What is vocabulary in Russian examples. Consider the norms of differential features characteristic of most lexical units

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Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. characteristic features words are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come to Russian from other languages due to political, economic and cultural ties Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD - the correlation of sound design fixed in the mind of the speaker language unit with one reality or another.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

scientific terms(bandage, gastritis), proper names (Petrov Nikolai), recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber), words with a narrowly specific meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. At polysemantic word is the basic meaning, and the meanings derived from it. The base value is always given in explanatory dictionary in first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

direct and figurative meaning the words.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning of reigning, the capital, and now it means a piece of furniture.

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - solid particles, located in the liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of the vessel after settling, and the figurative meaning is a heavy feeling that remains after something.

10. The concept of vocabulary, the word.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD- fixed in the mind of the speaker, the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something."

12. HOMONYMS These are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a club of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that have the same meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more diverse and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS are words that are opposite in meaning.

Antonyms are words that are relative in meaning; you can not put in an antonymous pair of words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different angles (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man”, the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.

15. Discharges of words by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

primordially Russian, which include Indo-Europeanisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pek-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), proper Russian vocabulary (mason, leaflet);
borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages (finger, mouth - Old Slavonicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and not Slavic languages(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. obsolete words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often on the web. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century the word "satellite" was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all the words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "interference" belongs to colloquial style, and the word "exile" - to the book.

8. In Russian, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:

dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
morphological (characterized by a special inflection): I have,
phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.

professionalisms are words that are not used in various fields production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

jargon - these are words that are used by a narrow circle of people united by a common interest, occupation or position in society; for example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing mark), camp jargon,

argotisms are the same as jargonisms, but they are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words; as a rule, this is the speech of socially closed groups, for example, thieves' slang.

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its development. historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. General Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. This is first of all specific nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most commonly used, stylistically neutral words used in both spoken and written language.

Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, according to sound, grammatical and lexical features separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. To tribal unions who lived here, the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities ascend. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of East Slavic vocabulary we can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era self-development Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

see also new theory the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings occupy Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, Old Church Slavonic was at first far from colloquial speech, however, over time, it has a noticeable effect East Slavic and he, in turn, leaves an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavic words began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavonicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persi (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic features.

The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:

disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, a series - a series, a helmet - a helmet, a milk - milk,
combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro-, lorab, boat; cf. east slavic rob, boat,
a combination of zhd in place of Russian w, ascending to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; cf. East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
consonant u in place of Russian h, also ascending to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; cf. East Slavic: night, daughter,
the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o deer, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
the vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of the Russian o (e): cross, sky; cf. godfather, palate.

Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:

prefixes voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -h(s), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leading, knowing, screaming, smashing;
complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicism: God-fearing, good-naturedness, malevolence, superstition, gluttony.

It is also possible to classify Old Slavonicisms based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

Most Old Slavonicisms are distinguished by book coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, ubiquitous, etc.
From such Old Slavonicisms, those that do not stylistically stand out against the background of the rest of the vocabulary (many of them replaced the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning) sharply differ: helmet, sweet, work, moisture; cf. obsolete Old Russian: shelom, licorice, vologa.
A special group is made up of Old Slavonicisms, used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust - gunpowder, betray - transfer, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.

The Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. Unlike such, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: Persian, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young, etc. Now they are perceived as poeticisms, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages \u200b\u200bcame into Russian individual words, which practically do not stand out among the native Russian vocabulary. From the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: town, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through Polish language Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed: ensign, arrogant, angle, etc.

1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the Modern Russian Literary Language // Selected Works in the Russian Language, Moscow, 1959. P. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

In the borrowing by the Russian language of foreign words in different eras reflected the history of our people. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages penetrated into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian) came to us words related to sea fishing: skerry, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. AT official business speech In ancient Russia, the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, brand were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages, we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words related to life northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, snowstorm, sleds, dumplings, etc.

Among the ancient borrowings are some words from Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from the ancient Germanic languages seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of the Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion were left in the Russian language Turkic words. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek language into Old Church Slavonic.

Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language refer exclusively to the sphere of sciences and arts. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, pulpit, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and under .

The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other language (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational establishments), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.

The later lexical influence of European languages on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the XVIII century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous names of then new household items, military and nautical terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, percentage, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, junker, corporal, gun carriage, cartridge belt, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.

From Dutch maritime terms came: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, yardarm, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Maritime terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. Influence in English turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated into the Russian language from it throughout the 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere ascend to this source. public relations, technical and sports terms, names of everyday objects: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolley bus, rail, mac, steak, pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. The first Gallicisms penetrated into it in the Petrine era, and then, in late XVIII – early XIX c., in connection with gallomania secular society borrowings from French became especially popular. Among them are everyday words: suit, hood, corset, corsage, jacket, vest, coat, coat, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, jabot, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, study, sideboard, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, fleet, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also date back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became the property of our language, therefore, there was a borrowing not only of names, but also of concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture. Some French loanwords reflecting narrow circle interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell into disuse: rendezvous, pleisir, politeness, and so on.

Through the French language, some Italian words: baroque, carbonarium, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, pantaloons, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta, balustrade, etc.

From Italian musical terms came to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The following words also go back to the Italian source: harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo.

Single borrowings from Spanish which often penetrated into the Russian language through French: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

To the number foreign borrowings not only individual words should be attributed, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arches-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-absurd, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocalic; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have become internationally widespread.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. And in different periods In our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc. penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere born in our language were perceived by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, usually eliminated foreign language features the sound design of a word, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then non-Russian word endings, gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with a characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination is for us The Latin word seminarium became a seminary and then a seminary, the Greek analogos became an'alogue, and analogikos a similar one. Greek the meaning of the plural, in Russian began to be perceived as a singular noun, and not the middle one, but female: beet. The German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ovat and is converted to march.

Acquiring word-building affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the relevant norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most of the foreign words in the Russian language lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - “treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )

As a result of deetymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize specific features the lives of different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, referring to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

Barbarisms are allocated to another group, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual character. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not fixed in dictionaries. foreign words, and even more so with dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became the property of the Russian language.

Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin barbarisms: ok, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, like alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

Unlike primordially Russian words, which never began with the sound [a] (which would contradict phonetic laws Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
The initial e is distinguished mainly by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this non-quoted sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
The letter f testifies to the non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
Consonances ge, ke, heh, subjected to phonetic changes in primordial words, turned out to be possible in borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unfamiliar consonances of parachute, puree, communique, jeep, jury are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
A special phonetic feature of words Turkic origin is the harmony of vowels (vowel harmony) - the regular use of vowels in one word of only one row: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso, chest, sundress, drum , heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign language nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

Word-building signs of borrowings include foreign prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, rear admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e., building lexical items according to the pattern of the corresponding words foreign language through accurate translation them meaningful parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracing papers are distinguished

Lexical tracings arise as a result literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: prefix, root, suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, Russian word look formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing papers of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as the model for the peninsula tracing paper; the English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian hmaroches). The following borrowings came to us through tracing: biography (gr. bios + grapho), superman (German über + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called derivational, more precisely lexical and derivational.

Semantic tracing papers are primordial words that, in addition to their inherent in Russian lexical system meanings, get new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word picture, which means “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, was also used in the meaning of “film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which has the following meanings in the source language: “picture”, “drawing”, “portrait”, “movie”, “shooting frame”.

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. It was hallmark"new style", developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.

Lexical-derivative calquing was used when replenishing the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, French sources.

Another kind of borrowings are lexical half-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost is added to it (cf. humanism) or in compound word television combined the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) bases.

Relation to borrowed words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, a glut of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other hand, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics, they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). Absence scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation language tools: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign book words is not stylistically justified, but in others it is necessary, since these words are an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style serving a particular area of communication.

In different periods of development of the Russian literary language the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, the opposition to it usually intensifies. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words. M. V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words in the Russian vocabulary various groups, left no room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Against the clogging of the Russian language with fashion at that time French words both A. P. Sumarokov and N. I. Novikov spoke.

However, in the XIX century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin, had to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that tsarist censorship eradicated from the language such borrowed words as revolution, progress.

In the early years Soviet power the most urgent cultural and educational task was the involvement of broad populace to knowledge, the elimination of illiteracy. Under these conditions, major writers and public figures demanded the simplicity of the literary language.

In our time, the question of the advisability of using borrowing is associated with the consolidation lexical means for certain functional styles speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the circle of readers, the stylistic affiliation of the work. foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also be an insurmountable barrier to the understanding of a popular science text by an unprepared reader.

It is necessary to take into account the emerging in our century scientific and technological progress tendency to create international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Questions for self-examination

What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
How to master the Russian language foreign words?
By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the composition of the Russian vocabulary?
What are calques?
What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
What are the criteria for the use of foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation by the Russian language. Specify Old Slavonicisms. For reference, refer to etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the present growing park was a huge square where parades of the troops of the Guards Corps took place. Behind it was the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. Now the building is covered with old trees. In Pushkin's time they were only ten or three years old.

The façade of the embassy's mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.

Eight windows face the Champ de Mars former apartment ambassadors, one of which is pledged; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony, designed in strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ... Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect southern part third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now here, basically, his library is located. Book wealth (currently more than three hundred thousand volumes) is already cramped in the enfilade former rooms Countess Dolly...

The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The Countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. Darya Fyodorovna was also comfortable there, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a hothouse flower.

In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, could hardly endure domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes down on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months, made my heart shrink: the influence of the north on a person’s mood must be very strong, because among such a happy existence like mine, I have to struggle with my sadness and melancholy all the time. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of colors, comfort and harmony. She has thrown, as it were, a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this respect - but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.

There are no words, the young ambassador, like a few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - let's repeat - one-sidedly. So it was before, in Italy, and in the red drawing room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk through her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they are no less than the front apartments of the embassy, they were what has long been called the “salon of the Countess Ficquelmont”, where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, "both the diplomats and Pushkin were at home."

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Specify them stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to scourges, here lean slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone drags a heavy yoke to the grave, not daring to feed hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young virgins bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; both old and young arose; they fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love rabid youth ... 4. ... There, under the shadow of the wings, my young days rushed by. 5. Listen to my sad voice... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armides with such torment, or roses of fiery cheeks, or Persians full of languor... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore... 8. ...Fields ! I am devoted to you in soul. 9. But thank God! you are alive, unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuse me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumors, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD - the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the mind of the speaker.

single and multiple words.

scientific terms (bandage, gastritis), proper names (Nikolai Petrov), recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber), words with a narrowly specific meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

That is, the vocabulary itself does not study anything. Vocabulary is the vocabulary of the language stylistic layer, specific text or multiple texts. Studying vocabulary lexicology, and it is this section of linguistics that is meant when referring to scientific research in this area.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

Lexical meaning of the word

LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD - the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the mind of the speaker.

single and multiple words.

scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning of "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning of "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

Lexicology includes sections that study words and phrases in different aspects. So, semantics explores semantic meanings language units, phraseology- stable speech patterns, etymology- the origin of words and expressions, onomastics studies proper names, including the names and surnames of people, lexicography- the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, onomasiology- analyzes the processes of naming in the direction from the phenomenon or object to the word denoting it.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Original Russian vocabulary

Borrowings from Slavic languages

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords

Tracing

Relation to borrowed words

Lexical meaning of the word

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