HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY, a complex discipline that studies the physical, socio-economic, cultural, political geography of past eras in historical dynamics. Formed at the intersection of history and geography. There are differences in the definition of the subject of historical geography by historians and geographers, as well as by various national scientific schools. In historical science, historical geography is defined as an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the spatial side of the historical process or the specific geography of the past of a particular country or territory. The tasks of historical geography include mainly the localization of historical events and geographical objects in past eras. In particular, historical geography studies the dynamics of the internal and external borders of states and their administrative-territorial units, the location and topography of cities, villages and other settlements, fortresses, monasteries, etc., the localization of transport communications and trade routes in the historical past, directions of historically significant geographical travel, expeditions, navigation, etc., determines the routes of military campaigns, places of battles, uprisings and other historical events.

In the understanding of most physical geographers, historical geography is a science that studies the "historical", that is, the last stage after the appearance of man, in the development of nature (the natural environment); within the framework of this research direction, a special sub-discipline has developed - the historical geography of landscapes (V. S. Zhekulin and others). Economic geographers consider historical geography as a discipline that studies mainly "time slices" (features that characterize a particular era). At the same time, historical geography also includes works focused on the study of the history of modern economic and geographical objects, as well as on the study of the evolution of national, regional and local settlement systems, territorial production clusters, spatial structures of the economy and other socio-spatial structures of various levels of hierarchy. (national, regional, local).

The main sources for historical geography are archaeological and written (chronicles, act materials, military topographic descriptions, travel materials, etc.) monuments, information on toponymy and linguistic data, as well as information necessary for the reconstruction of physical and geographical landscapes of the past. In particular, materials from spore-pollen and dendrochronological analysis are widely used in historical geography; Much attention is paid to the identification of relic and dynamic characteristics components of landscapes (biogenic, hydromorphic, lithogenic), fixing the "traces" of past anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment (sampling of soils formed on ancient structures, marking the boundaries of former land holdings, agricultural lands expressed in the cultural landscape). Historical geography uses both synchronic methods of research (“time slices”) and diachronic ones (when studying the history of modern geographical objects and the evolution of spatial structures).

Historical outline. Historical geography as a special field of knowledge began to take shape during the Renaissance and the Great geographical discoveries. The works of the Flemish geographers and cartographers A. Ortelius and G. Mercator, the Italian geographer L. Guicciardini, in the 17-18 centuries - the Dutch geographer F. Kluver and the French scientist J. B. d'Anville were of the greatest importance for its formation in the 16th century. In the 16-18 centuries, the development of historical geography was inextricably linked with historical cartography; special attention in historical and geographical works was paid to questions of the historical dynamics of the distribution of the population, the settlement of various peoples, and changes in state borders on the political map of the world. In the 19-20 centuries, the subject of historical geography expanded, the range of issues studied included the problems of the historical geography of the economy, the interaction of society and nature in the historical past, the study historical types nature management, etc.

Leading national schools historical geography formed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Most close connection between history and geography developed during this period in France. In line with geohistorical synthesis, the fundamental works of the French geographer J. J. E. Reclus, including the multi-volume work “New General Geography. Land and people" (volumes 1-19, 1876-94), which approved the role of historical geography in regional studies and regional studies. The historical and geographical traditions of the Reclus school were continued in the works of representatives french school human geography (head of the school - P. Vidal de la Blache). He and his followers (J. Brun, A. Demangeon, L. Gallois, P. Defontaine and others) formulated the most important principles of geographical possibilism, which for many decades became the methodological basis for the development of not only French, but also the entire Western historical geography. In the 20th century, the traditions of geohistorical synthesis in French science were also maintained within the framework of the historical "annals" of the school (especially in the works of L. Febvre and F. Braudel).

In Germany, an important impetus to the formation and development of historical geography was given by the works of F. Ratzel, the founder and leader of German anthropogeography. The focus of attention of the German anthropogeographic school was the influence of natural factors on the history of different peoples. Also, the works of Ratzel and his students described in detail the spread of local and regional cultural complexes around the globe, the role of historical contacts in shaping the culture of peoples in close connection with the landscape features of the respective territories. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, fundamental works on the historical geography of agriculture (E. Hahn), the settlement of peoples and the spread of civilization in Europe (A. Meizen) were published in Germany, and the foundations were laid for the historical and geographical study of cultural landscapes (O. Schlüter). The leading representatives of German historical geography of the 2nd half of the 20th century are H. Jaeger and K. Fen.

In the Anglo-Saxon countries (Great Britain, the USA, etc.), historical geography began to develop rapidly after World War I. Since the 1930s, the leader of British historical geographers has been G. Darby, whose works in the field of historical geography are considered a classic example of the successful use of the “time slices” methodology. The work of Darby and the scientists of his school significantly advanced the source base of historical geography, which for the first time began to be involved on a large scale. written materials relating to the respective eras (historical chronicles, cadastral books of lands, other official documents). The emphasis was on comprehensive and thorough surveys of small areas, for which it was possible to collect detailed data. Along with local (large-scale) research, Darby and his students managed to prepare consolidated works on the historical geography of Great Britain. Similar views on the subject and content of historical geography were held by other leading British historical geographers of the 20th century - G. East, N. Pounds, K. T. Smith, who, like Darby, believed that the main task historical geography - to reconstruct the geographical picture of past historical eras using a complex (integral) approach.

In the United States, historical geography during its formation experienced strong influence ideas of a modernized and adapted to the latest scientific trends geographical determinism (environmentalism), the main conductors of which in the American scientific community at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries were E. Huntington and especially E. Semple, a student of F. Ratzel, who adopted many of the provisions of his anthropogeography, the author of the fundamental labor " American history and its geographical conditions" (1903). But already in the 1920s, most American historical geographers began to move away from environmentalism, which was replaced by the ideas of the possibilists, borrowed mainly from Western European geography. Leading representatives of American historical geography of the 20th century - K. Sauer, R. Brown, A. Clark, W. Webb. Highest value for the development of world historical geography had the work of Sauer, the founder of the Berkeley (California) cultural-landscape and historical-geographical school. In his opinion, the main task of historical geography is the study of the interdependence of all the constituent components of the landscape of natural and cultural origin, distinguished for each class of phenomena, in historical dynamics. In the programmatic work "Morphology of the Landscape" (1925), the cultural landscape was defined by Sauer as "a territory distinguished by characteristic relationship natural and cultural forms”; at the same time, culture was interpreted as an active principle in interaction with natural environment, the natural area - as an intermediary ("background") of human activity, and the cultural landscape - as a result of their contact. This setting has been accepted for the most part his followers from among the scientists of the Berkeley school.

Within the framework of the International Geographical Union, there is a Commission on Historical Geography, and a section of historical geography works at international geographical congresses (once every 4 years). The International Historical and Geographical Seminar "Settlement - cultural landscape - environment» (founded in 1972 by the German historical geographer K. Fehn on the basis of working group at the University of Bonn, Germany).

In Russia, historical geography as a scientific discipline began to take shape in the 18th century. One of the earliest works on historical geography in Russian science was the articles by G. Z. Bayer “On the beginning and ancient dwellings of the Scythians”, “On the location of Scythia”, “On the Caucasian wall” (published in Russian in 1728), as well as a number of his research (on Latin) on Scythian and Varangian issues. The subject and tasks of historical geography were first defined in 1745 by V. N. Tatishchev. M. V. Lomonosov identified the most important problems of Russian historical geography - the history of the movement of peoples in the territory European Russia, the ethnogenesis of the Slavs and the origin Ancient Russia. I. N. Boltin was one of the first among Russian historians to raise the question of the role of climate and other geographical factors in history. Historical and geographical problems occupied a significant place in the works of V. V. Krestinin, P. I. Rychkov, M. D. Chulkov, and others, in geographical dictionaries, in the works of S. P. Krasheninnikov, I. I. Lepekhin, G. F. Miller, P. S. Pallas and others.

In the 1st half of the 19th century, the relationship between the formation of historical geography and the emergence and development of toponymic and ethnonymic studies can be traced in the works of A. Kh. "(1819), Z. Dolengi-Khodakovsky "Means of communication in ancient Russia" (1838), N. I. Nadezhdin "Experience in the historical geography of the Russian world" (1837). The trend of the interconnected development of historical geography, toponymy, ethnonymy, etc., manifested itself in the works of N. Ya. Bichurin.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the historical and geographical study of the geographical objects, tribes and peoples of Eastern Europe mentioned in historical sources continued. The most significant were the works of K. A. Nevolin, N. P. Barsov, N. I. Kostomarov, L. N. Maykov, P. O. Burachkov, F. K. Brun, M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, toponymic and ethnonymic studies by M. Veske, J. K. Grot, D. P. Evropeyus, I. A. Iznoskov, A. A. Kochubinsky, A. I. Sobolevsky, I. P. Filevich and others. In the works of V. B. Antonovich, D. I. Bagalei, N. P. Barsov, A. M. Lazarevsky, I. N. Miklashevsky, N. N. Ogloblin, E. K. Ogorodnikov, P. I. Peretyatkevich, S. F. Platonov, L. I. Pokhilevich, P. A. Sokolov, M. K. Lyubavsky studied the history of colonization and, accordingly, changes in borders individual regions and localities during the 13th-17th centuries. Theoretical aspects The problems of colonization were considered in the works of S. M. Solovyov and V. O. Klyuchevsky, as well as in a number of works by A. P. Shchapov. Materials on historical geography were included in general, regional and local geographic, statistical and toponymic dictionaries (I. I. Vasiliev, E. G. Veidenbaum, N. A. Verigin, A. K. Zavadsky-Krasnopolsky, N. I. Zolotnitsky, L. L. Ignatovich, K. A. Nevolin, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, A. N. Sergeev, I. Ya. Sprogis, N. F. Sumtsov, Yu. Yu. Trusman, V. I. Yastrebova and others).

At the end of the 19th century, the first fundamental historical and demographic studies appeared: “The beginning of censuses in Russia and their course until the end of the 16th century.” N. D. Chechulina (1889), “Organization of direct taxation in the Muscovite state from the Time of Troubles to the era of transformations” by A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky (1890). At the same time, Russian scientists began to study the problems of changes in the physical and geographical landscapes of the historical past (V. V. Dokuchaev, P. A. Kropotkin, I. K. Pogosskii, G. I. Tanfil’ev, and others). The development of the methodological foundations of historical geography was influenced by the interpretation of the environment and the role of its individual factors in the works of N. K. Mikhailovsky, L. I. Mechnikov, P. G. Vinogradov, the geopolitical ideas of N. Ya. N. Leontieva.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the most important sections of historical geography were historical toponymy and ethnonymy (the works of N. N. Debolsky, V. I. Lamansky, P. L. Mashtakov, A. F. Frolov, and others). The problem of colonization was considered by V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Shakhmatov, G. V. Vernadsky, A. A. Isaev, A. A. Kaufman, P. N. Milyukov. The classic work in this area was the work of M. K. Lyubavsky "The Historical Geography of Russia in Connection with Colonization" (1909). New trends in historical geography developed (“Thoughts about the structure waterways in Russia” by N. P. Puzyrevsky, 1906; "Russian waterways and ship business in pre-Petrine Russia" N. P. Zagoskin, 1909). Thanks to the works of V. V. Bartold (“Historical and geographical review of Iran”, 1903; “On the history of irrigation of Turkestan”, 1914), G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo (“Materials on the ethnology of Amdo and the Kuku-Nora region”, 1903) , L. S. Berg (“Aral Sea”, 1908) and others. Central Asia. At the same time, a corpus of materials on the history of the land cadastre, taxation, surveying, demography, and statistics was systematized and studied (works by S. B. Veselovsky, A. M. Gnevushev, E. D. Stashevsky, P. P. Smirnov, G. M. Belotserkovsky, G. A. Maksimovich, B. P. Weinberg, F. A. Derbek, M. V. Klochkov and others). A significant contribution to the system of knowledge of historical geography was made by geographers - specialists in general problems of geography (A. I. Voeikov, V. I. Taliev, and others). In 1913-14, N. D. Polonskaya's "Historical and Cultural Atlas of Russian History" (volumes 1-3) was published.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientific schools of historical geography were formed. M. K. Lyubavsky, who lectured at Moscow University and the Moscow Archaeological Institute, emphasized that "the presentation of the historical geography of Russia ... is necessarily associated with the history of the colonization of our country by the Russian people." S. M. Seredonin, who taught historical geography at the St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute, put forward his concept of the subject of historical geography, defining it as "the study of the mutual relations of nature and man in the past." A. A. Spitsyn, who taught historical geography at St. Petersburg (since 1914, Petrograd) University, understood historical geography as “a department of history aimed at studying the territory of the country and its population, that is, the physical and geographical nature of the country and the life of its inhabitants, otherwise in other words, the establishment of its historical landscape. V. E. Danilevich, who taught a course in historical geography at the University of Warsaw, adhered to the same ideas about historical geography.

The works of V. K. Yatsunsky and his followers (O. M. Medushovskaya, A. V. Muravyov, and others) received the greatest recognition in Russian historical geography in the mid-second half of the 20th century. Considered a leader Soviet school of historical geography, Yatsunsky singled out 4 subdisciplines in its composition: historical physical geography, historical geography of the population, historical and economic geography, and historical and political geography. In his opinion, all elements of historical geography "should not be studied in isolation, but in their mutual connection and conditionality", and the geographical characteristics of previous periods should not be static, but dynamic, that is, showing the process of changing spatial structures. "Yatsunsky's scheme" was repeatedly reproduced in the 2nd half of the 20th century in many works Soviet historians who turned to historical and geographical issues. Questions of historical geography were developed in the works of many domestic historians, among them - A. N. Nasonov ("Russian Land" and the formation of the territory of the Old Russian state. Historical and geographical research, 1951), M. N. Tikhomirov ("Russia in the 16th century", 1962), B. A. Rybakov (“Herodot’s Scythia: Historical and Geographical Analysis”, 1979), V. A. Kuchkin (“Formation state territory Northeast Russia in the X-XIV centuries”, 1984), etc. The historical geography of waterways in Russia was studied in the works of E. G. Istomina. In the 1970s, textbooks on historical geography were published: "The Historical Geography of the USSR" by V. Z. Drobizhev, I. D. Kovalchenko, A. V. Muravyov (1973); "Historical geography of the period of feudalism" A. V. Muravyov, V. V. Samarkin (1973); "Historical geography Western Europe in the Middle Ages” by V. V. Samarkin (1976).

Historical and geographical research carried out in the USSR and Russia within the geographical science, were carried out both by physical geographers (L. S. Berg, A. G. Isachenko, V. S. Zhekulin), and representatives of the national school of anthropogeography (V. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky, A. A. Sinitsky, L. D Kruber), and later - economic geographers (I. A. Vitver, R. M. Kabo, L. E. Iofa, V. A. Pulyarkin, etc.). In the middle of the 20th century, a significant number of major historical and geographical works of a regional orientation were published in the USSR (R. M. Kabo “Cities Western Siberia: essays on historical and economic geography, 1949; L. E. Iof "Cities of the Urals", 1951; V. V. Pokshishevsky “Population of Siberia. Historical and geographical essays”, 1951; S. V. Bernstein-Kogan "Volga-Don: historical and geographical essay", 1954; and etc.). In the second half of the 20th century, historical-geographical research occupied a prominent place in the works of leading Russian geourbanists (G. M. Lappo, E. N. Pertsik, Yu. L. Pivovarov). The main directions of the historical and geographical study of cities are the analysis of changes in their geographical position, functional structure, and the dynamics of the urban network within a particular country or territory over a certain historical period. An important impetus to the development of historical geography in the USSR in the second half of the 20th century was given by the publication of specialized collections under the auspices of the All-Union geographical society(“Historical Geography of Russia”, 1970; “History of Geography and Historical Geography”, 1975, etc.). They published articles not only by geographers and historians, but also by representatives of many related sciences - ethnographers, archaeologists, demographers, economists, specialists in the field of toponymy and onomastics, folklore studies. Since the end of the 20th century, in fact, a new direction, revived in Russia several decades later, has become the historical geography of culture (S. Ya. Sushchiy, A. G. Druzhinin, A. G. Manakov, and others).

A relatively isolated position among the areas of Russian historical geography is occupied by the works of L. N. Gumilyov (and his followers), who developed his own concept of the relationship between ethnos and landscape and interpreted historical geography as the history of ethnic groups. Common problems the relationship between nature and society in their historical dynamics are considered in the works of E. S. Kulpin. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century, the interdisciplinary links of historical geography with economic geography, social geography, political geography, cultural geography, as well as with research in the field of geopolitics are being strengthened (D.N. Zamyatin, V.L. Kagansky, A.V. Postnikov , G. S. Lebedev, M. V. Ilyin, S. Ya. Sushchiy, V. L. Tsymbursky, etc.).

An important center for the development of historical geography is the Russian Geographical Society (RGO); there are departments of historical geography in its parent organization in St. Petersburg, the Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society, and in some regional organizations.

Lit .: Barsov N.P. Geographic Dictionary of the Russian Land (IX-XIV centuries). Vilna, 1865; he is. Essays on Russian historical geography. 2nd ed. Warsaw, 1885; Seredonin S. M. Historical geography. SPb., 1916; Freeman E.A. Historical geography of Europe. 3rd ed. L., 1920; Vidal de la Blache P. Histoire et geographie. R., 1923; Lyubavsky M.K. Formation of the main state territory of the Great Russian nationality. Settlement and consolidation of the center. L., 1929; he is. Review of the history of Russian colonization from ancient times to the XX century. M., 1996; he is. Historical geography of Russia in connection with colonization. 2nd ed. M., 2000; Sauer C. Foreword to historical geography // Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 1941 Vol. 31. No. 1; Brown R. H. Historical geography of the United States. N.Y., 1948; Yatsunsky VK Historical geography as a scientific discipline // Questions of Geography. M., 1950. Sat. twenty; he is. Historical geography. The history of its origin and development in the XV-XVIII centuries. M., 1955; Clark A. Historical geography // American geography. M., 1957; Medushevsky O. M. Historical geography as an auxiliary historical discipline. M., 1959; Iofa L.E. On the significance of historical geography // Geography and economy. M., 1961. No. 1; Vitver I. A. Historical and geographical introduction to the economic geography of the foreign world. 2nd ed. M., 1963; Smith S. T. Historical geography: current trends and prospects // Frontiers in geographical teaching. L., 1965; Gumilyov L.N. Concerning the subject of historical geography // Bulletin of Leningrad State University. Ser. geology and geography. 1967. No. 6; Shaskolsky IP Historical geography // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1968. T. 1; Darby H.C. Historical geography of England before A.D. 1800. Camb., 1969; Beskrovny L. G., Goldenberg L. A. On the subject and method of historical geography // History of the USSR. 1971. No. 6; Goldenberg L.A. On the subject of historical geography // Proceedings of the All-Union Geographical Society. 1971. T. 103. Issue. 6; Progress in historical geography. N.Y., 1972; Jäger H. Historische Geographie. 2. Aufl. Braunschweig, 1973; Piellush F. Applied historical geography // Pennsylvania Geographer. 1975 Vol. 13. No. 1; Zhekulin V.S. Historical geography: subject and methods. L., 1982; Problems of historical geography of Russia. M., 1982-1984. Issue. 1-4; Studies in Russian historical geography. L., 1983. Vol. 1-2; Norton W. Historical analysis in geography. L., 1984; Historical geography: progress and prospect. L., 1987; Present S. Ya., Druzhinin A. G. Essays on the geography of Russian culture. Rostov n/D., 1994; Maksakovskiy V.P. Historical geography of the world. M., 1997; Perspektiven der historischen Geographie. Bonn, 1997; Bulletin of historical geography. M.; Smolensk, 1999-2005. Issue. 1-3; Shulgina O. V. Historical geography of Russia in the XX century: Socio-political aspects. M., 2003; Historical geography: theory and practice. St. Petersburg, 2004; Shvedov VG Historical political geography. Vladivostok, 2006.

I. L. Belenky, V. N. Streletsky.

Historical geography is a branch of historical science that studies the main characteristic features of the geographical, spatial side of the historical process. It concretizes our ideas about historical events and phenomena, connects them with certain territories, studies the geography of the historical past of mankind, including in terms of interaction and mutual influence of nature and society. In other words, historical geography is the geography of a certain territory at a certain stage in the historical development of its population.

For geographical characteristics of a particular area, as a rule, it is necessary to know its physical geography (relief, climate, vegetation, fauna, minerals, etc.); political geography (territory and boundaries of political entities, their territorial and administrative structure, localization of places associated with various events, etc.); the geography of the population in terms of the formation of its composition, location and movement; economic geography, i.e., the geography of production and economic relations with regional and sectoral characteristics.

Historical geography is also based on these basic elements, but their content often differs from that which modern geography puts into them. And this difference is explained not only by the fact that historical geography studies a chronologically different stage in the development of mankind than modern geography. The point is in geography itself, geography as a science: the geography of the past differs sharply from the modern one.

So, for example, in a primitive society, in fact, there is no geography (more precisely, zoning) of production and trade, and at the same time there is especially big role belongs to physical and geographical factors. Often in the historical geography of a particular era, a significant role is played by such factors that are practically not taken into account by modern geography: the geography of popular movements, the distribution areas of the main types of production tools, spheres of cultural influence, etc. In general, the definition of the range of problems of the historical geography of each era depends on features of this social formation, from the basic patterns of its historical development. That is why historical geography is an auxiliary historical discipline, closely related to the history of a given formation.

However, unlike the bulk of auxiliary historical disciplines, historical geography does not have special methods and techniques of research, it does not have separate sources of knowledge. The specific foundation of this science, factual material, on which it is based, are provided to it by other sciences, first of all by history, and then by disciplines, often very far from history.

Thus, to study the problems associated with the physical geography of the past, historical geography uses data from historical climatology, geology, dendrochronology, soil science, astronomy, historical botany, plant geography, historical cartography, glaciology, and many other branches of science, including ethnography, archeology, and history itself. (information of chronicles, myths, legends, etc.).

Historical geography also makes extensive use of the findings of such disciplines as toponymy, historical demography, historical statistics, numismatics, price history, and monetary circulation, anthropology, geography of diseases, historical topography, linguistics, anthroponymy, history of military art, history of urban planning. But the overwhelming mass of information, most of the scientific baggage of historical geography, is drawn from historical sources by the methods and techniques of historical research itself.

After all, information of a historical-geographical order is provided not only by maps and geographical descriptions, but mainly and above all by chronicles, act material, cartularies, politicians, etc. Almost any written source can provide information on the historical geography of its era. Therefore, naturally, the historical geographer must be first and foremost a historian.

Such a breadth of the "source study base" of historical geography, the generalizing nature of the scientific activity of the historical geographer does not at all mean that historical geography occupies a special position among other historical disciplines. On the contrary, it retains its auxiliary character, revealing only one - the spatial - side of the historical process.

The close connection of historical geography with history determines another feature of this discipline - its direct dependence on historical science, on the level of its development, on its needs and tasks: while history was reduced to the history of wars, governments, events, i.e. political history, historical geography was also limited to problems political geography(borders of states, localization of battles, etc.), and only for last century she bought her modern look(population geography, economic geography of the era, etc.). Finally, the main directions of historical and geographical research have always coincided with the needs of history proper.

Another circumstance gives historical geography as a science a peculiar shade. As already mentioned, most of the problems that make up its content are, to one degree or another, the object of study of other sciences. The problem of "environment and society", for example, is of interest to geographers, sociologists, and philosophers; apart from historians, demographers, economists, ethnographers, anthropologists, specialists in toponymy, onomastics, etc., deal with issues of population distribution both in the present and in the past.

Almost all sections of historical geography can find corresponding analogues in history itself: the history of crafts and industry, trade, transport, etc. Therefore, the historical geographer faces a very difficult task- starting from the total amount of knowledge accumulated by other specialists, to determine their own, specific historical and geographical approach to these problems, focusing on the territorial aspects of the issues under study.

Such a peculiar perspective when looking at seemingly long-established issues often leads to new observations and conclusions, makes it possible to draw new conclusions on well-known premises that expand our understanding of a particular era. One example. It is well known that in medieval cities and villages there were many churches dedicated to various saints; it is also well known that many of these saints were traditionally considered patrons of various crafts. But here is a simple mapping of churches and chapels dedicated to St. Nicholas (the patron of merchants and merchants), shows us the clusters of centers of this cult, i.e., shopping centers and the most common routes of merchants in this territory.

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Historical geography uses the sum of historical sources. These are messages from written documents, evidence of material monuments, data from ethnography, folklore, and language. Historical geography makes extensive use of toponymy, anthropology, and natural history data.

For historical, economic, political geography, and population geography, written sources provide the most complete information. However, not every written source contains materials on historical geography. Among them are, first of all, such specific species documents such as maps and historical-geographical descriptions. Cartographic materials on national history appeared rather late. The first maps - "drawings" belong to the 16th century. They did not have a degree grid, scale, exact coordinates. This character of the maps is preserved until the 18th century, which should be borne in mind when using them. Drawings of the XVI - XVII centuries. give only a schematic representation of a tone or a different territory. The distance on them is shown, as a rule, in days of travel, and the rivers serve as the main landmarks. It is this character that S. Remezov's "Drawing Book of Siberia" has ( late XVII c.), consisting of 23 drawings, where are given General Map Siberia, its districts, the northern part of Russia, the distribution of the population, etc. late XVI in. in the Discharge Order. Unfortunately, neither the Great Drawing, nor the new Great Drawing of 1627, created on its basis with the addition of the territory of the "field", have reached us. Preserved lists Books big drawing, which give: a description of the drawing "field" (ways, fords and "stiles", towns and outposts, notches, ditches, wells, indications of distances) and a description of the drawing of “the entire Muscovite state”, on which rivers with adjacent lands, cities, prisons, churches, portages, minerals, peoples, etc. are marked. According to these lists we have the opportunity to reconstruct the drawing, covering vast territory from the Western Dvina and the Dnieper in the west to the Ob in the east, as well as the southern regions (Crimea, the Caucasus, Central Asia). The information of the Book of the Big Drawing is unique, but, like any other sources, they require a critical attitude, especially since the sources on the basis of which the drawing was created were different.

From the beginning of the XVIII century. in connection with the development of the country's economy, an increase in the level of scientific knowledge, topographic and other techniques, interest in cartographic material is sharply increasing. The "General Regulations" of 1720 provided for "each collegium to have general and particular land maps (or drawings)". Work begins on mapping the entire country, which led to the publication by I.K. Kirilov in 1734 of the “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire ...” from 14 maps of regions and a general map Russian Empire. The new maps were oriented to the north, had a degree grid, scale, and were based on geodetic surveys of the area. The atlas of 1734 is important for clarifying the historical geography of the beginning of the 18th century .. for its content included “... provinces, provinces, counties and borders, as far as Russian surveyors could describe them and put them in land maps, cities are accurately expressed in length and latitude , suburbs, monasteries, settlements, villages, villages, factories, mills, rivers, seas, lakes, noble mountains, forests, swamps, high roads, etc., with all sorts of applications, have been investigated by Russian and Latin names.

The Russian Atlas, published in 1745, was somewhat larger than the previous one. It consisted of 19 regional maps and a general map.

The first "Historical Map of the Russian Empire" was compiled in 1793, although maps, which were partially historical in nature, appeared in the first quarter of the 18th century as supplements to historical and historical-geographical works.

The significance of the cartographic material that emerged in Russia is enormous. The spaces of Eastern Europe and a significant part of Asia were mapped for the first time, which provided further comprehensive study territory of Russia.

Over time, the amount of cartographic material increases. Both general and region-by-region maps of the country of different character and different degree of completeness appear.

Cartographic material is a capacious and visual source. Systems of conventional signs, scales, illumination (coloring) allow you to concentrate a large amount of information.

By their nature, maps are divided into physical, economic, political and mixed types.

For historical geography, valuable sources are various kinds of descriptions of territories with a description of their physical and geographical features, economic condition, location of populated areas, ethnic and social composition.

Economic Notes, drawn up during the General Land Survey in Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, contain, in addition to materials on the history of the peasant and landowner economy, industry and trade, vast information on historical geography: territories, borders land holdings and their belonging, assessment of the quality of land, types of land, settlements and their location, economic and commercial buildings, occupations of the population, etc.

A great deal of material on the historical geography of our country is provided by various kinds of historical-geographical descriptions. Here is "History" Greco-Persian Wars» Herodotus with information about Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and partly Central Asia, the "Geography" of Strabo, Ptolemy, Ananias Shirakuni, the works of Tacitus, Jordanes and other authors, which, to one degree or another, relate to historical and geographical issues.

As the circle of written sources expands, geographical moments are touched upon in "walking", the writings of foreign authors about Russia and neighboring countries. Especially a lot of such information appears from the XVIII century. in descriptions of travels and expeditions of V. I. Bering, SP. Krasheninnikov, I. G. Gmelin, P. S. Pallas, I. I. Lepekhin, P. Chelishchev and others. separate territories, such as, for example, “Orenburg Topography” by P. I. Rychkov, geographical dictionaries - “Geographical Lexicon” by V. N. Tatishchev, “ Geographic lexicon Russian state» F. A. Polunina, «Big geographical dictionary Russian State” by A. Shchekatov and others.

Information of the historical and geographical order is provided by chronicles, scribes, censuses, boundary, customs and other books, materials of revisions and censuses, monuments of an act character, such as spiritual and contractual letters, peace treaties, acts of land ownership, and other monuments.

Exceptional value for historical geography have material sources. They establish the existence of certain archaeological cultures, united by time, territory and common characteristic features material monuments. These cultures are a reflection of both historically established economic ties, unity of origin, and geographical conditions development of human society. The method of archaeological mapping helps to determine the geographical distribution of archaeological cultures, the relationship and mutual influence of these cultures and ethnic groups, placement and distribution certain types production, crops, identify trade routes and economic ties etc. In some cases, with the help of real archaeological materials it is possible to accurately determine the place of the settlement, which is mentioned in a written source, but has not survived to our time, the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic groups, the raw materials of individual crafts and trades, the ancient topography of cities.

Ethnographic data make it possible to discover the composition, origin and settlement of individual ethnic groups, peoples, and the features of their economic and cultural life.

An important role in historical geography is occupied by linguistic sources that help determine the areas occupied by certain peoples, the directions of population movement, and the processes of their mutual influence. For example, the dialects of the old-timer population of Siberia are Northern Russian in nature. This reflects the fact that the original Russian population of Siberia consisted mainly of immigrants from the Pomor counties. In this regard, toponymy data are of great importance for historical geography. Toponymy (topos - place + onoma - name) can be defined as a special linguistic, geographical and historical discipline that studies geographical names. According to the figurative expression of N. I. Nadezhdin, a famous ethnographer and literary critic of the 19th century. "toponymy is the language of the earth, and the earth is a book where the history of mankind is recorded in geographical nomenclature." The need to establish permanent names for geographical features appeared early. People must navigate the terrain and, above all, these landmarks were forests, fields, swamps, rivers. However, their multiplicity and recurrence necessitated the designation, if possible, of each object. They could reflect the features, properties of the designated geographical object, its location in relation to other objects, historical events, etc.

Historical geography, using toponymy data, proceeds from the position that geographical names, in the vast majority, are motivated and stable. With all possible accidents, the emergence of names has its own patterns, historical conditioning, stability. The name of Kotelny Island in the Arctic Ocean reflects a case. On the island, discovered in 1773, a copper cauldron was forgotten, which was the reason for the name. The Bering Sea owes its name to Vitus Bering, who in 1725-1728. examined him. The name took hold only in the 19th century. Before that, it was called the Kamchatka Sea, and the inhabitants of Kamchatka, the Itelmens, call it big sea(Gytesh-Nyngal). But each of these accidents is at the same time a reflection of historical events of a larger or smaller scale.

A historian dealing with historical geography must distinguish the real basis for the origin of a name from various kinds of conjectures about individual geographical names. Thus, the name of the Yakhroma River in the Moscow Region was explained by the fact that the Grand Duchess, who was traveling with Prince Vsevolod near the city of Dmitrov, stumbled, getting out of the wagon, and shouted: “I am lame!”. An arbitrary explanation of the name of the city of Orenburg by a combination German words Ohr - ear and Burg - city. In fact, it was a "city on the Ori", that is, on the Or River. According to the then "German fashion" (Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Ranenburg), instead of the Russian "city", "city" to the basis indicating geographical position cities on the river Or, they added the German "Burg". It should be noted that modern Orenburg is located almost 300 km from the place of its origin. The city was transferred twice, retaining its original name. Old city on the river Or is now known under the name of Orsk.

The use of toponymy materials is complicated by the fact that the name cannot always be explained. In some cases, the original meaning of the word has acquired a different meaning, the same word can be used in different ways. Until now, they have not found a satisfactory explanation for the origin of the names Moscow, Ryazan, Ryazhsk and other cities and places. M.N. Tikhomirov pointed out that the name of one of the old Moscow streets - "Varvarka" (now Razin Street) is derived from the church of St. Varvara, which was built in 1514. However, even before this construction, the street had a consonant name - "Varskaya". While these names are similar, there is also a difference. In the first case, it goes back to the name - Varvara, and in the second - to the word "vari". This word, which meant cooking salt and other products, as well as some duties of the population, was the basis of the original name of the street, and only later it was rethought in connection with the construction of the church.

Many names require historical explanation. So, one of the regions of the Russian state was called "Zavolzhye". This is the region of the middle reaches of the Volga, lying to the north along the axis from Uglich to Kineshma. It was “Trans-Volga” in relation to the center of the Russian state, and this name corresponded to the historical formation of territories, their development, the movement of the population, because, strictly speaking, “Trans-Volga” can be called lands south of this axis, if viewed from the left bank of the Volga . It should be borne in mind that the historical concept of "Trans-Volga" changes over time. Already in the XVI century. the concept of "Trans-Volga" extends to the left bank of the middle and lower reaches of the river. Volga. Thus, the "Trans-Volga" for different historical periods includes different areas. The districts "Zaonezhie", "Zavolochye", etc. are defined in the same way. When explaining the name of these districts, their territory, we must take into account the process of their historical folding and allocation to certain areas, as well as subsequent changes.

Toponymy data are very important in establishing the settlement of people, their movement, and the development of new territories. It is known that the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, tracts are more ancient than the names settlements. Therefore, they are important to determine ancient population. The names of large rivers are especially stable. The names of small rivers and tributaries changed quite often. Apparently, this explains the fact that the names of a number of rivers located in the territory not originally inhabited by the Eastern Slavs can only be understood on the basis of the languages ​​spoken by the local non-Slavic population. At the same time, the Slavic population brought new names for both rivers and settlements. This explains the appearance in the Rostov and Ryazan lands of the Trubezh rivers (with the cities located on them - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky), rivers with the name Lybed, etc. If we keep in mind that in Kyiv land there was Pereyaslavl, standing on the river. Trubezh, that the Lybid river is in Kyiv, it will become possible to connect the emergence of these names in the north with the movement of the population from the south. Toponymy makes it possible to establish the history of communication routes. Names such as Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochek, Zavolochye, testify to the ancient portage. In the names of the Yamsky settlements, streets, evidence of the Yamsky tracts, pits has been preserved.

Toponymic information can be used in the study of economic, political geography, population geography. Anthropological data are important for studying the origin of races and peoples. Proceeding from the representation of the subordination of human biology to the laws of the development of society and its history, Soviet historical science adheres to the hypothesis of the origin of all people from one type of fossil anthropoids. This means that there is no direct succession between the old and new races, which modern races arose within the species Homo sapiens. Their settlement across the territory of the Old World, and then the transition to other continents, was long and complex and led to the formation of three main races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid, which, in turn, have further subdivisions. The process of correlation of these races and their parts, connections between them, mutual influence is far from clear. The boundaries between races are generally not clear and do not always coincide with the boundaries of languages. Races can be different among peoples close to each other, and at the same time, one race can be among different peoples. So, the Turkic peoples: Chuvash, Tatars, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Azerbaijanis, Yakuts have languages ​​close to each other. However, they differ in anthropological type. Initial anthropological type more preserved among the Kazakhs and Kirghiz, among the Uzbeks it is greatly softened, and among the Azerbaijanis, features of this type are difficult to detect. Consequently, anthropological data can confirm the mixing of peoples.

Historical geography uses and information natural sciences. They are of particular importance in the reconstruction of historical physical geography. For example, when establishing in the past the border between the forest and the steppe, when clarifying the areas at one time covered with forest and brought down by man. It is known that the landscape of the forest-steppe has changed a lot. It is not always possible to establish how and when, how this happened according to written and other sources. Natural science research comes to the rescue. Soil analysis can establish the primary or secondary nature of forest and steppe. Trees, shrubs, grass cover play an active role in the folding of soils. A certain influence on the possibility of the spread of forests is exerted by climatic conditions, the degree of soil moisture, a kind of competition of herbaceous vegetation.

The materials of the natural sciences make it possible to establish the ancient riverbeds, which is important for the historical geography of the economy, transport links, especially in those areas where even now there is a high mobility of the riverbed, for example, for Central Asia. The solution of a number of issues in the history of this region depends on finding out how and in what way the channel of the Amu Darya went, whether it flowed into the Caspian Sea.

Historical geography is a special historical discipline, a complex historical and geographical field of knowledge that studies the spatial aspects of the historical process, as well as historical development selected countries, peoples, regions.

Historical geography is also a branch of knowledge on the verge of history and geography; geography of any territory at a certain stage of its development. She studies the changes that have taken place in geographical envelope Earth.

Since historical geography is a complex science, geographers and ethnologists have their own definitions of its subject.

Thus, it is generally recognized among geographers that historical geography is defined as a science that studies the last (after the appearance of man) stage in the development of nature.

The well-known Russian scientist L. Gumilyov gave his definition of historical geography from the ethnological point of view. "Historical geography," he wrote, "is the science of the post-glacial landscape in a dynamic state, for which ethnos is an indicator."

As a result, we will name the synthetic definition of historical geography given in the Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia. Historical geography is an industry geographical knowledge, which studies, in terms of spatial and chronological changes and relationships, natural and socio-economic territorial systems. Historical geography explores the physical, economic, political, ethnic geography of the past from the emergence of human society to the present, the relationship between nature and society, the influence of economic activity on the geographic environment at different historical stages, and geographical factors on politics, production and ethnogenesis.

The subject of historical geography was repeatedly clarified in the course of scientific discussions, as a result of which, in 1932, four components of the subject were established at the London School of Economics, namely: the historical geography of political boundaries, the influence of nature on the course of the historical process, the influence of events on geographical phenomena; history of geographical discoveries.

In the domestic historical and geographical science, a different point of view regarding the subject has developed. So, for example, the history of geographical discoveries belongs to another field of knowledge, namely: the history of geography. The components of the subject of historical geography are: historical physical geography, historical geography of population, historical ethnic geography, historical geography of cities and villages, historical topography of cities, historical political geography.

In general, there are six main directions in historical geography.

1. Historical geography as an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the location of settlements, the topography of cities, monuments of various historical events, communication routes and other issues of great but auxiliary importance.

2. Historical geography as a science that studies the economic geography of past historical periods. In this direction, it includes the historical geography of the population and historical demography.

3. Historical political geography as a science that studies the borders of states, issues of administrative-territorial structure, popular movements, wars, etc..

4. Historical ethnic geography as a science that studies the history of peoples in connection with the characteristics of the geographical environment - this is the doctrine of the economic and cultural types of peoples, historical and geographical zoning, etc.

5. Historical geography as a science that studies the history of development, development and changes in the geographical environment and landscape.

6. Historical geography as a unified discipline that studies the characteristics of nature, population, economy of past eras, namely: Ancient world, Middle Ages, modern and modern times.

The activity of human society takes place within certain geographical limits, in a certain territory. The nature of this territory, climate, soil, precipitation, minerals, vegetation, surface profile, rivers, lakes, seas, natural routes of communication, etc. set the framework for the activity of human society, its occupation and development. With the development of technology, the dependence of human society on geographical conditions is weakening, but due to economic considerations, it remains, albeit in a truncated form. For example, at present we can cultivate rice in greenhouses on the islands Arctic Ocean, but it is hardly economically feasible to use these islands for rice crops; communication routes make it possible to set up oil refineries and iron foundries where not a single pood of oil or iron ore is mined; imagine that oil is being extracted where there is none, with state of the art technology is possible, but such oil production (by chemical processes) is not economically feasible. As for the consumption of products, at the present time wherever there is rail, air or steamship communication, we can, with appropriate social conditions, to consume the products of the most remote countries.

In remote times, the dependence of human society on geographical conditions was incomparably greater. Geographical conditions determined to a greater extent not only the occupations of people (mining and manufacturing industries), but also the consumption of products, the trade relations of a given society with other societies (depending on the means of communication) and even social organization (for example, the so-called "Asiatic mode of production" ). Therefore, the historian cannot bypass the geographical conditions, not only in the study of the history of more distant times, but also of recent decades. For example, when studying the history of Azerbaijan in the 20th century, we cannot ignore its oil-bearing areas, which made it possible to create the Baku oil industry with tens of thousands of workers.

But at the same time, we should not exaggerate the role of geographical conditions. When studying the same history of Azerbaijan, we must keep in mind that only under a certain social formation, industrial capitalism, did the development of the oil industry begin, and this development took giant strides under another social formation, transitional to socialism. Thus, the main factor in the historical process is not geographical conditions, but the development of the productive forces and the relations of production corresponding to them.

general description the historian finds a certain territory in physical geography, which deals with the consideration of a given territory in relation to its geology, geophysics, meteorology, paleontology, flora, fauna, etc. The division of the globe into this moment between existing state organizations, the division of states into administrative units, the location of the last and existing settlements in space, the historian finds in political geography, which studies existing states, their borders, population, cities, etc.

What is the current state of industry, trade, agriculture, transport, etc., in individual states and regions, the historian learns from economic geography, which bases its conclusions on statistics. But in all these areas, the principle “everything flows, everything changes” is especially applicable. State borders are now completely different than they were in 1914; economic development makes leaps up or down every year; where 50 years ago there was a votskaya village, there is now a Russian village without a single votyak; where there was a forest, there may be a bare steppe, and in the place of the latter - a beautiful grove; the river may be in a different direction, etc., etc.

Which of these changes should be considered by history, which by historical geography?

Until now, historical geography, which most scientists define as a science that studies the relationship between people and nature in the past, deals with the settlement of people and individual societies on the globe, establishing the location of individual settlements (cities, fortresses, villages, etc.), boundaries between states and their administrative divisions, means of communication, the distribution of individual crafts and occupations, etc. in the past. Some historians propose to create another special, cultural-historical geography, dealing with questions about the distribution of individual cultures, for example, Muslim culture.

If we understand the relationship between man and nature broadly, then any difference between historical geography and history disappears. Usually, settlements appear where there are more favorable natural conditions (drinking water, convenient ways messages, soil, vegetation), or, more rarely, where it is necessary for political reasons (protection of borders, places of exile, etc.). But also in last case natural conditions matter. If we take the production activity of people, then it all consists of the relationship between people and nature, from the impact of people on nature. Should, therefore, all this activity (production, socio-political and cultural) be studied by historical geography? If so, then history should simply turn into historical geography.

So it used to be. History and geography were one common science. But gradually there was a separation from history, due to the rapid development of the natural sciences, physical geography; due to the development economic sciences economic geography emerged. Political geography has retained the greatest connection with history, but since bourgeois historians often did not want to touch on the history of recent decades, leaving this area to politicians, sociologists and economists, political geography also received an independent existence from history.

Can we create independent historical and geographical sciences corresponding to listed parts geography? Can we also highlight in special science cultural and historical geography?

We now have a number of courses in historical geography, which may be called courses in historical political geography. They consider the changing boundaries between individual states, regions, nations, the location of cities and settlements, the development of trade routes, etc. over the centuries. But can these questions be considered outside the historical development of individual social units (states, nations, etc.)? It is forbidden. Pointing out that the border between the two states in the XV century. took place here, and in the 16th century there, the student of the change of boundaries must indicate the causes of this phenomenon. But this means that he must give the history of individual states. On the other hand, the historian, considering the history of individual public organizations, cannot but consider their borders, the location of cities, trade routes, and so on. Consequently, we cannot separate historical political geography from history. Even less can we separate historical economic geography and cultural-historical geography from history, because economic and cultural development in a certain territory cannot be separated and considered in isolation from the general historical process of social organizations that existed in a given territory.

The sources for history and historical political, economic and cultural geography are the same: chronicles, annals, state acts, travel descriptions, etc. nomenclature and geographical maps, but these sources must inevitably be used by the historian of a particular era.

The inextricable connection between historical, political, economic, and cultural geography and history also explains to us the fact that there is not a single specialist in these disciplines. They were dealt with exclusively by historians of the respective epochs. Seredonin, Lyubavsky, Barsov, Belyaev, Kipert, Freeman and others, who gave courses and essays on historical geography, are all historians.

What then explains the emergence of a special discipline of political historical geography and the desire to create an economic and cultural historical geography? Partly, of course, by the transfer to more distant eras of the existing independent political and economic geography. The main reason is the view that history is concerned with the simple establishment of facts. If one takes this point of view, then one can create specific political, economic and cultural historical geography that determine changes in borders, etc., without setting out to explain the causes of these changes. But it will not be science, because the latter considers phenomena in their causal dependence. As soon as historical political, economic and cultural geography begins to explain the causal dependence of facts, they turn into history.

Thus, the existence of scientific historical political, economic and cultural geography is impossible. Any such attempt will either be a collection of facts or political, economic or cultural history.

Historical geography, as an auxiliary historical science, will and must exist. But its scientific content should be completely different. By historical geography, we must mean the science of geophysical changes in a given territory under the influence of human society and the forces of nature. Such a science, determining the changes that have taken place over the centuries in the surface profile, in the qualities of the soil, in the amount of precipitation, in fauna and flora, in rivers, lakes, seas, etc., and establishing the causes of these changes, should be a natural science and be one of the branches of physical geography. Only such a historical geography is useful to the historian and makes sense of existence. The political, economic and cultural historical geography must become what they can only be - an inseparable integral part history - and stop their independent, though short-lived, existence.

From scientific (physical) historical geography, the historian could draw information that is very useful for his work about the soil, forests, meadows, natural routes of communication and other geographical conditions in which the activity of the history under consideration proceeded. public organization in a certain era. But, unfortunately, such a historical geography has not yet been developed, and the historian, when studying more distant epochs, has to use certain indications of general historical sources, unverified by natural scientists, under certain geographical conditions. The development of historical geography is a matter for the future.

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