Kuzmenko Chemistry for applicants to universities. The beginnings of chemistry

In a textbook written by professors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov and First Moscow State Medical University named after I. M. Sechenov, outlines the basics modern chemistry in the volume of the school program of advanced level. The most important theoretical concepts of chemistry, the principles of classification of substances and reactions, Chemical properties classes of organic and inorganic substances. Solutions are provided at the end of each chapter. typical tasks and proposed a variety of tasks for independent decision(answers are at the end of the book). The tutorial will useful to schoolchildren graduation classes to prepare not only for the final and entrance exams, but also for the Olympiads different levels- from school to international.

For schoolchildren enrolled in the basic and advanced programs, students of non-chemical universities, teachers and teachers of chemistry.

3
Part I. Theoretical chemistry 5
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry 7
§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. scientific method knowledge 7
§ 1.2. subject of chemistry 8
§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules 11
§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy 16
§ 1.5. Periodic Law. Discovery history 18
§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry 23
§ 1.7. Gas laws 28
Problems with solutions 30
Problems for independent solution 34
Chapter 2 38
§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom 38
§ 2.2. quantum numbers electrons 42
§ 2.3. Electronic configurations atoms 45
§ 2.4. Atomic nucleus. Radioactivity 51
§ 2.5. Periodic Law 60
Problems with solutions 65
66
Chapter 3 chemical bond 69
§ 3.1. Education complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond 69
§ 3.2. covalent bond 72
§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds 77
§ 3.4. Spatial structure molecules 80
§ 3.5. Ionic bond 86
§ 3.6. metal connection 90
§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions. hydrogen bond 90
Problems with solutions 94
Tasks for independent solution 97
Chapter 4. Aggregate states of matter 99
§ 4.1. Properties of gases, liquids and solids 99
§ 4.2. Phase diagrams 102
§ 4.3. gases 103
§ 4.4. Liquids 106
§ 4.5. Crystalline substances 108
§ 4.6. Various forms the existence of substances 114
§ 4.7. 5Flip Crystals 115
§ 4.8. Plasma - the fourth aggregate state of matter 116
Problems with solutions 117
Tasks for independent solution 121
Chapter 5 126
§ 5.1. Energy of chemical reactions 126
§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis 131
§ 5.3. reversible and irreversible reactions. Chemical equilibrium 138
§ 5.4. Application of the laws of the course of chemical reactions in the management of chemical
technological processes in production		 141
Problems with solutions 144
Tasks for independent solution 148
Chapter 6. Physical and chemical theory of electrolyte solutions. Solutions of non-electrolytes 152
§ 6.1. How do substances dissolve in various solvents? Classification of solutions 152
§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as physical and chemical process 154
§ 6.3. Solubility dependence various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure 157
§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration of solutions 163
§ 6.5. electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation 165
§ 6.6. Ionic equations reactions 173
§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis 179
§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions 180
Problems with solutions 183
Tasks for independent solution 187
Chapter 7. Classification of chemical reactions 197
§ 7.1. General information 197
§ 7.2. Classification according to the number of reactants and reaction products and their composition 199
§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states substances 203
§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried 204
§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions 205
Problems with solutions 205
Tasks for independent solution 206
Chapter 8 208
§ 8.1. General concepts 208
§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents 210
§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions 213
§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics OVR 220
§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes 227
Problems with solutions 229
Tasks for independent solution 236
Part II. Inorganic chemistry 245
Chapter 9 organic compounds 247
§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature. Simple and complex substances 247
§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides 249
§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides 250
§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides) 253
§ 9.5. acids 255
§ 9.6. salt 262
Problems with solutions 264
Tasks for independent solution 266
Chapter 10 chemical element 268
§ 10.1. general characteristics 268
§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen 271
§ 10.3. Production of hydrogen and its application 273
§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide 275
Problems with solutions 278
Tasks for independent solution 279
Chapter 11 280
§ 11.1. general characteristics 280
§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens 284
§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens 287
§ 11.4. Halogen compounds 289
§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds 293
Problems with solutions 294
Tasks for independent solution 299
Chapter 12 302
§ 12.1. general characteristics 302
§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen 303
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur 305
§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides 306
§ 12.5. Sulfur(IV) oxide. Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate 309
§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid 310
Problems with solutions 313
Tasks for independent solution 316
Chapter 13 321
§ 13.1. general characteristics 321
§ 13.2. Chemical properties simple substances 323
§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides 325
§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds nitrogen and phosphorus 327
Problems with solutions 333
Tasks for independent solution 338
Chapter 14 335
§ 14.1. general characteristics 345
§ 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon 347
§ 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon 348
§ 14.4. Carbides and silicides 355
§ 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup 357
Problems with solutions 357
Tasks for independent solution 360
Chapter 15 alkaline earth metals 364
§ 15.1. general characteristics 364
§ 15.2. Chemical properties of metals 366
§ 15.3. s-metal compounds 368
Problems with solutions 370
Tasks for independent solution 373
Chapter 16 Main subgroup Group III 377
§ 16.1. general characteristics 377
§ 16.2. Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron 378
§ 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum 380
§ 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties 384
Problems with solutions 385
Tasks for independent solution 387
Chapter 17 390
§ 17.1. general characteristics 390
§ 17.2. Chromium and its compounds 393
§ 17.3. Manganese and its compounds 395
§ 17.4. Iron and its compounds 395
§ 17.5. Copper and its compounds 397
§ 17.6. Zinc and its compounds 398
§ 17.7. Silver and its compounds 399
Problems with solutions 399
Tasks for independent solution 404
Chapter 18 412
§ 18.1. general characteristics 412
§ 18.2. Chemical compounds noble gases 414
§ 18.3. Application of noble gases 417
Problems with solutions 417
Tasks for independent solution 418
Part III. Organic chemistry 419
Chapter 19 421
§ 19.1. Thing organic chemistry. Theory of the structure of organic compounds 421
§ 19.2. Classification of organic compounds 423
§ 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds 426
§ 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds 430
§ 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity organic compounds 432
§ 19.6. general characteristics organic reactions 434
§ 19.7. Production of organic compounds in industry 437
Problems with solutions 444
Tasks for independent solution 447
Chapter 20 Limit hydrocarbons 452
§ 20.1. Alkany 452
§ 20.2. Cycloalkanes 458
Problems with solutions 464
Tasks for independent solution 465
Chapter 21 double bond 470
§ 21.1. Alkenes 470
§ 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons) 475
Problems with solutions 478
Tasks for independent solution 481
Chapter 22 487
§ 22.1. general characteristics 487
§ 22.2. Obtaining alkynes 488
§ 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes 489
Problems with solutions 492
Tasks for independent solution 494
Chapter 23 aromatic hydrocarbons(arenas) 499
§ 23.1. general characteristics 499
§ 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes 502
§ 23.3. Orientation (replacement) rules in benzene ring 506
Problems with solutions 509
Tasks for independent solution 513
Chapter 24 518
§ 24.1. Monohydric alcohols 518
§ 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols 522
§ 24.3. Phenols 523
Problems with solutions 527
Tasks for independent solution 530
Chapter 25 538
§ 25.1. general characteristics 538
§ 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties 540
Problems with solutions 543
Tasks for independent solution 546
Chapter 26 550
§ 26.1. general characteristics 550
§ 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties carboxylic acids 554
§ 26.3. Some representatives of carboxylic acids 561
Problems with solutions 563
Tasks for independent solution 567
Chapter 27 Esters. Fats. Detergents 574
§ 27.1. Esters 574
§ 27.2. Fats and oils 577
§ 27.3. Soaps and detergents 579
Problems with solutions 581
Tasks for independent solution 585
Chapter 28 590
§ 28.1. Monosaccharides 590
§ 28.2. disaccharides 594
§ 28.3. Polysaccharides 596
Problems with solutions 598
Tasks for independent solution 600
Chapter 29 603
§ 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines 603
§ 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine 606
Problems with solutions 609
Tasks for independent solution 614
Chapter 30 616
§ 30.1. Amino acids 616
§ 30.2. Peptides 620
§ 30.3. Squirrels 622
Problems with solutions 627
Tasks for independent solution 629
Chapter 31 633
§ 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles 633
§ 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle 636
§ 31.3. Structure nucleic acids 639
§ 31.4. Biological role nucleic acids 646
Problems with solutions 648
Tasks for independent solution 651
Chapter 32 macromolecular compounds(polymers) 653
§ 32.1. General characteristics of polymers 653
§ 32.2. plastics 655
§ 32.3. fibers 658
§ 32.4. Rubbers 659
Problems with solutions 661
Tasks for independent solution 662
Answers to tasks 663
Subject index 683

To our parents
we dedicate this book

Foreword

Before you is a new, revised and supplemented edition. The book "Principles of Chemistry" was conceived as a manual on chemistry for university students and medical schools, but over the 15 years of its existence it has outgrown this framework and has really become an in-depth guide for everyone who loves chemistry. This book is used as a complete chemistry textbook in educational institutions different levels, as well as in preparation for the Olympiads and for extra classes in chemistry.

It's so popular tutorial must not only high level theoretical material and good selection of tasks. The authors put all their love for chemistry into the book, which was reflected primarily in the style of presentation, as well as in the simple and friendly approaches proposed in solving problems and selecting interesting tasks for an independent solution.

We have tried to emphasize everywhere two very important ideas with which future chemists should be imbued: 1) there are no unshakable truths in science; 2) “absolutely everything” (!) is possible in chemistry, even what previously seemed impossible (or even absurd). For illustration rapid development chemical ideas, we have written several not quite ordinary for school literature sections such as liquid crystals and Noble Gases.

The course of chemistry is presented here in the traditional sequence. The first chapter introduces the basic concepts and laws of chemistry, which are discussed in historical aspect. Subsequent chapters 2-8 are devoted to theoretical chemistry(mainly physical chemistry). Chapters 9-18, which introduce inorganic chemistry, cover all groups of the Periodic Table of Elements. The last chapters 19-32 are devoted to organic chemistry.

Each chapter ends with two problem sections. In the first of them, detailed solutions of typical problems are given, in which general tricks and approaches (there are more than 180 such solved problems). In the second section - tasks of different levels of complexity (from simple theoretical issues to complex multi-stage calculation tasks) for independent work. These tasks have been used earlier in entrance exams and in Olympiads. Please note that the solution of any problem requires not only a solid assimilation of the theory, but also the creative application of the acquired knowledge.

The book has been around for a long time own life, therefore, when preparing the next edition, we did not subject it to a radical revision, but limited ourselves to correcting inaccuracies, adjusting the style, and adding new material (Chapter 5), reflecting the latest achievements in chemistry.

Over the years, the authors have discussed various sections of the book together so often that each of us is responsible for all the material (we decided not to indicate specific areas of responsibility, information on this can be found in previous editions). Here we consider it our duty to emphasize that many of our colleagues, employees of Moscow University and the First Moscow Medical University named after I.M. Sechenov, helped us in the work on the book. Therefore, before you is the result of the joint work of the teams of these two universities.

We hope that the new edition will continue to arouse the keen interest of readers.

We wish you an interesting and useful reading!

December 2015

N. E. Kuzmenko
V. V. Eremin
V. A. Popkov

The textbook, written by professors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov and the First Moscow State Medical University named after I. M. Sechenov, outlines the basics of modern chemistry in the volume of the school curriculum of an advanced level. The most important theoretical concepts of chemistry, the principles of classification of substances and reactions, the chemical properties of classes of organic and inorganic substances are considered in detail. At the end of each chapter, solutions to typical problems are given and various problems for independent solution are proposed (the answers to them are at the end of the book). The textbook will be useful for high school students to prepare not only for the final and entrance exams, but also for the Olympiads of various levels - from school to international.

For schoolchildren enrolled in the basic and advanced programs, students of non-chemical universities, teachers and teachers of chemistry.

3
Part I. Theoretical chemistry 5
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry 7
§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge 7
§ 1.2. subject of chemistry 8
§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules 11
§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy 16
§ 1.5. Periodic law. Discovery history 18
§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry 23
§ 1.7. Gas laws 28
Problems with solutions 30
Problems for independent solution 34
Chapter 2 38
§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom 38
§ 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons 42
§ 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms 45
§ 2.4. Atomic nucleus. Radioactivity 51
§ 2.5. Periodic Law 60
Problems with solutions 65
66
Chapter 3 69
§ 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond 69
§ 3.2. covalent bond 72
§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds 77
§ 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules 80
§ 3.5. Ionic bond 86
§ 3.6. metal connection 90
§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions. hydrogen bond 90
Problems with solutions 94
Tasks for independent solution 97
Chapter 4. Aggregate states of matter 99
§ 4.1. Properties of gases, liquids and solids 99
§ 4.2. Phase diagrams 102
§ 4.3. gases 103
§ 4.4. Liquids 106
§ 4.5. Crystalline substances 108
§ 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances 114
§ 4.7. 5Flip Crystals 115
§ 4.8. Plasma - the fourth aggregate state of matter 116
Problems with solutions 117
Tasks for independent solution 121
Chapter 5 126
§ 5.1. Energy of chemical reactions 126
§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis 131
§ 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. Chemical equilibrium 138
§ 5.4. Application of the laws of the course of chemical reactions in the management of chemical
technological processes in production		 141
Problems with solutions 144
Tasks for independent solution 148
Chapter 6. Physical and chemical theory of electrolyte solutions. Solutions of non-electrolytes 152
§ 6.1. How do substances dissolve in various solvents? Classification of solutions 152
§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process 154
§ 6.3. The dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure 157
§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration of solutions 163
§ 6.5. electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation 165
§ 6.6. Ionic reaction equations 173
§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis 179
§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions 180
Problems with solutions 183
Tasks for independent solution 187
Chapter 7. Classification of chemical reactions 197
§ 7.1. General information 197
§ 7.2. Classification according to the number of reactants and reaction products and their composition 199
§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to the states of aggregation of a substance 203
§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried 204
§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions 205
Problems with solutions 205
Tasks for independent solution 206
Chapter 8 208
§ 8.1. General concepts 208
§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents 210
§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions 213
§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR 220
§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes 227
Problems with solutions 229
Tasks for independent solution 236
Part II. Inorganic chemistry 245
Chapter 9. Classes inorganic compounds 247
§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature. Simple and complex substances 247
§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides 249
§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides 250
§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides) 253
§ 9.5. acids 255
§ 9.6. salt 262
Problems with solutions 264
Tasks for independent solution 266
Chapter 10 268
§ 10.1. general characteristics 268
§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen 271
§ 10.3. Production of hydrogen and its application 273
§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide 275
Problems with solutions 278
Tasks for independent solution 279
Chapter 11 280
§ 11.1. general characteristics 280
§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens 284
§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens 287
§ 11.4. Halogen compounds 289
§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds 293
Problems with solutions 294
Tasks for independent solution 299
Chapter 12 302
§ 12.1. general characteristics 302
§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen 303
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur 305
§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides 306
§ 12.5. Sulfur(IV) oxide. Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate 309
§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid 310
Problems with solutions 313
Tasks for independent solution 316
Chapter 13 321
§ 13.1. general characteristics 321
§ 13.2. Chemical properties of simple substances 323
§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides 325
§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus 327
Problems with solutions 333
Tasks for independent solution 338
Chapter 14 335
§ 14.1. general characteristics 345
§ 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon 347
§ 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon 348
§ 14.4. Carbides and silicides 355
§ 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup 357
Problems with solutions 357
Tasks for independent solution 360
Chapter 15 364
§ 15.1. general characteristics 364
§ 15.2. Chemical properties of metals 366
§ 15.3. s-metal compounds 368
Problems with solutions 370
Tasks for independent solution 373
Chapter 16 377
§ 16.1. general characteristics 377
§ 16.2. Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron 378
§ 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum 380
§ 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties 384
Problems with solutions 385
Tasks for independent solution 387
Chapter 17 390
§ 17.1. general characteristics 390
§ 17.2. Chromium and its compounds 393
§ 17.3. Manganese and its compounds 395
§ 17.4. Iron and its compounds 395
§ 17.5. Copper and its compounds 397
§ 17.6. Zinc and its compounds 398
§ 17.7. Silver and its compounds 399
Problems with solutions 399
Tasks for independent solution 404
Chapter 18 412
§ 18.1. general characteristics 412
§ 18.2. Chemical compounds of noble gases 414
§ 18.3. Application of noble gases 417
Problems with solutions 417
Tasks for independent solution 418
Part III. Organic chemistry 419
Chapter 19 421
§ 19.1. The subject of organic chemistry. Theory of the structure of organic compounds 421
§ 19.2. Classification of organic compounds 423
§ 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds 426
§ 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds 430
§ 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity of organic compounds 432
§ 19.6. General characteristics of organic reactions 434
§ 19.7. Production of organic compounds in industry 437
Problems with solutions 444
Tasks for independent solution 447
Chapter 20 452
§ 20.1. Alkany 452
§ 20.2. Cycloalkanes 458
Problems with solutions 464
Tasks for independent solution 465
Chapter 21 470
§ 21.1. Alkenes 470
§ 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons) 475
Problems with solutions 478
Tasks for independent solution 481
Chapter 22 487
§ 22.1. general characteristics 487
§ 22.2. Obtaining alkynes 488
§ 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes 489
Problems with solutions 492
Tasks for independent solution 494
Chapter 23 499
§ 23.1. general characteristics 499
§ 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes 502
§ 23.3. Orientation (substitution) rules in the benzene ring 506
Problems with solutions 509
Tasks for independent solution 513
Chapter 24 518
§ 24.1. Monohydric alcohols 518
§ 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols 522
§ 24.3. Phenols 523
Problems with solutions 527
Tasks for independent solution 530
Chapter 25 538
§ 25.1. general characteristics 538
§ 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties 540
Problems with solutions 543
Tasks for independent solution 546
Chapter 26 550
§ 26.1. general characteristics 550
§ 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids 554
§ 26.3. Some representatives of carboxylic acids 561
Problems with solutions 563
Tasks for independent solution 567
Chapter 27 Fats. Detergents 574
§ 27.1. Esters 574
§ 27.2. Fats and oils 577
§ 27.3. Soaps and detergents 579
Problems with solutions 581
Tasks for independent solution 585
Chapter 28 590
§ 28.1. Monosaccharides 590
§ 28.2. disaccharides 594
§ 28.3. Polysaccharides 596
Problems with solutions 598
Tasks for independent solution 600
Chapter 29 603
§ 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines 603
§ 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine 606
Problems with solutions 609
Tasks for independent solution 614
Chapter 30 616
§ 30.1. Amino acids 616
§ 30.2. Peptides 620
§ 30.3. Squirrels 622
Problems with solutions 627
Tasks for independent solution 629
Chapter 31 633
§ 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles 633
§ 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle 636
§ 31.3. The structure of nucleic acids 639
§ 31.4. The biological role of nucleic acids 646
Problems with solutions 648
Tasks for independent solution 651
Chapter 32 653
§ 32.1. General characteristics of polymers 653
§ 32.2. plastics 655
§ 32.3. fibers 658
§ 32.4. Rubbers 659
Problems with solutions 661
Tasks for independent solution 662
Answers to tasks 663
Subject index 683

To our parents
we dedicate this book

Foreword

Before you is a new, revised and supplemented edition. The book "Principles of Chemistry" was conceived as a manual on chemistry for applicants to universities and medical schools, but over the 15 years of its existence it has outgrown this framework and has really become an in-depth manual for everyone who loves chemistry. This book is used as a full-fledged chemistry textbook in educational institutions of various levels, as well as in preparation for Olympiads and for additional classes in chemistry.

This textbook owes such popularity not only to the high level of theoretical material and the successful selection of tasks. The authors put all their love for chemistry into the book, which was reflected primarily in the style of presentation, as well as in the simple and friendly approaches proposed in solving problems, and in the selection of interesting problems for independent solution.

We have tried to emphasize everywhere two very important ideas that future chemists should be imbued with: 1) there are no immutable truths in science; 2) “absolutely everything” (!) is possible in chemistry, even what previously seemed impossible (or even absurd). To illustrate the rapid development of chemical ideas, we have written several sections that are not quite usual for school literature, such as "Liquid Crystals" and "Noble Gases".

The course of chemistry is presented here in the traditional sequence. The first chapter introduces the basic concepts and laws of chemistry, which are considered in a historical aspect. Subsequent chapters 2-8 are devoted to theoretical chemistry (mostly physical chemistry). Chapters 9-18, which introduce inorganic chemistry, cover all the groups in the Periodic Table of the Elements. The last chapters 19-32 are devoted to organic chemistry.

Each chapter ends with two problem sections. In the first of them, detailed solutions of typical problems are given, in which general techniques and approaches are clearly demonstrated (there are more than 180 such solved problems in total). In the second section - tasks of different levels of complexity (from simple theoretical questions to complex multi-stage calculation problems) for independent work. These tasks have been used earlier in entrance exams and in Olympiads. Please note that the solution of any problem requires not only a solid assimilation of the theory, but also the creative application of the acquired knowledge.

The book has been living its own life for a long time, therefore, when preparing the next edition, we did not subject it to a radical revision, but limited ourselves to correcting inaccuracies, adjusting the style, and adding new material (Chapter 5), reflecting the latest achievements in chemistry.

Over the years, the authors have discussed various sections of the book together so often that each of us is responsible for all the material (we decided not to indicate specific areas of responsibility, information on this can be found in previous editions). Here we consider it our duty to emphasize that many of our colleagues, employees of Moscow University and the First Moscow Medical University named after I.M. Sechenov, helped us in the work on the book. Therefore, before you is the result of the joint work of the teams of these two universities.

We hope that the new edition will continue to arouse the keen interest of readers.

We wish you an interesting and useful reading!

December 2015

N. E. Kuzmenko
V. V. Eremin
V. A. Popkov

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1 The beginnings of chemistry. Modern course for university applicants. Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V., Popkov V.A. 7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Exam, Volume 1-384s.; Volume 2-384s. The book is an attempt at a modern, comprehensive and systematic presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry, which must be known in the first place for applicants to universities. Its content is based on a thorough analysis of programs entrance exams in chemistry from most universities (chemical, medical, biological, etc.), as well as specific examination tasks. The manual is intended for schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. The manual outlines the basics of modern chemistry, which should be understood by every graduate high school and it is absolutely necessary to know for everyone who sees himself as a student - a chemist, physician or biologist of the XXI century. The new edition reflects recent achievements chemistry and new tasks of entrance examinations are given. Volume 1. Format: pdf / zip Size: 10 Mb Download Letitbit.net Vip-file.com Shareflare.net Volume 2. Format: pdf / zip Size: 9 Mb Download Letitbit.net Vip-file.com Shareflare.net CONTENTS VOLUME 1.1/12

2 PREFACE Part I. THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge 1.2. Subject of chemistry 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules 1.4. The law of conservation of mass and energy 1.5. Periodic law. History of discovery 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry 1.7. Gas laws 1.8. Problems with solutions 1.9. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 2. The structure of the atom and the periodic law 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms 2.4. The nucleus of the atom and radioactive transformations 2.5. Periodic law 2.6. Problems with solutions 2.7. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 3. Chemical bond 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond 3.2. Covalent bond 2 / 12

3 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules 3.5. Ionic bond 3.6. Metal bond 3.7. Intermolecular interactions 3.8. Problems with solutions 3.9. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 4. States of matter 4.1. Characteristic properties gases, liquids and solids 4.2. Phase diagrams of substances 4.3. Gases 4.4. Liquids 4.5. Crystalline substances 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances 4.7. Liquid crystals 4.8. Problems with solutions 4.9. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 5. Physical and chemical laws of chemical reactions 5.1. Energy chemical transformations 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. State of chemical equilibrium 5.4. The importance of knowledge about the patterns of chemical reactions for the management of chemical and technological processes in production 5.5. Problems with solutions 3 / 12

4 5.6. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 6. Physico-chemical theory of solutions of electrolytes and non-electrolytes 6.1. The mechanism of formation of solutions and their classification 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process 6.3. Dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration (composition) of solutions 6.5. Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation 6.6. Ionic reaction equations 6.7. Hydrolysis of salts 6.8. Colloidal solutions 6.9. Tasks with solutions Tasks for independent solution Chapter 7. Classifications of chemical reactions 7.1. General consideration 7.2. Classification by number and composition starting materials and reaction products 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of transferred particles 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions 7.6. Problems with solutions 7.7. Tasks for independent solution Chapter 8. Theory of redox processes 8.1. Redox reactions 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents 4 / 12

5 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes 8.6. Problems with solutions 8.7. Tasks for independent solution Part II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Chapter 9. The most important classes of inorganic compounds 9.1. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides) 9.5. Acids 9.6. Salts 9.7. Problems with solutions 9.8. Problems for independent solution Chapter 10. Hydrogen is a unique chemical element General consideration Chemical properties of hydrogen Production of hydrogen and its application Water and hydrogen peroxide Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 11. Subgroup of halogens 5 / 12

6 11.1. General consideration Chemical properties of halogens Obtaining halogens Compounds of halogens Application of halogens and their compounds Tasks by solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 12. Elements of the oxygen subgroup General consideration Chemical properties of oxygen Chemical properties of sulfur Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides Sulfur oxide (IV). Sulfuric acid. Thiosulfate Sulfur oxide (VI). Sulfuric acid Tasks with solutions Tasks for independent solution Chapter 13. Nitrogen subgroup in phosphorus General characteristics Chemical properties of simple substances Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus

7 VOLUME 2. Chapter 14. Subgroup of carbon and silicon General consideration Chemical properties of carbon and silicon Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon Carbides and silicides Some remarks about the subgroup of germanium Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 15. Alkali and alkaline earth metals General consideration Chemical properties of metals Compounds of s-metals 15.4 Problems with solutions 15.5 Problems for independent solution Chapter 16. Main subgroup III of the group General consideration Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron Obtaining and using boron and aluminum Compounds of boron and aluminum and their properties Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 17. Main transition metals 7 / 12

8 17.1. General characteristics Chromium and its compounds Manganese and its compounds Iron and its compounds Copper and its compounds Zinc and its compounds Silver and its compounds Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 18. Noble gases General characteristics Chemical compounds of noble gases Application of noble gases Tasks for independent solution Part III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Chapter 19. General characteristics of organic compounds Subject of organic chemistry. Theory of structure Classification of organic compounds Nomenclature of organic compounds Isomerism of organic compounds Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity of organic compounds General characteristics of organic reactions 8 / 12

9 19.7. Industrial production of organic compounds Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 20. Saturated hydrocarbons Alkanes Cycloalkanes Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 21. Hydrocarbons with a double bond Alkenes Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons) Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 22. Hydrocarbons with a triple bond (alkynes) General consideration Preparation of alkynes Chemical properties of alkynes Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 23. Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) General consideration Preparation and chemical properties of arenes Orientation (substitution) rules in the benzene ring 9 / 12

10 23.4. Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 24. Hydroxyl compounds Monohydric alcohols Polyhydric alcohols Phenols Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 25. Carbonyl compounds General characteristics Preparation and chemical properties Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 26. Carboxylic acids General consideration Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids Individual representatives carboxylic acids Problems with solutions Problems for independent solution Chapter 27. Esters. Fats. Detergents Esters Fats and oils Soaps and detergents 10 / 12

11 Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 28. Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 29. Amines Saturated aliphatic amines Aniline the simplest aromatic amine Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 30. Amino acids, peptides and proteins Amino acids Peptides Proteins Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 31. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds Six-membered heterocycles Compounds with a five-membered cycle The structure of nucleic acids 11 / 12

12 31.4. The biological role of nucleic acids Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving Chapter 32. Synthetic macromolecular compounds (polymers) General characteristics of polymers Plastics Fibers Rubbers Problems with solutions Problems for self-solving ANSWERS TO PROBLEM INDEX 12 / 12


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VOLUME 1.

FOREWORD

Part I. THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry

§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge

§ 1.2. subject of chemistry

§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules

§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy

§ 1.5. Periodic law. Discovery history

§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry

§ 1.7. Gas laws

§ 1.8. Problems with solutions

§ 1.9. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 2

§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom

§ 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons

§ 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms

§ 2.4. The nucleus of the atom and radioactive transformations

§ 2.5. Periodic Law

§ 2.6. Problems with solutions

§ 2.7. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 3

§ 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond

§ 3.2. covalent bond

§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds

§ 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules

§ 3.5. Ionic bond

§ 3.6. metal connection

§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions

§ 3.8. Problems with solutions

§ 3.9. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 4

§ 4.1. Characteristic properties of gases, liquids and solids

§ 4.2. Phase diagrams of substances

§ 4.3. gases

§ 4.4. Liquids

§ 4.5. Crystalline substances

§ 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances

§ 4.7. liquid crystals

§ 4.8. Problems with solutions

§ 4.9. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 5

§ 5.1. Energy of chemical transformations

§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis

§ 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. State of chemical equilibrium

§ 5.4. The importance of knowledge about the patterns of chemical reactions for the management of chemical and technological processes in production

§ 5.5. Problems with solutions

§ 5.6. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 6

§ 6.1. The mechanism of formation of solutions and their classification

§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process

§ 6.3. The dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure

§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration (composition) of solutions

§ 6.5. Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation

§ 6.6. Ionic reaction equations

§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis

§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions

§ 6.9. Problems with solutions

§ 6.10. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 7. Classifications of chemical reactions

§ 7.1. General Consideration

§ 7.2. Classification according to the number and composition of starting substances and reaction products

§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states

§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried

§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions

§ 7.6. Problems with solutions

§ 7.7. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 8

§ 8.1. Redox reactions

§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents

§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions

§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR

§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes

§ 8.6. Problems with solutions

§ 8.7. Tasks for independent solution

Part II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Chapter 9

§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances

§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides

§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides

§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides)

§ 9.5. acids

§ 9.6. salt

§ 9.7. Problems with solutions

§ 9.8. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 10

§ 10.1. General Consideration

§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen

§ 10.3. Hydrogen production and its application

§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide

§ 10.5. Problems with solutions

§ 10.6. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 11

§ 11.1. General Consideration

§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens

§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens

§ 11.4. Halogen compounds

§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds

§ 11.6. Problems with solutions

§ 11.7. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 12

§ 12.1. General Consideration

§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen

§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur

§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides

§ 12.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate

§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid

§ 12.7. Problems with solutions

§ 12.8. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 13

§ 13.1. general characteristics

§ 13.2. Chemical properties of simple substances

§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides

§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus

§ 13.5. Meeting tasks

§ 13.6. Tasks for independent solution

VOLUME 2.

Chapter 14

§ 14.1. General Consideration

§ 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon

§ 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon

§ 14.4. Carbides and silicides

§ 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup

§ 14.6. Problems with solutions

§ 14.7. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 15

§ 15.1. General Consideration

§ 15.2. Chemical properties of metals

§ 15.3. s-metal compounds

§ 15.4 Problems with solutions

§ 15.5 Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 16

§ 16.1. General Consideration

§ 16.2. Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron

§ 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum

§ 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties

§ 16.5. Problems with solutions

§ 16.6. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 17

§ 17.1. general characteristics

§ 17.2. Chromium and its compounds

§ 17.3. Manganese and its compounds

§ 17.4. Iron and its compounds

§ 17.5. Copper and its compounds

§ 17.6. Zinc and its compounds

§ 17.7. Silver and its compounds

§ 17.8. Problems with solutions

§ 17.9. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 18

§ 18.1. general characteristics

§ 18.2. Chemical compounds of noble gases

§ 18.3. Application of noble gases

§ 18.4. Problems with solutions

§ 18.5. Tasks for independent solution

Part III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Chapter 19

§ 19.1. The subject of organic chemistry. Theory of structure

§ 19.2. Classification of organic compounds

§ 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds

§ 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds

§ 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity of organic compounds

§ 19.6. General characteristics of organic reactions

§ 19.7. Industrial production of organic compounds

§ 19.8. Problems with solutions

§ 19.9. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 20

§ 20.1. Alkanes

§ 20.2. Cycloalkanes

§ 20.3. Problems with solutions

§ 20.4. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 21

§ 21.1. Alkenes

§ 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons)

§ 21.3. Problems with solutions

§ 21.4. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 22

§ 22.1. General Consideration

§ 22.2. Obtaining alkynes

§ 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes

§ 22.4. Problems with solutions

§ 22.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 23

§ 23.1. General Consideration

§ 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes

§ 23.3. Orientation (substitution) rules in the benzene ring

§ 23.4. Problems with solutions

§ 23.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 24

§ 24.1. Monohydric alcohols

§ 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols

§ 24.3. Phenols

§ 24.4. Problems with solutions

§ 24.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 25

§ 25.1. general characteristics

§ 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties

§ 25.3. Problems with solutions

§ 25.4. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 26

§ 26.1. General Consideration

§ 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids

§ 26.3. Individual representatives of carboxylic acids

§ 26.4. Problems with solutions

§ 26.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 27 Fats. Detergents

§ 27.1. Esters

§ 27.2. Fats and oils

§ 27.3. Soaps and detergents

§.27.4. Problems with solutions

§ 27.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 28

§ 28.1. Monosaccharides

§ 28.2. disaccharides

§ 28.3. Polysaccharides

§ 28.4. Problems with solutions

§.28.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 29

§ 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines

§ 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine

§ 29.3. Problems with solutions

§ 29.4. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 30

§ 30.1. Amino acids

§ 30.2. Peptides

§ 30.3. Squirrels

§ 30.4. Problems with solutions

§ 30.5. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 31

§ 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles

§ 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle

§ 31.3. The structure of nucleic acids

§ 31.4. The biological role of nucleic acids

§ 31.5. Problems with solutions

§ 31.6. Tasks for independent solution

Chapter 32

§ 32.1. General characteristics of polymers

§ 32.2. plastics

§ 32.3. fibers

§ 32.4. Rubbers

§ 32.5. Problems with solutions

§ 32.6. Tasks for independent solution

ANSWERS TO TASKS

SUBJECT INDEX

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