Lexical and syntactic (grammatical) means. Imagery, expressiveness of speech

Southern Administrative District

GOU Kindergarten No. 000

combined type

Advice for parents on:

"How to make children's speech figurative and expressive"

Moscow G.

A remarkable example of the figurativeness of language is the language of Russian folk tales. Fairy tale renders a huge impact on the development and enrichment of children's speech, and the more often they hear them, the more absorb the harmony of the word. Children repeating figurative words and expressions from a fairy tale, begin to think about their direct and figurative meaning. The language of the fairy tale is rhythmic, the words are rhymed, the characters are given definitions - this allows the child to enrich the dictionary and better remember and understand the content of the fairy tale. A fairy tale promotes the development of imagination, fantasy, creativity children.

The child enters the world of fairy tales in the very early age. Children become interested in fairy tales by the age of two. From a children's fairy tale begins his acquaintance with the world of literature, with the world of human relationships and with the whole world around him as a whole.

A children's fairy tale offers the child images that are very interesting to him, but vitally important information absorbed by itself, imperceptibly.

Fairy tales for children are simple in content and are cyclical in nature, i.e. the same episode is repeated many times with small changes. This feature of folk tales allows the child to better remember the plot and develop memory.

Telling fairy tales by parents is of great educational value. Listening to a fairy tale, children again and again experience the events that take place in it. The impression made on them by a fairy tale is strong with its fabulous images: the fox is cunning, quick-witted, resourceful; wolf - scary, stupid and evil; and the hare is cowardly.

In order for the fairy tale to help form the images of heroes, for children preschool age it should be visible, visible.

Exactly visual image serves as the main support for tracing the events that occur in a fairy tale. Such supports can be good illustrations in books, or actions played out by the educator with the help of elements table theater. Therefore, when telling a fairy tale to children, the mother can consistently put on the table figures of the corresponding characters and decorations for fairy tales or show illustrations. Children learn knowledge through repeated repetition. At the same time, they do not like monotonous activities, from which they quickly get tired. Therefore it is necessary to use various tricks which, on the one hand, would help children form a certain image of the heroes of a fairy tale, and on the other hand, would not tire them.

Acquaintance of children begins with fairy tales about animals. In these tales, animals walk on two legs, talk human language do things that are out of character for them ordinary life. Given this feature of fairy tales, help shape the image fairy tale character, to develop the figurative side of speech, a variety of speech activities, exercises and games will help, which, among other things, imitate the voice, gait, movements of the heroes of a fairy tale. The use of various riddles about animals serves the same purpose.

It is very important that the game according to the fairy tale takes place at an increased emotional background. Let the mouse squeak and the bear speak in bass. You need to tell a fairy tale expressively, without rushing. Speech during storytelling should be a role model.

fairy tales "Ryaba the Hen", you can invite the child to look at the figures and name who came to visit him (grandfather, woman, Ryaba chicken, mouse). Then invite him to choose and show the character of the fairy tale that he liked the most and name him.

Given too small life experience children, mother first herself shows how the chicken sings, how the mouse squeaks. And then she asks re to sing a chicken song with her, to squeak like a mouse. You can invite the children to walk, imitating the walking of a chicken - waving its wings and saying “ko-ko-ko”.

Children are ready to listen to fairy tales again and again, therefore, when re-telling a fairy tale, the mother can ask the child to finish the started phrase. For example, there lived a grandfather yes ... (woman), and they had a chicken ... (Ryaba);

You can ask the baby to accompany the phrases from the fairy tale with their actions: for example, “beat-beat” - tap with the fist of one hand on the fingers clenched into the fist of the other hand, “did not break” - spread your arms to the sides, “the testicle fell - (bang!) and crashed.

After telling, for example, Fairy tales "Wolf and goats" you can offer to play the game "Guessing-knowing". Hiding the figurines of the goat and kids behind the screen, the mother pronounces onomatopoeia first low voice, and then high or vice versa, and the child must listen and guess who is talking, a goat or a goat.

Then the mother may offer to finish the phrase she has begun, naming a word with the opposite meaning: the goat is big, and the goat is small; the wolf is evil, and the goat is kind; the skin of the wolf is gray, and that of the goat is white.

You can complete the game by conducting mimic gymnastics, inviting the child to first name the components of facial expressions (frowning eyebrows, narrowed eyes, kind smile), and then depict them in game form. For example, when mom says: “Wolf!”, You need to portray an evil wolf, and when she says: “Goat!” you need to show a good goat.

After telling, for example, Fairy tales "Hare-boast", mother can make riddles to the child in which he must recognize the characters of the fairy tale:

Who has a good nose?

Who rushed at full speed?

She follows in the footsteps

He will find everything, he will find everything.

She's all grey,

baggy gait,

important person,

Her name is ... (Crow)

What a coward: the tail is short,

Ears along the back, eyes with a pigtail,

Clothes in two colors - for winter and summer.

You can play by making chains of words. Say, "The medium hare has whiskers, the small hare has whiskers, and the big hare has whiskers."

Eyes - (eyes, eyes); paws - (paws, paws); tail - (tail, tail).

The tale serves the best material for dramatizations. By participating in the dramatization, the child directly and naturally gets used to the image. He really conveys all the actions and movements of the character, as if it were happening to him.

In the process of getting to know the fairy tale, the child memorizes such stable fairy-tale images and expressions as the cockerel-golden comb, baby goats, mouse-leaf, frog-frog, fox-beauty, spinning top - gray barrel and many others.

The proposed methods of work on the formation of images in the process of getting acquainted with the Russian fairy tale in children of preschool age will help parents diversify the reading of Russian folk tales and make this process both informative and interesting.

Help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional special artistic techniques, pictorial and means of expression language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.

Before analyzing the lexical figurative means of the language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main building material, what possibilities does it contain?

Words serve as names for things; phenomena, actions, i.e. everything that surrounds a person. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, action, quality, but also to create figurative representation about them.

The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. It is known that words that name only one object are considered unambiguous. (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus) and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality, are polysemantic. Polysemy to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if an external resemblance is found between objects or they have some kind of hidden common feature, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle- sewing, at the spruce, at the hedgehog; fox- animal and mushroom; flexible cane - flexible Human - flexible mind.

The first meaning with which a word appeared in a language is called direct , and the subsequent portable .

Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are.

Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.

For example, the word varnish has two meanings: direct - “varnish” and figurative - “embellish, present something in a better way than it actually is.” The figurative use of a word is most often associated with the concept of a figurative meaning. For example, in the word splinter a direct meaning stands out - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood that has stuck into the body”, and. figurative - "harmful, corrosive person." The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious. Speaking of in large numbers anything, you can use the word lot in the literal sense, but you can use other words in a figurative sense - a forest of pipes, a hail of blows, an abyss of books, a cloud of mosquitoes, an abyss of deeds etc.

The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, widely used in oratory, oral communication.

Metaphor based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs) reification (stub nerves) distractions (field of work) etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: a verb, a noun, an adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it's raining, steel watch, iron xapakmep, warm relations, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.

Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. Here, for example, what metaphors were used in the farewell speech to freshmen by the outstanding physiologist Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky:

Every year, new waves of young people come from all over to the university to replace their predecessors. Which powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through the barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply (Science and Life, 1965, no. 2, p. 49).

There are several metaphors in this passage: waves of youth, what a powerful wind drives these waves here, breaking through barriers, to these treasured walls. They create a certain emotional mood of the listeners, make them feel the significance of what is happening.

A special effect is achieved when the direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide in speech. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago our city was shocked tragic event: on the railway station there was a train wreck." In this sentence, the verb shocked has a direct meaning (“make tremble, shake, fluctuate”) and figuratively (“strongly excite, produce great impression»).

However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. “Too brilliant style,” wrote Aristotle, “makes both characters and thoughts invisible.”

The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.

Do not decorate the speech and template metaphors. Once bright and original, they have lost their expressiveness and emotionality. Template metaphors often infiltrate oral speech from periodicals, where they are widely used.

The quality of oratory is also reduced by the monotony of metaphors, which testifies not to the richness, but to the poverty of the language. The book The Speaker's Companion gives such an example. One lecturer used the word "gold" in a big way. Cotton for him White gold", Forest - "green gold", coal - "black gold", oil - "liquid gold", oil shale - "brown gold, furs -" soft gold”, corn - “yellow gold”. “And it obviously doesn’t occur to him that these words are no longer gold, but dull green copper, that they are to the detriment of the accuracy, clarity and simplicity of speech, that this is no longer an ornament, but the “beauty” of speech, which the lecturer should avoid "(A. Stepanov, A. Tolmachev. Speaker's companion. M., 1966. S. 244-245).

Metonymy unlike metaphor is based on contiguity. If in a metaphor there are two identically named objects, the phenomena must be something like a friend on the other, then with metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. Word related in this case, it should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat wider - closely bound friend with friend. In one of K.Simonov's poems we read: "And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and the hall breathes easily."

In the first and second cases the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. An example of metonymy is the use of words audience, classroom, school, apartment, house, factory, collective farm to refer to people.

A word can be called a material and products made from this material. (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”

Quite often, in a metonymic sense, geographical names. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of "government of the country", " ruling circles”: “Negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. Place names also denote people living in this territory. So, Belarus synonymous with combination Belarusian people, Ukraine- Ukrainian people.

Synecdoche- a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that a part is called instead of a whole, is used singular instead of the plural or vice versa, the whole - instead of the part, plural instead of the only one.

An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M. A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word Human and given name Ivan the writer means the whole people:

The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to an orphan in terrible days war to a child, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going to a feat in the name of the Motherland.

Good name Ivan!

Allegory - allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales. With the help of images of animals, various human vices(greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance), goodness, courage, justice are glorified.

Allegory allows you to better understand this or that idea of the speaker, to delve into the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation. For example, V. G. Belinsky, in one of his articles, argues with the author of the brochure, who argued that Gogol's name is on a par with the names of Homer and Shakespeare and that his " Dead Souls match the Iliad. "Furious Vissarion" (as the friends of the great Russian critic called it) argued that "the higher the dignity of Gogol as a poet, the more important his significance for Russian society, and the less he can have any significance outside of Russia." "Dead Souls" is worth the "Iliad", but only for Russia: "for all other countries, their meaning is dead and incomprehensible." Therefore, speaking of Gogol, it is not necessary to mention Homer and. Shakespeare. To illustrate this idea, V. G. Belinsky resorts to an allegory:

There was a time when no one in Russia wanted to believe that the Russian mind, the Russian language could be good for anything; any foreign rubbish easily passed for genius in holy Russia, and one's own Russian, even if it was distinguished by high talent, was despised for the mere fact that it was Russian. This time, thank God, has passed, and now another time has come, when we no longer care about Homers, and Shakespeares, and Byrons, because we have already managed to get our own - we put strangers in ranks, like a soldier, we force them to march on the right and on the left , and back and forth, the good of the poor things are silent and obey our quill pen and rag paper. But it's time to end this time too, it's time to drop these childish phrases...

So, A. V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the I All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about organic connection all levels of education, about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:

Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is impossible now to lead a state or economic affairs without science.

In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).

Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in its originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing objects, phenomena or actions closer together, which, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other. P. Sergeich in the book "The Art of Speech in Court" writes:

The greater the differences in the objects of comparison, the more unexpected the similarities, the better the comparison. Originally, for example, I. P. Pavlov showed the role of facts in science, addressing young scientists:

Accustom yourself to restraint and patience. Learn to do the menial work in science. Study, compare, accumulate facts.

No matter how perfect the wing of the plate, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air.

Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off without them, your "theories" are empty attempts.

But in studying, experimenting, observing, try not to remain at the surface of the facts. Don't become archivists of facts. Try to penetrate the secret of their origin, persistently seek the laws that govern them.

In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation. To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison, which allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to comprehend the topic of conversation more deeply. Here is how I. T. Ehrenburg began his speech at the World Congress of Nations in Vienna, imbued with deep civic pathos:

Large rivers begin inconspicuously, like small streams, they grow, spread, hundreds of other rivers and streams rush to them; and great rivers cut continents, connect countries, change the lives of millions of people. The movement for peace began in the depths of indignant hearts, it quickly grew, crossed our century, connected peoples. History has never known such a movement.

Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness, turned into speech stamps. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; “pass like a red thread”, etc. It is bad when incorrect comparisons are used in speech. Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech. M. Gorky, getting acquainted with the works of his correspondents, found many unsuccessful comparisons. So, in one of the letters to novice writers, he noted:

You write such absurdities: "The dream of a revolution has been ruthlessly crushed by tsarism, just as the gentle fluff of a dandelion is torn off by a gust of a storm."

The revolutionary movement of 1905-1906 cannot and is ridiculously compared to a "dandelion". Here you discover social illiteracy.

And in order to spread the seeds of a dandelion, it does not require a "gust of a storm", but a breath of a child is enough.

epithets- artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement.

Epithets help to more accurately draw a portrait of a person, historical figure, writer, poet. For example, a literature teacher of one of the secondary schools admits: "Telling about writers, I try to select the brightest, most expressive - expressive - epithets." Here is an excerpt from introductory remarks this teacher in a lesson on life and creative way A.P. Chekhov:

Chekhov was distinguished by a passionate love for people; a burning interest in their customs, destinies, professions; indefatigable thirst for knowledge, new experiences, travel; a gigantic appetite for life, for its most varied manifestations; inexhaustible contagious gaiety; beautiful and sublime sadness; inhuman energy and ability to work; incomparable generosity; extraordinary softness and delicacy and rearing pride; phenomenal modesty and mighty will. A surprisingly organic fusion of these qualities is Chekhov's personality.

It can be seen from the above passage that epithets enable the speaker to express his own emotional attitude to the subject of speech.

As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of clarity and comprehensibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov may be useful in this respect. In one of his letters he noted:

When reading proofs, cross out, where possible, definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it is hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and does not delay attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already trampled by pedestrians, sat down noiselessly, timidly and timidly looking around. It does not immediately fit into the brain.

A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. There is no common understanding of the content of the term epithet. AT scientific literature usually there are three types of epithets: general language (constantly used in literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: biting frost, quiet evening, fast run); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red girl, open field, Gray wolf); individually author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood(A. Chekhov), blue joy(A. Kuprin), chump indifference(D. Pisarev).

Great help in the selection of fresh epithets and their successful use can be provided by the “Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language” by K. S. Gorbachevich, E. P. Khablo (L., 1979) For clarity, we present materials from dictionary entry by the way authority, omitting the examples given there of the use of epithets in works of art.

Authority. At positive evaluation . Boundless, great, important (yctap.), universal, lofty, vast, meritorious, healthy, exceptional, unshakable, unshakable, unlimited, irrefutable, undeniable, infallible, inflexible, unquestionable, universally recognized, huge, justified, recognized, enduring, holy ( obsolete), solid, stable, good.

With a negative evaluation. Penny (colloquial), cheap (colloquial), exaggerated (colloquial), fake (colloquial), low, unjustified, tarnished (colloquial), undermined, staggered, doubtful, shaky.

Rare epithets. Naked, doctoral, fiery.

Questions for self-examination

1. What lexical means create figurativeness, emotionality of speech?

2. What is a metaphor? Metonymy? Synecdoche? Comparison? Allegory? Epithet?

3. Are funds always appropriate? artistic expressiveness?

4. What linguistic phenomenon created the possibility of figurative use of the word?

1. Vashchenko E.D. Russian language and culture of speech. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2002

2. Vvedenskaya L.A., Cherkasova M.N. Russian language and culture of speech. – Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2004

3. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989

4. Gorshkov A.I. Russian Literature: From Word to Literature. - M.: Enlightenment, 1997

5. Petryakova A.G. A culture of speech. - M.: Flinta: Science, 2001

6. encyclopedic Dictionary young philologist / Comp. M.V. Panov. - M., 1989

1. Language and speech_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _3

2. Fundamentals of culture of speech and style_ _ _ _ _8

3. Lexical culture _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 37

MM. Speransky is the founder of the Russian doctrine of eloquence (rhetoric), teacher A.S. Pushkin at the Lyceum.

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. What makes speech vivid and expressive? In the practice of oratory, special visual and expressive techniques have been developed that help the speaker to make speech figurative and emotional. Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative and emotional.

Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, i.e., everything that surrounds a person. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, action, quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them.

The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. It is known that words that name only one object are considered single-valued (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus, tram), and words that designate several objects, phenomena of reality, are considered polysemantic. Polysemy to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if an external similarity is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind.

The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and subsequent - figurative. Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are. Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.

The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication.

1. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of work) etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: a verb, a noun, an adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it's raining, watch steel, iron character, warm relationship, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.

Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. A special effect is achieved when in speech direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” AT this proposal the verb "shocked" has a direct meaning ("make tremble, shake, hesitate") and figuratively ("strongly excite, make a great impression").

The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content. Do not decorate the speech and template metaphors. Once bright and original, they have lost their expressiveness and emotionality.

The quality of oratory is also reduced by the monotony of metaphors, which testifies not to the richness, but to the poverty of the language. For example, one lecturer had the word gold in great use. Cotton is white gold for him, wood is green gold, coal is black gold, oil is liquid gold, oil shale is brown gold, furs are soft gold, corn is yellow gold. And it obviously doesn’t occur to him that these words are no longer gold, but dull green copper, that they are to the detriment of the accuracy, clarity and simplicity of speech, that this is no longer an ornament, but the “beauty” of speech, which the lecturer should avoid ” , - this is how a speech culture specialist comments.

2. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If with a metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy two objects, phenomena that have received the same name must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.

A word can be called a material and products made from this material (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”

Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. Geographical names also denote people living in this territory . So, "Belarus" is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, "Ukraine" - the Ukrainian people.

3. Synecdoche - a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that called part instead of whole, singular instead of plural or, conversely, the whole - instead of a part, the plural - instead of the singular.

An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian people. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:

The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and front-line thirty grams of sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death , a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland. Good name Ivan!

4. Allegory - allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales. With the help of images of animals, various human vices (greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance) are ridiculed, goodness, courage, and justice are glorified. Allegory allows you to better understand this or that idea of the speaker, to delve into the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation.

5. Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. The comparison assumes the presence of three data:

first, what is being compared ("subject");
secondly, with what it is compared ("image");
thirdly, that on the basis of which one is compared with another (“sign”).

So, A.V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:

Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.

In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).

Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When a book or an article is read, then an incomprehensible place can be re-read, returned to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.

For example, he showed the role of facts in science I.P. Pavlov, addressing young scientists:

Accustom yourself to restraint and patience. Study, compare, accumulate facts. No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without facts, you can never take off. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin. Persistently seek the laws that govern them.

Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special clarity, figurativeness. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. Hardly anyone will be called positive emotions such common expressions: "brave as a lion"; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; “pass like a red thread”, etc. The use of comparison for the sake of comparison should also be considered a disadvantage. Then the speech becomes ornate, artificially stretched.

6. Epithets - artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement.

Epithets help to more accurately draw a portrait of a person, historical figure, writer, poet. They allow the speaker to express his emotional attitude to the subject of speech.

As with other means speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech to the detriment of its clarity and comprehensibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov. In one of his letters he noted:

When reading to the corrector, cross out, where possible, the definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and does not delay attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians; sat down noiselessly, looking around timidly and timidly. It does not immediately fit into the brain.

Lyudmila Alekseevna Vvedenskaya- Doctor of Philology, Honored Professor of Rostov state university(SFedU), expert of the distance education center "Elitarium"

Special artistic techniques, inventive and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make his speech bright and expressive.

Tropes (Greek "turn") are turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater speech expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect. The most common types of trope are similes, epithets, metaphors, metonymy, hyperbole, allegories, personifications, paraphrases, synecdoches. They make the speaker's speech visible, tangible, concrete. And this helps to better perceive speech - our hearing is, as it were, visible.

Metaphor (Greek "transfer") is a word or expression used in a figurative sense based on the similarity or contrast in some respect of two objects or phenomena. Metaphor is formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc.

Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help present an event or phenomenon. For example, here are the metaphors used in parting word outstanding physiologist Academician A.A. Ukhtomsky: “Every year, new waves of young people come from different parts to the university to replace their predecessors. What a powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply. "

Dry are metaphors-names, the figurative meaning of which is difficult to immediately catch, "erased" from frequent use (they are no longer tropes): the foot of the bed, the root of the word, evening comes.

General language - those that are quite often used in speech: "star of the screen", "people of the sea", "golden words". Such metaphors are placed in the explanatory dictionary with the mark "figurative meaning".

The quality of oratory can reduce the monotony of metaphors, the use of template metaphors that have lost their expressiveness and emotionality, as well as an excessive abundance of metaphors.

Metonymy (Greek "renaming"), unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood as closely related to each other.

In one of K. Simonov's poems we read: "And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and one breathes easily in the hall." In the first and second cases, the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.

A word can be called a material and a product made from this material (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron). Sports commentators often use this technique: "Our athletes got the gold and silver, the French got the bronze."

Synecdoche (Greek "correlation") - a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

An example of the use of synecdoche is the figurative words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people: “The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and front-line thirty grams of sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.

Synecdoche can become one of the means of humor. A.P. Chekhov convincingly used it to achieve this goal. One of his stories tells about musicians: one of them played the double bass, the other - the flute. "The double bass drank tea with a bite, and the flute slept with fire, the double bass without fire."

An epithet (Greek "applied") is a figurative definition of a phenomenon, an object; it is a word that defines any qualities, its properties or signs. At the same time, the sign expressed by the epithet, as it were, joins the subject, enriching it in a semantic and emotional sense.

A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: crackling frost, quiet evening); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red maiden, gray wolf, good fellow); individually-author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A.P. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev)).

Hyperbole (Greek "exaggeration") is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, value, etc. any object or phenomenon. Hyperbole willingly used by many famous authors. So, N.V. Gogol: "Ivan Nikiforovich ... has trousers in such wide folds that if they were inflated, then the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them."

The stylistic figure opposite to hyperbole is litote (Greek: "simplicity, smallness, moderation"). This is a figurative expression, a turnover, which contains a deliberate understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. The litote is found in folk tales: "a boy with a finger", "Thumbelina", "hut on chicken legs". And, of course, Nekrasov's "man with a fingernail" immediately comes to mind.

The speaker should use hyperbole and litotes wisely. They are not born on the spur of the moment. Better to use good examples from works of art adapting them to the theme of the speech.

Allegory (Greek "allegory") is a technique or type of figurativeness, the basis of which is allegory - the imprinting of a speculative idea in a specific life image.

Many allegorical images came to us from Greek or Roman mythology: Mars is an allegory of war, Themis is an allegory of justice; the snake wrapped around the bowl is a symbol of medicine. This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales: cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the guise of a wolf, deceit - in the form of a snake, stupidity - in the form of a donkey, etc.

In the minds of listeners, all parable images familiar from childhood are allegories-personifications; they are so firmly entrenched in our minds that they are perceived as alive.

Personifications are special kind metaphors-allegories - transferring the features of a living being to inanimate objects and phenomena.

Personifications are very old paths, rooted in pagan antiquity and therefore occupying such important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Poganoe Idolishche - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters of fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.

Doubling is the repetition of a word or phrase.

Inversion - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in an unusual order. Allows you to emphasize the most important, from the point of view of the author, words.

Parallelism is the same syntactic construction neighboring sentences or segments of speech. It builds up tension, makes the reader look for parallels between various phenomena.

Gradation - the use of several (usually three) in a row homogeneous members sentences, more often synonyms, each of which enhances the meaning of the previous one.

Trails. Figures of speech. Proverbs. Sayings. phraseological expressions.

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among the listeners, maintains attention to the subject of the conversation, affects not only the mind, but other feelings, the imagination of the listeners.

Help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional special artistic techniques, visual and expressive means of the language, traditionally called paths and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.

Before analyzing various figurative means language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main building material, what possibilities does it contain?

Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, i.e., everything that surrounds a person. However, the word performs an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, action, quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them.

The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. It is known that words that name only one object are considered unambiguous. (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality, are polysemantic. The ambiguity to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle- sewing, at the spruce, at the hedgehog; fox - animal and mushroom; flexible reed - flexible Human - flexible mind.

The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.

Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are.

Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.

For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “varnish” and figurative - “embellish, present something in a better way than it actually is.” The figurative use of a word is most often associated with the concept of a figurative meaning. For example, in the word splinter the direct meaning stands out - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood that has stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person”. The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious.

The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as tropes, which are widely used in public speaking and oral communication.

trails- figures of speech and words in a figurative sense, preserving expressiveness and figurativeness. The main types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, comparison, epithet, hyperbole, litote, personification of periphrase.

A trope is a transfer of a name, which consists in the fact that a word that traditionally names one object (phenomenon, process, property) is used in this speech situation to refer to another object (phenomenon, etc.). Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1997.

Metaphor based on the transfer of the name from one object to another according to the similarity of these objects. The source of the new metaphorical meaning is comparison. For example, the stars of the eyes lit up(eyes are compared with the stars); lit up the eyes of the night(stars are compared with eyes). Metaphors are formed by transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. (water runs, storm of planets) and vice versa (windy weather and windy man). Features of an object can be transformed into features of abstract concepts (superficial judgment, empty promises) etc.

Different parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it is raining, the clock has become, iron character, warm relations, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.

Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, in this case they decorate speech, for example: The silhouettes of crimson hearts are showered from maples all day long(N. Zabolotsky).

The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.

Metonymy unlike metaphor is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. Word related in this case, it should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.

K.M. Simonov in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and the hall breathes easily.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means "people", in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. An example of metonymy is the use of words auditorium, classroom, school, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.

A word can be called a material and products made from this material. (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: "Gold and silver received by our athletes, bronze went to the French."

Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of "government of the country", "ruling circles": "negotiations between London and Washington, Warsaw made a decision”, etc. Geographical names also refer to people living in the remote area. So, Belarus synonymous with combination Belarusian people, Ukraine - Ukrainian people.

Synecdoche- a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is used instead of the part, the plural is used instead of the singular. For example: “All flags will visit us” (A.S. Pushkin). Word flags(part) denotes here "states" (whole).

An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian people. Using the word Human and own name Ivan the writer means the whole people:

The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, spa -saying him from imminent death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.

Good name Ivan!

Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is compared (“object”), secondly, what is compared with (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ). For example: Facts are the scientist's air(I.P. Pavlov). Facts (subject) are compared with air (image) on the basis of "essential, necessary for existence."

Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another.

Comparison is effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in its originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing objects, phenomena or actions closer together, which, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other.

Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their imagery and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will cause positive emotions in anyone: brave as a lea; cowardly as a hare; reflected as in a mirror etc. It is bad when incorrect comparisons are used in speech. Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech.

epithets - artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. Please note which expressive epithets finds A.E. Fersman, to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones: A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole range of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with the deep green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled.

In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language(they are constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with a certain word, have lost their figurativeness: biting frost, quiet evening, fast run);folk-poetic(used in oral folk art, the so-called poetic epithets: red girl, open field, violent little head);individually-author's(created by the authors, distinguished by originality, figurativeness, unexpectedness of compared semantic plans: marmalade mood(A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference(D. Pisarev), curiously thoughtful tenderness(N. Gumilyov).

Hyperbola - a technique of expressiveness of speech used by the speaker in order to create an exaggerated idea of the subject of speech among listeners. For example: They have strawberries - with a fist, You are always late, I told you this a hundred times. Hyperbole is characteristic mainly of live colloquial and artistic speech as well as journalism. AT colloquial speech hyperbolas are created by using ready-made means and models available in the language, while the author of a literary or journalistic work strives to create an individualized hyperbole. For example: He snores like a tractor(in colloquial speech). In a dream, the janitor became heavy, like a chest of drawers.(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).

Litotes - reception of expressiveness of speech, deliberate understatement of the small size of the subject of speech: a little man with a fingernail, two inches from the pot, one second, two steps away from here.

personification - stylistic device that inanimate object, an abstract concept, a living being, not endowed with consciousness properties, actions, deeds, human: Some fire lightning bolts, igniting in succession, ... They are talking among themselves(Tyutchev); The waltz calls for hope, it sounds ... And it speaks loudly to the heart(Polonsky). Personifications are divided into generally recognized, "linguistic": longing takes, time runs and creative, individually-author's: Nevka swayed by the railing, Suddenly the drum began to speak(Zabolotsky).

paraphrase- replacement of the usual one-word name of an object, phenomenon, person, etc. with a descriptive phrase, for example: white stone capital(Moscow), king of beasts(a lion), singer of "birch chintz"(Yesenin). Paraphrases usually contain an assessment of the signified, for example: flowers of life(children), stationery rat(official). Some of the paraphrases can become clichés: field workers, seafood. They have lost their figurativeness, and they can hardly be considered as a means of speech expressiveness.

So the trails fulfill following features: give speech emotionality (reflect a person's personal view of the world, express assessments, feelings when comprehending the world); visibility (contribute to the visual reflection of the picture outside world, inner peace human); contribute to the original reflection of reality (show objects and phenomena from a new, unexpected side); allow better understanding internal state speaker (writer); make speech attractive.

Figures of speech- special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the impact of speech on the addressee.____________ I

To enliven speech, give it emotional expressiveness, figurativeness, stylistic syntax techniques, the so-called figures, are used. There are figures in which the structure of the phrase is determined by the ratio of the meanings of the words-concepts in it: antithesis, gradation; syntactic figures that have the property of facilitating listening, understanding and memorizing speech: repetition, parallelism, period; rhetorical forms, which are used as methods of dialogization of monologue speech, attract the attention of the listener: an appeal, a rhetorical question, a question-answer move, etc.

Antithesis - a technique based on the matching of opposite phenomena and signs. Aphoristic judgments, proverbs, sayings are often clothed in the form of antithesis: Teaching is light, and ignorant darkness, There would be no happiness, but misfortune helped, As it comes around, it will respond, It is thick on the head, but empty in the head. To compare two phenomena, antonyms can be used - words with opposite meanings: light - darkness, happiness - misfortune, backfire - respond, thick - empty. Many lines from artistic, journalistic works are built on this principle.

Here is an excerpt from Nobel lecture A. Solzhenitsyn. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposing concepts allowed the writer to express the main idea more vividly and emotionally, to more accurately express his attitude to the described phenomena:

What, according to one scale, seems from afar an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible prosperity, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for natural disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. Different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile humiliates and a movement away, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk - staggers the imagination, floods the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and forgiven - and prison terms of twenty-five years, and punishment cells, where there is ice on the walls, but they strip to underwear, and madhouses for the healthy, and border executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere .

A valuable means of expressiveness in a speech is inversion, that is, a change in the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose. So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject. Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with constantly evolving reality, with reality eternally new and unusual.

To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.

Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even consisting of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades. Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.

gradation - a figure of speech, the essence of which is the arrangement of several elements listed in speech (words, phrases, phrases) in ascending order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values (“descending gradation”). Under the "increase", "decrease" of meanings understand the degree of expressiveness (expressiveness), emotional strength, "tension" of the expression (word, turnover, phrase). For example: I beg you, I beg you, I beg you(ascending gradation). Beastly, alien, unsightly world...(descending gradation). Gradation, like antithesis, is often found in folklore, which indicates the universality of these rhetorical figures. They make speech easy to understand, expressive, memorable. Gradation is actively used in modern oratory practice.

Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such stylistic figure, as repeats . There are many different forms of repetition. Anaphora(translated from Greek - “unity”) - a technique in which several sentences begin with the same word or group of words. For example: Such are the times! These are our manners! Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. Yes, repeat interrogative particle unless in a fragment of a lecture by A.E. Fersman enhances the intonation color of speech, creates a special emotional mood: Is does it (artificial diamond) not correspond more than anything else to precisely these qualities? Are not the precious stones themselves the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can compare with the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?

epiphora figure- repetition of the final elements of successive phrases - less frequent and less noticeable in speech products. For example: I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser? (A. Chekhov).

Parallelism- the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences, the location of similar sentence members in them, for example: In what year - count, In what land - guess ...(N. Nekrasov). Parallelism is often used in the titles of books, articles: Poetry Grammar and Grammar of Poetry(R. Jacobson). Most often, parallelism occurs in the period ah.

Period- a special rhythmic construction, the thought and intonation in which gradually increase, reach the top, after which the theme gets its resolution, and, accordingly, the intonational tension decreases: No matter how hard the people, who gathered several hundred thousand in one kebolshoy place, mutilated the land on which they pity, no matter how they stoned the earth so that nothing would grow on it, no matter how they cleaned off any breaking grass, no matter how they smoked coal and oil, no matter how they pruned the trees and drove out all the animals and birds, - spring was spring in the city(L. Tolstoy).

In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.

One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker’s interlocutors, activates their attention, engages them in scientific research truth.

Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. Question-answer move - one of the most accessible oratory techniques. The proof of this is the lecture "Cold Light", read by the largest master of popularization scientific knowledge SI. Vavilov:

The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not absolute

Black for all colors. Only yellow is absorbed by it to a greater extent, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum, the alcohol flame behaves like a warm emitter with the properties of a black body.

As explains new physics amazing properties of "cold light"? The tremendous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in in general terms understand and explain luminescence.

How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? Reasons in various occasions significantly different...

The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.

In addition to the question-answer technique, the so-called rhetorical question. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Asking an audience a question is an effective technique.

The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the listeners not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman "Green stones of Russia":

What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between the deep laws of distribution chemical elements in earth's crust and spreading in it its inanimate flowers - precious stone?! The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.

Rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.

Rich presentation material contains oral folk art. A real treasure for the speaker - proverbs and sayings. These are apt figurative folk expressions with edifying meaning, summarizing various phenomena life. In short sayings, the people expressed their knowledge of reality, their attitude to its various manifestations.

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