciding on a battle or operation and determining the nature of the actions of the troops.

Lit.: Govorukhin A. M and M. In the Officer's Handbook for Military Topography, 3rd ed., M., 1968; Ivankov P. A., Zakharov G. V., The terrain and its influence on the combat operations of the troops, M., 1969; Brief topographic and geodetic dictionary-reference book, 2nd ed., M 1973.

I. S. LYAPUNOV

Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Synonyms:

See what "Location" is in other dictionaries:

See the place to identify the area... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999. locality, place (location), region, side, district, country, territory; region, neighborhood, region, balchug ... Synonym dictionary

- [sn], terrain, pl. locality, locality (localities, etc. wrong), wives. (book). 1. Place, some kind of specific space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous terrain. Beautiful area. The battery fired at ... ... Dictionary Ushakov

1) some specific place, space, area on the earth's surface (Ozhegov, (1981); 2) part of the territory with all its natural components, communication routes, settlements, industry, agriculture and socially ... ... Ecological dictionary

In a broad sense, part of the earth's surface with all its natural components: relief, soils, waters, vegetation, etc.; as well as with communication routes, settlements, industrial and socio-cultural facilities. In English:… … Financial vocabulary

In landscape science, a morphological unit of a landscape, naturally territorial complex higher rank than the tract. It is the largest morphological part of the landscape, characterized by a special combination of the main tracts ... ... Wikipedia

terrain- LOCATION, place... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

1) a part of the territory characterized by a commonality of any signs (natural, historical, etc.). 2) In physical geography, a large morphological part of the geographical landscape, a complex of tracts ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

LOCATION, and, pl. and, she, wives. 1. What is it. a certain place, space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous steppe m. Open m. 2. Territory (usually rural) with several populated areas. Densely populated, ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

terrain- area, pl. locality, genus localities (incorrect localities, localities). Pronounced [locality] ... Dictionary of pronunciation and stress difficulties in modern Russian

terrain- - Telecommunication topics, basic concepts of EN locality ... Technical Translator's Handbook

terrain- Part of the earth's surface with all its natural components (relief, soils, waters, etc.), as well as communication routes, socio-economic and cultural objects ... Geography Dictionary

Books

• Princely area and temple of princes in Smolensk. Historical and archaeological research in connection with the history of Smolensk. , Pisarev S.P. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. The book is a reprint edition of 1894. Despite the fact that there was a serious…

Lecture 1. Place of landscape science

Among the geosciences. Landscape science and geoecology

The place of landscape science among the geosciences. Landscape science and geoecology.

Correlation of the concepts "geographical envelope", "landscape envelope", "biosphere".

Definition of the term "landscape", "natural-territorial complex (NTC)" and "geosystem".

Ecosystem and geosystem.

Landscape science is a part of physical geography, which is part of the system of physical and geographical sciences (general geography, regional studies, paleogeography, private physical and geographical sciences), which is the core of this system.

Landscape science, the object of study of which is the landscape sphere, has its own series of landscape sciences: general landscape science, landscape morphology, landscape geophysics, landscape geochemistry, and landscape mapping.

most close connection landscape science has with private physical and geographical sciences (geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, soil science and biogeography).

In addition to their own geographical disciplines, other earth sciences are close to landscape science, especially geology, geophysics and geochemistry. This is how the sciences of landscape geophysics (studies the energy of geosystems) and landscape geochemistry (studies migration chemical elements in landscape)

In addition, landscape science relies on fundamental natural laws established by physics, chemistry and biology.

Let us analyze the last aspect of this topic - the relationship between landscape science and geoecology. The term "ecology" in literal translation from Greek means "science of habitat". It was proposed back in 1866 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel and began to be used to characterize the relationship of plants and animals with the natural environment. Then, within the framework of biology, the doctrine of ecology was born, which began to develop rapidly based on the study of the relationship between organisms and the environment, communities and populations of these organisms, and since the 30s of the last century, ecosystems as natural complexes consisting of a combination of living organisms and their environment. environment. Somewhat later, from the 50s - 60s of the XX century, all problems of the relationship between human society and environment. Ecology has gone beyond biology and turned into an interdisciplinary complex scientific directions. Classical ecology began to be called bioecology. In view of the fact that the term "ecology" has become ambiguous, the addition of the root "geo" to it emphasizes the connection with geography. The term "geoecology" originated in the West in the 1930s. Although the interest of geography in such issues appeared much earlier. Actually, it was geography from the very beginning of its inception that was engaged in the study of the human environment, the relationship between man and nature.

Of the Soviet geographers, Acad. V.B. Sochava in 1970. Gradually, a modern idea of ​​geoecology emerged as an integral part of a large interdisciplinary complex of environmental problems and the sphere of overlap between geography and ecology. Geoecology can be defined as a science that studies irreversible processes and phenomena in the natural environment and biosphere that have arisen as a result of intensive anthropogenic impact, as well as close and remote in time consequences of these impacts.

Based on this definition of geoecology, its connection with landscape science is seen primarily in the following. Landscape science studies the structure, morphology, dynamics of natural landscapes, and geoecology studies the response of natural systems to anthropogenic impact, using the achievements of landscape science. However, between geoecology and landscape science, one can also see an area of ​​overlapping interests, since In addition to natural landscapes, the course of landscape science also studies natural and anthropogenic landscapes created with the direct participation of man. To date, the doctrine of geoecology cannot be considered established. There are still many ambiguities in the definition of its tasks and boundaries and in the formation of the conceptual apparatus.

Correlation of concepts

"geographic shell", "landscape shell", "biosphere

The term "geographical shell" was proposed by Academician A.A. Grigoriev in the 30s of the last century. The geographic shell is a special natural system in which the earth's crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere interact and are in unity. With a more detailed definition, a geographical shell (GO) is understood as a complex but ordered hierarchical system that differs from other shells in that the material bodies in it can be located in three states of aggregation- solid, liquid and gaseous. Physical and geographical processes in this shell proceed under the influence of both solar and internal energy sources. At the same time, all types of energy entering it undergo a transformation and are partially conserved. Within GO there is a continuous and complex interaction, exchange of matter and energy. This also applies to the living organisms inhabiting it. Top and bottom borders geographical envelope different scientists do it differently. According to the most generally accepted point of view, the upper boundary of the GO coincides with the ozone layer located at an altitude of 20 - 25 km. The lower boundary of the GO is combined with the Mohorovichic (Moho) boundary separating the earth's crust from the mantle. The Moho border is located at an average depth of 35-40 km, and under the mountain ranges - at a depth of 70-80 km. Thus, the thickness of the geographic envelope is 50-100 km. Subsequently, there were proposals for replacements of the term "geographic envelope". So, A.G. Isachenko (1962) suggested calling the geographic shell the epigeosphere (epi - above), emphasizing that this is the outer earthly shell. I.B. Zabelin used the term "biogenosphere" to emphasize its the most important feature- life in a shell. Yu.K. Efremov (1959) proposed to call the geographic shell landscape.

We have accepted that the landscape shell (sphere) is not identical to the geographical one, but has a narrower framework. Landscape shell (sphere) - the most significant part of the geographic shell located near the earth's surface at the contact of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, a kind of focus of life thickening (F.N. Milkov). The landscape shell is a qualitatively new formation that cannot be attributed to any of the spheres. Compared to GO, the landscape shell is very thin. Its thickness varies from several tens of meters to 200 - 250 m and depends on the thickness of the weathering crust and the height of the vegetation cover.

landscape shell plays important role in a person's life. All products of organic origin a person receives from the landscape shell. Outside the landscape shell, a person can only be temporarily (in space, under water).

You are already familiar with the concept of the biosphere. The main points concerning the origin, formation of this term and the very doctrine of the biosphere are very well covered in the manual by B.V. Poyarkova and O.V. Babanazarova "Teaching about the biosphere" (2003). Let me just remind you that the very word "biosphere" first appeared in the works of J.-B. Lamarck, but he put a completely different meaning into it. The term biosphere was associated with living organisms by the Austrian geologist E. Suess in 1875. Only in the 60s of the last century, the outstanding Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky created a coherent doctrine of the biosphere as a sphere of the spread of life and special shell of our planet.

According to V.I. Vernadsky, the biosphere is a general planetary shell, that area of ​​the Earth where life exists or existed and which has been and is being exposed to it. The biosphere covers the entire surface of the land, the entire hydrosphere, part of the atmosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. Spatially, the biosphere is enclosed between the ozone layer (20 - 25 km above the Earth's surface) and the lower limit of the distribution of living organisms in the earth's crust. The position of the lower boundary of the biosphere (approximately 6 - 7 km deep into the earth's crust) is less certain than the upper one, because our knowledge of the area of ​​distribution of life is gradually expanding and primitive living organisms are found at depths where, as expected, they should not be due to high temperatures rocks.

Thus, the biosphere occupies almost the same space as the geographic envelope. And this fact is considered by some scientists as a basis for doubting the expediency of the existence of the very term "geographical envelope", there were proposals to combine these two terms into one. Other scientists believe that the geographical envelope and the biosphere are different concepts, because. in the concept of the biosphere, attention is focused on active role living substance. The situation is similar with the landscape envelope and the biosphere. Many scientists regard the landscape shell as a concept equal to the biosphere.

Undoubtedly, the term "biosphere" has more weight for world science, is used in various industries knowledge and familiar to every more or less educated person, in contrast to the term "geographical shell". But when studying the disciplines of the geographical cycle, it seems appropriate to use both of these concepts, since. the term "geographical shell" implies equal attention to all spheres that make up its composition, and when using the term "biosphere", the emphasis is initially placed on the study of living matter, which is not always fair.

An important criterion separation of these spheres may be the time of their occurrence. First, a geographical envelope arose, then the landscape sphere differentiated, after which the biosphere began to acquire an increasing influence among other spheres.

3. Definition of the terms "landscape",

"natural-territorial complex (NTC)" and "geosystem"

The term "landscape" has wide international recognition.

The word "landscape" is borrowed from German language(land - earth, schaft - relationship). AT English language this word denotes a picture of nature, in French - corresponds to the word "landscape".

AT scientific literature the term "landscape" was introduced in 1805 by the German geographer A. Gommener and meant the totality of areas surveyed from one point, enclosed between the nearest mountains, forests and other parts of the Earth.

Currently, there are 3 options for interpreting the content of the term "landscape":

1. Landscape - a general concept, similar to such as soil, relief, organism, climate;

2. Landscape - a real-life area of ​​the earth's surface, a geographical individual and, therefore, the initial territorial unit in the physical-geographical zoning;

With all the differences in the definitions of the landscape, there is a similarity between them in the most important thing - the recognition of landscape relationships between elements of nature in complexes that actually exist on the earth's surface.

Landscape - a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographic envelope, characterized by a regular combination of its components and phenomena, the nature of relationships, the features of the combination and connections of smaller territorial units (N.A. Solntsev). Natural ingredients - the main components of natural systems (from facies to the landscape shell inclusive), interconnected by the processes of exchange of matter, energy, information. By natural ingredients we mean:

1) masses of solid earth's crust;

2) masses of the hydrosphere (surface and ground waters on land);

3) air masses of the atmosphere;

4) biota - communities of organisms;

Thus, the landscape is five-component. Often, instead of the masses of the solid earth's crust, relief is called as a component, and climate is called instead of air masses. This is quite acceptable, but it must be remembered that both the relief and the climate are not material bodies. The first is the external form of the earth, and the second is a set of certain meteorological characteristics that depend on the geographical location of the territory and the characteristics of the general circulation of the atmosphere.

To characterize the landscape, a landscape scientist needs information from geomorphology, hydrology, meteorology, botany, soil science, and other particular geographical disciplines. Thus, landscape science "works" for the integration of geographical knowledge.

Natural Territorial Complex (NTC) can be defined as a spatio-temporal system of geographic components, interdependent in their location and developing as a whole.

PTK has complex organization. It is characterized by a vertical tiered structure, which is created by the components, and a horizontal one, consisting of natural complexes of a lower rank.

In many cases, the terms "landscape" and "natural-territorial complex" are interchangeable and are synonymous, but there are also differences. In particular, the term "PTK" is not used in physical-geographical zoning, i.e. has no hierarchical and spatial dimensions.

The term NTC, in contrast to the landscape, is much less commonly used as a general concept.

In 1963 V.B. Sochava proposed to call the objects studied by physical geography geosystems. The concept of "geosystem" covers the entire hierarchical range of natural geographical units - from the geographical shell to its elementary structural divisions. The geosystem is a broader concept than the PTK, because the latter applies only to separate parts geographic envelope, its territorial subdivisions, but does not apply to civil defense as a whole.

This relationship between the geosystem and the NTC is a consequence of the fact that the concept of a system has a broader character than a complex.

System - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and form a certain integrity, unity. System integrity is also referred to as emergence.

Every complex is a system, but not every system can be said to be a complex.

To talk about a system, it is enough to have at least two objects with which there are any relationships, for example, soil - vegetation, atmosphere - hydrosphere. The same object can participate in different systems. Different systems can overlap, and this shows the connection of various objects and phenomena. The concept of "complex" (from Latin "interlacing, very close connection of parts of the whole") does not imply any, but a strictly defined set of interconnected blocks (components). The PTK should include some mandatory components. The absence of even one of them destroys the complex. It is enough to imagine the NTC without a geological foundation or without soil. The complex can only be complete, although in order to scientific research one can selectively consider private links between components in any combination. And if the elements of the system can be, as it were, random one in relation to the other, then the elements of the complex, at least the natural-territorial one, must be in a genetic connection.

Any PTC can be called a geosystem. Geosystems have their own hierarchy, their own levels of organization.

F.N. Milkov distinguishes three levels of organization of geosystems:

1) Planetary- corresponds to the geographical shell.

2) Regional - physical and geographical zones, sectors, countries, provinces, etc.

3) Local - relatively simple NTC, from which regional geosystems are built - tracts, facies.

The geosystem and NTC are characterized by a number of properties and qualities.

The most important property any geosystem - its integrity . From the interaction of the components, a qualitatively new formation arises, which could not have arisen with the mechanical addition of the relief, climate, natural waters, etc. A special quality of geosystems is their ability to produce biomass.

Soil is a kind of "product" of terrestrial geosystems and one of the brightest manifestations of their integrity. If solar heat, water, parent rocks and living organisms did not interact with each other, then there would be no soil.

The integrity of the geosystem is manifested in its relative autonomy and resistance to external influences, in the presence of objective natural boundaries, orderliness of the structure, greater tightness of internal connections compared to external ones.

Geosystems belong to the category of open systems, which means that they are permeated with flows of matter and energy that connect them with the external environment.

In geosystems, there is a continuous exchange and transformation of matter and energy. The whole set of processes of movement, exchange and transformation of energy, matter, and information in the geosystem can be called functioning. The functioning of the geosystem is made up of the transformation solar energy, moisture circulation, geochemical circulation, biological metabolism and mechanical movement of material under the action of gravity.

Structure geosystems - complex concept. It is defined as spatio-temporal organization or as mutual arrangement parts and how to connect them.

The spatial aspect of the structure of the geosystem consists in the orderliness of the mutual arrangement of its parts. Distinguish between a vertical (or radial) structure and horizontal (or lateral). But the concept of structure involves not just the relative position of the constituent parts, but also the ways in which they are connected. Accordingly, two systems of internal communications in the PTK are distinguished - vertical, i.e. intercomponent, and horizontal, i.e. intersystem.

Examples of vertical backbone connections (flows) in a geosystem:

1) Precipitation and its filtration into the soil and groundwater.

2) The relationship between the content of chemical elements in soils and soil solutions and in plants growing on them.

3) Settling of various suspensions at the bottom of the reservoir.

Examples of horizontal flows of matter in a geosystem:

1) Water and solid runoff of various streams.

2) Aeolian transport of dust, aerosols, spores, bacteria, etc.

3) Mechanical differentiation of solid material along the slope.

The concept of the structure of the geosystem should also include a certain regular set of its states, rhythmically changing within a certain time interval (seasonal changes). This period of time is called characteristic time geosystems and it is one year: the minimum period during which all typical structural elements and states of the geosystem can be observed.

All spatial and temporal elements of the geosystem structure constitute its invariant. Invariant - is a collection of sustainable characteristic features system to distinguish this system from everyone else. Even more briefly, we can say that an invariant is a frame or a landscape matrix (A.G. Isachenko).

For example, the Central Russian Upland is characterized by the type of tracts of karst funnels. An invariant of this type of urochish is its diagnostic feature - a pronounced on the terrain is a closed negative form of relief in the form of a cone-shaped funnel.

These karst sinkholes can be formed in writing chalk or limestone deposits, they can be afforested or covered with meadow vegetation. In these cases, we have different options or varieties of the same invariant - tracts of karst funnels.

In the process of functioning, species variants can change each other - not a chalk sinkhole overgrown with vegetation will transform into a meadow-steppe one, but a meadow-steppe one into a forest one, while the invariant (the karst sinkhole as such) will remain unchanged.

But under certain conditions, a change in the invariant is also observed. As a result of siltation, a karst funnel in one case can turn into a lake, in another - into a shallow steppe depression. But this change of the invariant also means the change of one type of tracts to another. In local geosystems of the tract or facies dimension, the invariant is most often the lithogenic base.

Geosystem dynamics- changes in the system that are reversible and do not lead to a restructuring of its structure. Dynamics include mainly cyclic changes occurring within the same invariant (daily, seasonal), as well as restorative changes in states that occur after the geosystem is disturbed by external factors (including human economic activity). Dynamic changes indicate a certain ability of the geosystem to return to its original state, i.e. about its sustainability. Dynamics should be distinguished evolutionary change geosystems, i.e. development . Development - directed (irreversible) change leading to a radical restructuring of the structure, i.e. to the emergence of a new geosystem. Progressive development is inherent in all geosystems. The restructuring of local NTCs can occur before the eyes of a person - the overgrowth of lakes, the swamping of forests, the emergence of ravines, the drainage of swamps, etc.

In the process of its development, PTC goes through 3 phases. The first phase - origin and formation - is characterized by the adaptation of living matter to the substrate, and the impact of biota on the substrate is small. The second phase is the active and strong impact of living matter on the conditions of its habitat. The third phase is a deep transformation of the substrate, leading to the appearance of a new PTK (according to K.V. Pashkang).

Except internal causes, on the The development of NTCs is also influenced by external ones: space, general earth (tectonics, general atmospheric circulation) and local (influence of neighboring NTCs). The combined activities of external and internal factors ultimately leads to the replacement of one PTC by another.

Human activity began to have a great influence on the PTK. This leads to the fact that NTCs change, even the term natural-anthropogenic complex appeared ( technogenic complex), in which, along with natural components, society and phenomena associated with its activities appear. At present, the NTC is often considered as a complex system consisting of 2 subsystems: natural and anthropogenic.

With the development of ideas about human impact on the environment, the concept of a natural-production geosystem arose, where the natural and industrial components in natural-anthropogenic landscapes are studied concurrently. Here, a person is considered in the social, cultural, economic and technogenic spheres.

Ecosystem and Geosystem

One of the features modern geography- its ecologization, Special attention to the study of the problems of interaction between man and the natural environment.

Ecosystem - any community of living beings and its habitat, united into a single functional whole on the basis of interdependence between individual ecological components. Ecosystems are studied by ecology, which is part of the disciplines biological cycle. There are microecosystems (a hummock in a swamp), mesoecosystems (meadow, pond, forest), macroecosystems (ocean, continent), there is also a global ecosystem - the biosphere. Often the ecosystem is considered as a synonym for biogeocenosis, although biogeocenosis - part of the biosphere, a homogeneous natural system of functionally interconnected living organisms with an abiotic environment.

As a result of active economic activity of society, significant changes in ecosystems and their transformation into man-made (drained swamps, flooded lands, cut forests) occur.

The natural system studied by geography is called geosystem - a special kind of material system consisting of natural and socio-economic components, territory.

Ecosystem and geosystem have similarities and differences. The similarity lies in the same composition of biotic and abiotic components included in both of these systems.

The differences between these systems are expressed in the nature of the connections. In the geosystem, the connections between the components are equivalent, i.e. relief, climate, water, soil, and biota are equally studied. The ecosystem is based on the idea of ​​the fundamental inequality of the components included in it. In the center of the study of the ecosystem, plant and animal communities and all relationships in the ecosystem are studied along the line of plant and living communities - the abiotic component of nature. Relationships between abiotic components remain out of sight.

Another difference between an ecosystem and a geosystem is that the ecosystem is, as it were, dimensionless, i.e. does not have a strict scope. In the ecosystem, a bear's den, a fox's hole, and a pond are also considered. With such a wide and indefinite scope, some categories of ecosystems may not coincide with geosystems.

The last difference can be manifested in the fact that in the geosystem, in contrast to the ecosystem, new components appear, such as population, economic objects, etc.

air masses and climate.

natural waters and stock.

Tracts and podurochishchi.

4. geographical area as the largest morphological part of the landscape.

Planetary, regional and local level of geosystems.

natural systems they can be formations of various dimensions, either very extensive, complexly arranged, up to the landscape shell, or relatively insignificant in area and more homogeneous internally. All natural geosystems are divided into three levels according to their size and complexity of the device: planetary, regional and local.

The planetary level of geosystems includes the geographic envelope as a whole, continents, oceans, and physiographic belts. So, Shubaev in his book on general geography differentiates the geographical shell into continental and oceanic rays: three continental - European-African, Asian-Australian, American and three oceanic - Atlantic, Indian and Pacific. Next, he considers geographic zones. Other geographers (D.L. Armand, F.N. Milkov) begin to count the planetary level of geosystems from the landscape shell (sphere), followed by geographical zones, continents, and oceans. Geosystems at the planetary level are the sphere scientific interests general geography.

The regional level of geosystems includes physical-geographical countries, regions, provinces, some geographers have physical-geographical belts, zones, subzones. All these units are studied within the courses of regional physical geography and landscape science.

The local level of geosystems includes natural complexes, as a rule, confined to meso- and microforms of relief (ravines, ravines, river valleys) or their elements (slopes, peaks, bottoms). From the hierarchical series of geosystems of the local level, facies, tracts and localities are distinguished. These geosystems are the subject of study of landscape science, especially its section on landscape morphology.

The main source of obtaining new information About PTK are field studies that focus on the landscape. But there are a great many specific individual landscapes on Earth. According to rough estimates, their total number should be expressed in five or six figures. What can be said about localities, tracts, facies! Therefore, like any other science, geography cannot do without the classification of the object under study. At present, such a grouping of geosystems is considered to be widely accepted, in which several geosystem taxa (ranks) are listed from top to bottom, and each lower one is included structural element to a higher one. This way of organizing objects is called hierarchy (from the Greek "service ladder").

Regional geosystems

(physical-geographical provinces, regions and countries)

The main object of study in the course of regional physical geography is the physical-geographical country. Physical-geographical country - this is a vast part of the mainland, corresponding to a large tectonic structure and fairly unified in terms of orography, characterized by climatic unity (but within wide limits) - the degree of continentality of the climate, the climatic regime, and the originality of the spectrum of latitudinal zonality on the plains. And in the mountains - a system of types of altitudinal zonation. The country covers an area of ​​several hundred thousand or millions of square kilometers. Examples of the physical and geographical countries of Northern Eurasia are the Russian Plain. Ural mountain country, West Siberian Plain, Alpine-Carpathian mountain country. All countries can be combined into two groups: mountainous and lowland.

next geographical unit in the hierarchy of geosystems is physical-geographical area - part of a physical-geographical country, isolated mainly in the Neogene-Quaternary time under the influence tectonic movements, continental glaciations, with the same type of relief and climate and a peculiar manifestation of horizontal zonality and altitudinal zonation. Examples of physical-geographical regions are the Meshcherskaya lowland. Central Russian Upland. Oka-Don lowland, steppe zone of the Russian Plain, taiga zone of the West Siberian Plain, Kuznetsk-Altai region.

Further, when zoning the territory, they distinguish physical-geographical province - part of the region, characterized by a common relief and geological structure, as well as bioclimatic features. Usually the province coincides with a large orographic unit: upland, lowland, a group of mountain ranges, etc. Examples: Meshcherskaya province of mixed forests of the Russian Plain, forest-steppe province of the Oka-Don Plain, Salairo - Kuznetsk province.

Physical-geographical (landscape) region - a relatively large, geomorphologically and climatically isolated part of the province, within which the integrity and specificity of the landscape structure are preserved. Each area is distinguished by a certain combination of mesorelief forms with their characteristic microclimate, soil differences and plant communities. The district is the lowest unit of the regional level of differentiation of the geographic envelope. Examples: Kuznetsk Basin, Salair, Mountain Shoria, Kuznetsk Alatau.

When analyzing cartographic materials, the approximate sizes of geosystems were calculated different levels. In general, the higher the hierarchical level of a geosystem, the larger its area (Table 2).

table 2

Approximate sizes of geosystems of various ranks on flat territories

The vertical thickness of geosystems V.B. Sochava estimates the following values:

Facia - 0.02 - 0.05 km

Landscape -1.5- 2.0 km

Province - 3.0 - 5.0 km

Physical-geographical belt - 8.0 - 18.0 km

But there are many uncertainties in such estimates, since there are no comprehensive data and even theoretically well-defined criteria for establishing both the upper and lower boundaries of geosystems of different hierarchical levels.

landscape zoning.

3. Geographic sector and its impact on regional landscape structures.

4. Altitudinal zonality as a factor of landscape differentiation.

I. Erosion-denudation dissected low mountains with wide flat watersheds, dome-shaped peaks or separate flattened ridges with dark coniferous and mixed forests on mountain-forest brown, less often soddy-podzolic soils.

24. Dark coniferous and mixed forests on mountain forest soddy-podzolic, podzolic and brown soils.

25. Dark coniferous forests on mountain-forest brown, rarely sod-podzolic soils.

II. Watershed surfaces with wide convex and ridge-shaped watersheds, with rocks, peaks with sparse mixed (fir-cedar-small-leaved) forests on mountain-forest brown soils.

26. fir-cedar, birch-cedar forests on mountain-forest brown soils.

27. Siberian pine-fir forests with birch on mountain-forest brown and mountain soddy-podzolic soils.

D. River valleys.

I. Terraced valleys composed of sandy-pebble-boulder, loamy-gravel-pebble material with sogre and willow-poplar forests, alternating with floodplain meadows, shrubs and swamps on alluvial-meadow and marsh soils.

28. larch-spruce forests on peaty-gley soils, in combination with waterlogged birch, spruce-birch forests (sogry) on peat-gley, humus-gley soils.

29. a combination of small-leaved-coniferous forests, swamps, shrubs, meadows on sod-meadow, peaty-humus, in places peat-gley soils.

30. herb-cereal meadows alternating with willow and poplar forests on alluvial soddy and meadow soils.

31. grassy, ​​moss swamps with a combination of swampy forests on humus-peaty soils.

32. Border of the Kemerovo region

33. Border of landscapes

Mid-mountain exaration and erosion-denudation landscapes.

Glacial landscapes in the Alatau-Shor Highlands occupy relatively small areas. 91 glaciers with a total area of ​​6.79 km 2 have been discovered in this mountainous region. The area of ​​distribution of glaciers extends from Mount Bolshoy Taskyl in the north to the Teren-Kazyrsky Range in the south of the Kuznetsk Alatau within the Tegir-Tysh mountain range. Glaciers are located in groups, forming separate centers of glaciation, which, in turn, can be combined into regions. Northern - glaciers near Mount Big Taskyl with a total area of ​​0.04 km 2. Central - glaciers near Krestovaya Mountain, Sredny Kanym Mountains, Bolshoy Kanym Mountains, Cheksu Mountains with a total area of ​​2.65 km 2. Southern - glaciers lying to the north and south of the Tigirtish mountain range with a total area of ​​​​4.1 km 2.

The main physical and geographical feature of the Kuznetsk Alatau is the extremely low hypsometric level of glacial landscapes. Most of them are located at an altitude of 1400-1450 m. Some glaciers end at an altitude of 1200-1250 m. In the southern region, individual glaciers descend to 1340-1380 m. The slope glaciers lie the lowest. Some of them are located within upper bound the woods. The glaciers of the Kuznetsk Alatau lie lower than in other inland mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere at the same latitude.

The determining factor in the existence of the glacial landscapes of the Kuznetsk Alatau is the wind redistribution and snowstorm concentration of snow on the leeward slopes of the mountains. Glaciers occupy leeward ledges of upland terraces, leeward slopes behind vast areas of watersheds and plateau-like peaks, form in cirques and on shaded walls, at the foot of steep slopes and in erosion-nival troughs. In the Kuznetsk Alatau, glaciers do not descend into the valleys, but are located on the slopes, so the most common type of glaciers in this area is slope glaciers.

The existence of modern glaciers in the Kuznetsk Alatau is explained by a combination of climatic and orographic factors favorable for glaciation.

Sources of geographic information

Basic concepts, patterns and their consequences

Azimuth is the angle between the north direction and the object ( final destination motion), which is measured from 0 to 360 degrees clockwise.

Geographic longitude- the magnitude of the arc of the parallel drawn from the zero (Greenwich) meridian to given point, in degrees. Longitude is western and eastern in the range from 0° to 180°.

Geographic map- a reduced and generalized image of the Earth's surface or its parts on a plane, made using conventional symbols on a scale.

Geographic latitude is the value of the meridian arc drawn from the equator to the given point in degrees. Latitude is northern and southern within the boundaries from 0 ° (latitude of the equator) to 90 ° (latitude of the poles).

Geographical coordinates- these are quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth's surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian.

Geographic poles- points of intersection of the earth's surface with an imaginary axis of rotation.

the globe(from lat. ball) is a reduced model of the Earth, most accurately reflecting its shape.

Degree network of a geographic map- a system of meridians and parallels, which serves to determine the position geographical objects on the earth's surface.

Daylight saving time- this is standard time, translated one hour ahead, has been introduced in Russia since 1930 by a special resolution (decree).

map scale- the degree of reduction in the length of lines on a plan or map compared to their actual length on the ground. There are numerical (1: 100,000), named (in 1 cm - 1 km) and linear () scales.

Meridian- a line of section of the earth's surface by a plane passing through the geographic poles, i.e. connecting the poles. All meridians are the same length. Average length 1° meridian - 111 km. Directions are determined by the meridians (north - south).

Zero time zone- a belt, the average meridian of which is the zero meridian (drawn through the city of Greenwich, which is located in the UK).

Parallel- the line of the Earth section by a plane, parallel plane equator. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, the length of the parallel decreases from the equator to the poles. Directions are determined by parallels (west - east).

Terrain plan- a drawing of a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe terrain, made in conventional signs and on a large scale without taking into account the curvature of the earth's surface. The selection of the most significant elements or objects in the image is called geographical generalization.

standard time— system of reporting time by time zones. In total, 24 time zones are allocated on Earth at 15 ° longitude. solar time at points located on the same meridian, called local.

Time zones of Russia— On October 26, 2014 at 2:00 am, the Federal Law Russian Federation No. 248-FZ of July 21, 2014 “On Amendments to the Federal Law “On the Calculation of Time””, which establishes 10 time zones on the territory of the Russian Federation. Previously, on the territory of the Russian Federation, the calculation of time was carried out according to the international system of time zones. The territory of the Russian Federation was located in 11 time zones (from the 2nd to the 12th inclusive) with the same time within each time zone. The time difference between two adjacent zones was one hour. The account of ship time at sea is still kept according to the international system of time zones. When ships are in the roads and in ports, the time set there is used. On the territory of the Russian Federation, according to Moscow time, the movement of railway, water and intercity road transport open to common use, as well as the work of long-distance telephone and telegraph communication. The order of movement of air transport has not changed - it is carried out according to coordinated universal time. Informing the population about the work of transport and means of communication is carried out according to the time established in the given area.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, time zones are established, the boundaries of which are formed taking into account the borders of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The composition of the territories that form each time zone, and the procedure for calculating time in time zones:

1) 1st time zone (MSK-1, Moscow time minus 1 hour, UTC+2): Kaliningrad region;

2) 2nd time zone (MSK, Moscow time, UTC + 3): Republic of Adygea (Adygea), Republic of Dagestan, Republic of Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of Kalmykia, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Republic of Karelia, Republic of Komi, Republic Crimea, Republic of Mari El, Republic of Mordovia, Republic North Ossetia- Alania, Republic of Tatarstan (Tatarstan), Chechen Republic, Chuvash Republic- Chuvashia, Krasnodar region, Stavropol region, Arhangelsk region, Astrakhan region, Belgorod region, Bryansk region, Vladimir region, Volgograd region, Vologodskaya Oblast, Voronezh region, Ivanovo region, Kaluga region, Kirov region, Kostroma region, Kursk region, Leningrad region, Lipetsk region, Moscow region, Murmansk region, Nizhny Novgorod Region, Novgorod region, Oryol Region, Penza region, Pskov region, Rostov region, Ryazan region, Saratov region, Smolensk region, Tambov region, Tver region, Tula region, Ulyanovsk region, Yaroslavl region, cities of federal significance Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sevastopol and Nenets Autonomous Okrug;

3) 3rd time zone (MSK+1, Moscow time plus 1 hour, UTC+4): Udmurt republic and Samara region;

4) 4th time zone (MSK + 2, Moscow time plus 2 hours, UTC + 5): Republic of Bashkortostan, Perm Territory, Kurgan region, Orenburg region, Sverdlovsk region, Tyumen region, Chelyabinsk region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - Yugra and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug;

5) 5th time zone (MSK + 3, Moscow time plus 3 hours, UTC + 6): Republic of Altai, Altai region, Novosibirsk region, Omsk region and Tomsk region;

6) 6th time zone (MSK + 4, Moscow time plus 4 hours, UTC + 7): Republic of Tyva, Republic of Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk region and Kemerovo region;

7) 7th time zone (MSK + 5, Moscow time plus 5 hours, UTC + 8): Republic of Buryatia, Trans-Baikal Territory and Irkutsk Region;

8) 8th time zone (MSK + 6, Moscow time plus 6 hours, UTC + 9): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Aldansky, Amginsky, Anabarsky, Bulunsky, Verkhnevilyuisky, Vilyuisky, Gorny, Zhigansky national Evenk, Kobyaysky, Lensky , Megino-Kangalassky, Mirninsky, Namsky, Neryungrinsky, Nyurbinsky, Olekminsky, Oleneksky Evenk national, Suntarsky, Tattinsky, Tomponsky, Ust-Aldansky, Ust-Maysky, Khangalassky, Churapchinsky and Eveno-Bytantaysky uluses (districts), the city of republican significance Yakutsk) and the Amur region;

9) 9th time zone (MSK + 7, Moscow time plus 7 hours, UTC + 10): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Verkhoyansky, Oymyakonsky and Ust-Yansky uluses (districts), Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsk region, Magadan Region, Sakhalin Region (Aleksandrovsk, Sakhalin, Anivsky, Dolinsky, Korsakov, Kurilsky, Makarovsky, Nevelsky, Nogliksky, Okhinsky, Poronaysky, Smirnykhovsky, Tomarinsky, Tymovsky, Uglegorsky, Kholmsky, Yuzhno-Kurilsky (districts), city regional significance- the city of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk) and the Jewish Autonomous Region;

10) 10th time zone (MSK + 8, Moscow time plus 8 hours, UTC + 11): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Abyisky, Allaikhovsky, Verkhnekolymsky, Momsky, Nizhnekolymsky and Srednekolymsky uluses (districts), Sakhalin region (North- Kuril region);

11) 11th time zone (MSK + 9, Moscow time plus 9 hours, UTC + 12): Kamchatka Krai and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.

Equator- a conditional line located at the same distance from the poles. Equator divides Earth to the North and southern hemisphere. The length of the equator is 40 thousand km.

Geographical discoveries and exploration of the Earth

Explorer (traveler)	Contribution to the development of knowledge about the Earth
Eratosthenes of Cyrene	For the first time determined the size of the Earth by measuring the arc of the meridian, applied the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude"
Marco Polo	In 1466 he traveled through Central Asia to China, the first European to describe China, the countries of Central and Western Asia.
Afanasy Nikitin	The first Russian traveler in India, a merchant. His notes "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" contain information about the population, economy, religion, customs and nature of India.
Christopher Columbus	strove to open sea ​​route to India, moving from Europe to the west, crossing Atlantic Ocean. Reached the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti in 1492. He was convinced that he had reached the shores of India.
Amerigo Vespucci	The navigator who determined that the lands discovered by Columbus were a new continent. He named open lands The new world, first the southern one from the continents of America, and then the northern one, were named after him.
Vasco Da Gama	Opened in 1497-1498. sea ​​route from Europe to India around Africa.
Fernando Magellan	In 1519-1521. made the first circumnavigation. On the Philippine Islands he was killed, the expedition returned under the leadership of Juan Sebastian Elcano.
Mercator	He proposed several map projections, the most famous of which, cylindrical conformal, is named after him. He created the first atlas, in the preface to which he outlined the tasks and subject of geography.
Tasman Abel Janson	Explored Australia and Oceania, discovered an island named after him. Established that Australia is a single independent continent. Discovered a number of other islands and straits.
Dezhnev Semyon Ivanovich	Participated in campaigns in Kolyma and Indigirka, swam around Chukotka Peninsula, passing for the first time the strait between Asia and America (1648).
Atlasov Vladimir Vasilievich	In 1697-1699. made a trip around Kamchatka, presented its first versatile description, provided information about the Kuril Islands and Japan.
Bering Vitus Jonassen	Headed the first and second Kamchatka expeditions reached the coast of North America. He died during the winter on the island, which was later named after him (Commander Islands). Also, the name of the traveler on the geographical map is the strait and the sea (Bering Strait and Bering Sea).
Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich	Explorer of Kamchatka (1737-1741), member of the Great Northern Expedition. He created the first scientific description of the peninsula - "Description of the Land of Kamchatka".
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich	In 1758-1765. Head of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. In the work “On the layers of the earth”, he defined geology as the science of the development of the Earth, put forward a hypothesis of the development of the relief in time, introduced the term “economic geography” into science. He considered it important to develop the study of the Northern Sea Route, and gave a rationale for the possibility of sailing along it.
James Cook	He led three round-the-world expeditions, explored the coast of Australia, discovered the Great Barrier Reef, New Zealand, and a number of islands.
Shelikhov (Shelekhov) Grigory Ivanovich	The organizer of the Russian-American Merchant Company, within which he also explored the Pacific coast of Alaska, organized a number of Russian settlements there.
Kruzenshtern Ivan Fyodorovich	He led the first Russian round-the-world expedition in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva".
Humboldt Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm	Made the first scientific generalizations in the field geographic zoning and altitudinal zonation. One of the founders of scientific country studies.
Bellingshausen Faddey Faddeevich	In 1819-1821. led round the world expedition on the sloops "Vostok" (was the commander) and "Mirny" (under the command of M. P. Lazarev). As a result of the expedition, Antarctica (1820) and a number of islands were discovered, and versatile oceanological research was carried out in polar and subpolar latitudes.
Livingston David	Explored Africa, in 1851-1856. crossed the Zambezi River, opening the Victoria Falls on it, and went out to the Indian Ocean. Studied the upper reaches of the Congo River.
Semyonov Tyan-Shansky Pyotr Petrovich	In 1856-1857. traveled to the Tien Shan, explored Lake Issyk-Kul. Compiled the “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary Russian Empire", was the initiator of the first census of the population of Russia in 1897.
Przhevalsky Nikolai Mikhailovich	Studied the Ussuri region and Central Asia. He collected information on ethnography, collections of animals and plants, and for the first time described a wild horse.
Miklukho-Maklai Nikolai Nikolaevich	Explorer of New Guinea and Oceania. An important scientific merit of the researcher is the conclusion about the species unity and mutual relationship of human races.
Dokuchaev Vasily Vasilievich	Created the world's first classification of soils based on their origin. He discovered the basic laws of soil science.
Voeikov Alexander Ivanovich	Founder of Russian climatology. For the first time in geography, he applied the method of balances, i.e., comparing the income and consumption of matter and energy. He proposed a classification of rivers according to the water regime.
Nansen Fridtjof	Established the nature of the ice cover of Greenland, passing it on skis in 1888. In 1893-1896. sailed on the ship "Fram" in the high latitudes of the Arctic, carried out oceanographic and climatic observations, discovered the influence of the Earth's rotation on the drift of ice.
Kozlov Pyotr Kuzmich	Researcher Central Asia, led the Mongol-Tibetan expeditions, discovered the Gobi Desert.
Scott Robert Falcon	In 1910, he undertook a second Antarctic expedition, during which he reached the South Pole (a month later than the Norwegian R. Amundsen), but on way back Scott and his companions were killed.
Amundsen Roald	Passed for the first time by the northwestern passage from Greenland to Alaska. In 1910-1912. made an Antarctic expedition, reached the South Pole for the first time. In 1926, he led the first flight over the North Pole on the airship "Norway".
Sedov Georgy Yakovlevich	In 1912 he organized an expedition to the North Pole on the ship "St. Foca. Wintered on Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land.
Vernadsky Vladimir Ivanovich	Founder of the doctrine of the noosphere, new stage development of the biosphere, where the role reasonable activity person.
Obruchev Vladimir Afanasyevich	Researcher of Siberia, Central and Central Asia, author of the novel "Sannikov's Land".
Berg Lev Semyonovich	He created the doctrine of landscapes, developed Dokuchaev's ideas about natural areas.
Baransky Nikolai Nikolaevich	One of the founders of the doctrine of EGP, TRT in domestic economic geography. Author of the first textbook on economic geography.
Schmidt Otto Yulievich	Author of the theory of the formation of bodies of the solar system from a gas-dust cloud, organizer of the Institute of Theoretical Geophysics at the Academy of Sciences. In 1933-1934. led the expedition, which in one navigation passed the Northern Sea Route on the steamer "Chelyuskin" (the steamer sank, but all members of the expedition were removed from the ice floe by planes).
Vavilov Nikolay Ivanovich	Organizer of scientific expeditions to study cultivated plants, as a result of which a unique collection was created, serving for the selection and creation of new varieties. Author of the book Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants.

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The geographical location of the area determines many features of the natural geographical environment. Depending on the location of the territory of economic activity, the degree of anthropogenic impact is different, as well as the self-cleaning and self-restoring ability of the natural environment.

Change in air temperature depending on altitude.

Depending on the geographical location of the area, the relative humidity of the surrounding air can change significantly. Humidity is affected by the ambient temperature. At temperatures below zero, moisture condenses and falls in the form of frost, so its presence in the atmosphere becomes negligible.

The amount of precipitation depends on the geographical location of the area and the time of year. Most precipitation falls around the equator. As the latitude increases, their number decreases. The mountains, large lakes, the oceans have a greater influence on the distribution of precipitation than the distance to the equator. Precipitation is seasonal in many areas and has not changed much over the observation period. In the US Pacific Northwest, the average monthly rainfall is about 6 inches in winter and less than 1 inch in summer. The Great Plains, on the other hand, have maximum rainfall in summer (about 3 inches per month on average), while winter averages less than 1 inch.

Does the season and geographic location of the area have a bearing on the type of gasoline used? If so, what determines the composition that is optimal for a given time of year and place.

The latter, as you know, depends on the geographical location of the area, on the season and changes even during the day, depending on the time and meteorological conditions.  

In general, as established, the degree of disturbance depends on the geographic location of the area, the nature of the relief and surface, the type of vegetation, season, soil moisture, features and properties of permafrost.

These data show that within the Soviet Union, climatic and other factors associated with the geographical location of the area do not have a noticeable effect on the incidence of glaucoma.

Variable nature of lighting, temperature, ozone concentration, meteorological conditions; the dependence of these factors on the time of year and the geographical location of the area; the different, often opposite nature of the action of light depending on its intensity and air temperature - all this complicates the study of aging, often leading to conflicting conclusions. The complexity of the issue is aggravated by the fact that sometimes insufficiently correctly chosen methods of accelerated aging are used for research.

PZA is a complex characteristic that makes it possible to assess the potential ability to disperse impurities in the atmosphere, depending on the geographical location of the area.

The morning peaks of the lighting load in winter are tangible, in summer they are insignificant. The magnitude of the lighting load depends on the geographical location of the area, time of year and day, meteorological and other conditions.

Biggest Influence the operation of REA is affected by the ambient temperature. The temperature varies depending on the time of year, on the geographical location of the area, as well as on the altitude.

During the processing and operation of polymers, volatile degradation products are released into the ambient air, many of which may be hazardous to human health due to high toxicity. The need to study the aging processes is dictated by the requirement to improve the quality, durability and improve the hygienic properties of polymeric materials. The variable nature of illumination, temperature, oxygen concentration, meteorological conditions, the dependence of these factors on the season and geographical location of the area - all this complicates the study of polymer aging during operation.

Of course, none of the factors involved in the formation of industrial accumulations of oil and gas can be considered sufficient in itself. Only in a certain combination and interconnection of them is the process of formation of oil and gas fields ensured. However, among them there are the most important ones that determine the direction of the process. One of these factors, following the geotectonic one, is the physical and geographical environment of the accumulation of productive deposits, which combines a combination of such conditions as the geographical position of the area at a certain time, the climatic regime, the degree of development organic world, facies and geochemical features of sedimentation, etc. Therefore, the paleogeographic conditions, encompassing a number of the most important prerequisites for normal sedimentogenesis, can be classified as key factors capable of exerting a decisive influence on the formation of oil and gas deposits.

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