Endless expanses Russia has always been inhabited by many peoples. Warlike and rebellious, it was hard for them to get along side by side. By conquering each other's lands, they honed their fighting qualities.

Russians

The harsh climate, vast territories and an endless series of conquerors forged from the Russians great power will and perseverance in achieving victories.

“The Russians often went on the attack on our machine guns and artillery, even when their attack was doomed to failure. They did not pay attention to either the strength of our fire or their losses, ”recalled the German general of the First World War, Anton von Pozek.

A quarter of a century later, another German general, Gunther Blumentritt, added to his compatriot: “The Russian soldier prefers hand-to-hand combat. His ability to endure hardship without flinching is truly astonishing. Such is the Russian soldier whom we recognized and respected.”

"Suvorov crossing the Alps", Vasily Surikov, 1899

The writer Nikolai Shefov in his book "Battles of Russia" gives statistics of wars from the 18th to the 20th century in which Russia participated. According to the author, for 250 years the Russian regular army out of 34 wars she won 31, out of 392 battles she won in 279. In the overwhelming majority of battles, Russian troops were inferior to their opponents in numbers.

Varangians

The Varangians were not a single people. However, these ethnically diverse groups that inhabited, among other things, the northern lands of Ancient Russia, were distinguished by their solidarity and warlike disposition. With them it was possible either to fight or to negotiate.

Europe did not succeed in either. Along the rivers, the Vikings penetrated deep into the continent, devastating Cologne, Trier, Bordeaux, Paris.

“Deliver us from the ferocity of the Normans, O Lord!” – came from many churches Western Europe.

Along the Dnieper, the Varangians reached the Black Sea, from where they made their devastating campaigns against Constantinople.

Oleg's farewell to the horse. Viktor Vasnetsov, 1899

The developed technique of iron processing allowed the Vikings to create high-quality weapons and armor, which had practically no analogues. Historian Alexander Khlevov notes that neither Europe nor Asia at that time could create military formations equal in combat capability to the Vikings.

Byzantine emperors and Russian princes preferred to have the Varangians as mercenaries. When prince of novgorod Vladimir Svyatoslavich with the help of the Varangian squad in 979 captured Kyiv throne, he tried to get rid of his wayward comrades-in-arms, but in response he heard: “This is our city, we captured it, we want to take a ransom from the townspeople for two hryvnias per person.”

Baltic Germans

In the XII century, following the Hanseatic merchants on east coast The crusaders came to the Baltic. The main goal of the expansion is the conquest and baptism of pagan peoples. In 1224, the Germans captured Yuryev, founded by Yaroslav the Wise, and soon created by them Livonian Order for a long time to become one of the main threats to western frontiers Russia.

Descendants of the Livonian captives of Ivan the Terrible early XVII centuries are actively involved in the formation of "regiments of a foreign system."

AT late XVIII century, along with the Baltic nobles, Prussian discipline, well-trainedness and combat training brought to automatism came to the Russian army - what inspired Paul I to military reforms.

Many of Baltic Germans in the Russian military service they reach career heights. For example, a native of an old Estonian family, Karl von Toll. This talented staff general owns the plan for the war with Napoleon, it was he who developed the operational plan for the battle of Borodino. Later, Tol led successful operations during Russian-Turkish war 1828 -1829 years.

Another famous Ostsee was Barclay de Tolly. The “scorched earth tactics”, which was used by the general during the war with Napoleon, provoked protest from the Russian landed nobility, but it was she who largely predetermined the outcome of the military campaign.

Before the Russo-Japanese War, the proportion of generals German descent in the generals of the Russian army was 21.6%. On April 15, 1914 among 169 " full generals"There were 48 Germans (28.4%), among 371 lieutenant generals - 73 Germans (19.7%), among 1034 major generals - 196 Germans (19%).

A large percentage of officers of German origin were in the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, in which, according to tradition, mainly Baltic (Ostsee) Germans were recruited.

Other famous Baltic Germans in the Russian army and navy were P.K. Rennenkampf, E.K. Miller, Admiral von Essen, Baron A. Budberg, General N.E. Bredov.

Alone in a row Baltic Germans stands a baron. Exceptionally decisive, neglecting dangers, even on the fronts of the First World War, he earned himself the glory of a hero. During the Civil War, the army under the command of General Ungern became one of the main threats to Soviet Russia. The name of Baron Ungern is especially memorable in Mongolia: largely thanks to the general's talent as a general, this country was able to defend its independence from China.

gentry

The gentry of the Commonwealth more than once caused problems for the Russian state, not only encroaching on the territory of the eastern neighbor, but also owning Moscow. The English historian Norman Davis characterizes the “honor nobles” as follows: “They did not engage in any craft or trade, but could only enter the military service or manage an estate.

The gentry was originally a military knighthood. the lion's share way of life the gentry was occupied with hunting, fencing, horse racing and shooting. In the collegiums of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, military sports games were practiced, for example, fights on the “fingers”, which imitated saber fights.

“This combat beginning was a projection of gentry fights, duels - games with death in real life”, – notes the historian Igor Uglik.

A lot of noise in Europe was made by the "winged hussars" - the elite cavalry of the Commonwealth, which repeatedly defeated Russians, Swedes, Turks and Germans. The success of the hussar was brought by her favorite tactics: the increasing pace of the attack and the compacted front of the banner, which made it possible to inflict maximum damage on the enemy in a collision.

Since the 16th century, the gentry began to replenish the ranks of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, bringing to it a knightly gloss and military democracy. For the impoverished or delinquent part of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry, the Cossacks were perceived as a restoration of honor - "either fall with glory, or return with military booty."

Over the centuries, the Circassians created a special military culture - "Work Khabze", which distinguished them from their neighbors. An integral feature of this culture was a respectful attitude towards the enemy.

The Circassians did not burn houses, did not trample fields, did not break vineyards. The care of the Circassians for the wounded or fallen comrades also deserves admiration. Despite the danger, they rushed to the dead in the midst of the battle, only to carry out his body.

Adhering to the knightly code of honor, the Circassians have always waged open war. They preferred death in battle to surrender. “One thing I can praise in the Circassians,” the governor of Astrakhan wrote to Peter I, “is that they are all such warriors as are not found in these countries, because if there are a thousand Tatars or Kumyks, there are quite two hundred Circassians here.”

Vainakhi

There is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Vainakh peoples laid the foundations of the Sarmatian and Alan ethnic groups. The Vainakhs are known to us primarily as well as the Ingush, who left no less bright mark on history than their formidable ancestors.

During the invasion of the hordes, first by Genghis Khan, and then by Timur, the Vainakhs who retreated to the mountains managed to offer them heroic resistance.

During this period, the Vainakhs perfected their defensive architecture: towering today in the mountains of the Caucasus watchtowers and fortresses - the best of that the confirmation.

Interesting description Vainakh is found in the diary of a Russian soldier who was captured by the highlanders during the Caucasian War: “This is truly a beast, perfectly equipped with all kinds of military weapons, sharp claws, powerful teeth, jumping like rubber, evasive like rubber, rushing away with lightning speed, with lightning speed overtaking and smashing."

Ossetians

In the motley ethnic pedigree of the Ossetians, the militant Iranian-speaking tribes of the North Caucasus clearly emerge: the Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans. Unlike other Caucasian peoples, Ossetians establish relations with Russia quite early. Already in mid-sixteenth In the 2nd century, the head of the Ossetian embassy in St. Petersburg, Zurab Magkaev, declares his readiness to field an army of 30 thousand people to participate in military operations against Iran and Turkey.

Loyalty, courage and valor are the features that most accurately characterize the Ossetian warriors:

“Ossetians are especially fearless and hardened like Spartans. Negotiating with them is a political necessity,”

- writes the Russian playwright Mikhail Vladykin in his notes. General Skobelev noted that if the Ossetians are the last, then only when retreating.

Tatars

Tatar cavalry since the first aggressive campaigns Genghis Khan was a formidable force.

On the battlefield, Tatar archers used the tactics of maneuvering and bombarding the enemy with arrows brought to perfection. Military art The Tatars were also famous for intelligence, thanks to which small detachments could set up ambushes and make lightning attacks.

In the middle of the 15th century, the Moscow tsars had an idea to subordinate the Tatar militancy to their own interests.

Thus, Tatar enclaves arose on the territory of the Russian state, whose members were obliged to bear military service in exchange for the inviolability of the territory and religion.

To solve political problems, the Tatar troops actively used Vasily II and Ivan III. Ivan the Terrible relied on the Tatars during the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, in the Livonian War and in the oprichnina.

Nogais

The Golden Horde beklarbek Nogai gave rise to an ethnonym with which one of the most formidable and warlike peoples of Eurasia is associated. Already under its founder, the Nogai Horde extended its influence to huge territories from the Don to the Danube, the possessions of Byzantium, Serbia, Bulgaria and many southeastern lands of Russia recognized vassal dependence on it.

The Nogais, who by the middle of the 16th century could field a 300,000-strong army, were a force with which few dared to compete. Moscow tsars preferred to build good neighborly relations with the Horde. In exchange for economic aid the Nogais carried out cordon service in the south of Russia, and their cavalry regiments helped the Russian troops in the Livonian War.

Kalmyks

An integral part of a Kalmyk's life was his physical training. So, national wrestling"nooldan" trained young people for strength, endurance and unbending will to win.

During the Tsagan Sar holiday, Kalmyk youths met with each other in a real "cabinhouse", however, using whips instead of sabers. Such amusements subsequently made the Kalmyk warriors unsurpassed "swordsmen".

Special place Kalmyks took the ability to control negative emotions, which allowed them to accumulate physical and moral strength.

During the battle he entered special condition spirit, in which he felt neither pain nor fatigue, and his strength seemed to increase tenfold.

Since the 17th century, the Kalmyks have been demonstrating their martial arts, defending the borders of the Russian kingdom: irregular cavalry Kalmyk Khanate took part in many wars waged by Russia throughout the 18th century.

Mansi

The Voguls (or Mansi), who have chosen the harsh northern region, have mastered the art of survival to perfection. Excellent hunters and fearless warriors, they made their neighbors reckon with them: Siberian Tatars, Nenets and Zyryans.

The squad of the Mansi Khan was a detachment of professional warriors - "skewed otyrs." The key to their success was covert movement and inconspicuous tracking down of the enemy.

At various times, the hordes of Batu and detachments of Novgorodians tried to penetrate the lands of the Voguls - all to no avail. Only after suffering a painful defeat from the Cossacks of Yermak, the Mansi retreated further to the North.

Tuvans

This small pastoral people during the Great Patriotic War demonstrated miracles of stamina and courage. It is no coincidence that the Germans called the Tuvans - "black death". Out of the 80,000 population of Tuva, 8,000 people fought in the ranks of the Red Army.

The Tuvinian cavalry that fought in Galicia and Volyn, without exaggeration, made an indelible impression on the German troops.

A captured Wehrmacht officer admitted during interrogation that his subordinates "subconsciously perceived these barbarians as Attila's hordes and lost all combat capability."

It should be noted that Tuvan cavalrymen were bellicose by their appearance: on small shaggy horses, dressed in national costumes with outlandish amulets, they fearlessly rushed to the German units. The horror of the Germans was intensified by the fact that the Tuvans, committed to their own ideas about military rules, did not take the enemy prisoner in principle, and with a clear superiority of the enemy, they fought to the death.

The harsh climate, vast territories and an endless series of conquerors forged in the Russians tremendous willpower and perseverance in achieving victories.

“The Russians often went on the attack on our machine guns and artillery, even when their attack was doomed to failure. They did not pay attention to either the strength of our fire or their losses, ”recalled the German general of the First World War, Anton von Posek.

A quarter of a century later, another German general, Günter Blumentritt, added to his compatriot: “The Russian soldier prefers hand-to-hand combat. His ability to endure hardship without flinching is truly astonishing. Such is the Russian soldier whom we recognized and respected.”

"Suvorov crossing the Alps", Vasily Surikov, 1899

The writer Nikolai Shefov in his book "Battles of Russia" gives statistics of wars from the 18th to the 20th century in which Russia participated. According to the author, over 250 years, the Russian regular army won 31 of 34 wars, won 279 of 392 battles. In the vast majority of battles, Russian troops were outnumbered by their opponents.

Varangians

The Varangians were not a single people. However, these ethnically diverse groups that inhabited, among other things, the northern lands of Ancient Russia, were distinguished by their unity and warlike disposition. With them it was possible either to fight or to negotiate.

Europe did not succeed in either. Along the rivers, the Vikings penetrated deep into the continent, devastating Cologne, Trier, Bordeaux, Paris.

"Deliver us from the ferocity of the Normans, O Lord!" - came from many churches in Western Europe.

Along the Dnieper, the Vikings reached the Black Sea, from where they made their devastating campaigns against Constantinople.

Oleg's farewell to the horse. Viktor Vasnetsov, 1899

The developed technique of iron processing allowed the Varangians to create high-quality weapons and armor, which had practically no analogues. Historian Alexander Khlevov notes that neither Europe nor Asia at that time could create military formations equal in combat capability to the Vikings.

Byzantine emperors and Russian princes preferred to have the Varangians as mercenaries. When the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, with the help of the Varangian squad, seized the throne of Kyiv in 979, he tried to get rid of his wayward comrades-in-arms, but in response he heard: “This is our city, we captured it, we want to take a ransom from the townspeople for two hryvnias per person.”

Baltic Germans

In the XII century, following the Hanseatic merchants, the crusaders came to the eastern coast of the Baltic. The main goal of expansion is the conquest and baptism of pagan peoples. In 1224, the Germans captured Yuriev, founded by Yaroslav the Wise, and the Livonian Order, which they soon created, would become one of the main threats to the western borders of Russia for a long time.

Since the beginning of the 17th century, the descendants of the Livonian captives of Ivan the Terrible have been actively involved in the formation of "foreign regiments".

At the end of the 18th century, along with the Baltic nobles, Prussian discipline, well-trainedness and combat training brought to automaticity came to the Russian army - that inspired Paul I to military reforms.

Many of the Baltic Germans in the Russian military service reach career heights. For example, a native of an old Estonian family, Karl von Tol. This talented staff general owns the plan for the war with Napoleon, it was he who developed the operational plan for the battle of Borodino. Later, Tol led successful operations during the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829.

Another famous Ostsee was Barclay de Tolly. The “scorched earth tactics”, which was used by the general during the war with Napoleon, provoked protest from the Russian landed nobility, but it was she who largely predetermined the outcome of the military campaign.

Before the Russo-Japanese War, the share of generals of German origin in the generals of the Russian army was 21.6%. On April 15, 1914, among 169 "full generals" there were 48 Germans (28.4%), among 371 lieutenant generals - 73 Germans (19.7%), among 1034 major generals - 196 Germans (19%).

A large percentage of officers of German origin were in the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, in which, according to tradition, mainly Baltic (Ostsee) Germans were recruited.

Other famous Baltic Germans in the Russian army and navy were P.K. Rennenkampf, E.K. Miller, Admiral von Essen, Baron A. Budberg, General N.E. Bredov.

Baron Ungern von Sternberg stands apart among the Baltic Germans. Exceptionally decisive, neglecting dangers, even on the fronts of the First World War, he earned himself the glory of a hero. During the Civil War, the army under the command of General Ungern became one of the main threats to Soviet Russia. The name of Baron Ungern is especially memorable in Mongolia: largely thanks to the general's talent as a general, this country was able to defend its independence from China.

gentry

The gentry of the Commonwealth more than once caused problems for the Russian state, not only encroaching on the territory of the eastern neighbor, but also owning the Moscow throne. The English historian Norman Davies characterizes the "honor gentry" as follows: "They did not engage in any trade or trade, but could only enter the military service or manage the estate."

The gentry was originally a military knighthood. The lion's share of the gentry's way of life was occupied by hunting, fencing, horse racing and shooting. In the collegiums of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, military sports games were practiced, for example, fights on the “fingers”, which imitated saber fights.

“This combat beginning was a projection of gentry fights, duels - games with death in real life,” notes historian Igor Uglik.

A lot of noise in Europe was made by the "winged hussars" - the elite cavalry of the Commonwealth, which repeatedly defeated Russians, Swedes, Turks and Germans. The success of the hussar was brought by her favorite tactics: the increasing pace of the attack and the compacted front of the banner, which made it possible to inflict maximum damage on the enemy in a collision.

FROM In the 16th century, the gentry began to replenish the ranks of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, bringing to it a knightly gloss and military democracy. For the impoverished or guilty part of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry, the Cossacks were perceived as a restoration of honor - "either fall with glory, or return with military booty."

After the Pereyaslav Rada, a part of the so-called Russian gentry from the Left-Bank Ukraine voluntarily swears allegiance to the Moscow Tsar. The gentry more than once had the opportunity to prove themselves in military affairs. So, in 1676, when the Bashkirs and Kirghiz besieged the Menzepa fortress, the gentry fought bravely and held the city for a long time, until reinforcements arrived.

Cossacks

This free people was often at the forefront of those who raised uprisings and riots, he was also in the ranks of the pioneers who conquered new lands for the empire.

The exceptional military qualities of the Cossacks are the result of multi-stage combat training. For example, a long process of training a Cossack-plastun made it possible to develop different skills: “crunching shot” - the ability to hit any target in poor visibility, “wolf mouth” - the ability to carry out a lightning-fast striking attack, or “fox tail” - the art of covering one’s tracks when returning from tasks.

A feat is woven into the annals of the Cossacks like a bright page Don Cossack Kozma Kryuchkov - St. George's order bearer of the First World War. In August 1914, a small detachment of Cossacks attacked a pair of German cavalry patrols. “I was surrounded by eleven people. Not wanting to be alive, I decided to sell my life dearly, ”the hero recalled. Despite the 16 stab wounds that the Cossack received, not one of the 11 Germans survived that day.

Circassians

Already the self-name of the Circassian - "Adyg" - means "warrior". The whole way of life of the Circassians was permeated with military life. As the writer A. S. Marzey notes, “such a state of their life in constant readiness for defense and battle, the choice of a less vulnerable place for settlements and temporary camps, mobility in collections and movement, moderation and unpretentiousness in food, developed sense solidarity and duty, led, of course, to militarization.

Along with other Zakubans, the Circassians offered the most fierce resistance to the Russian army during the Caucasian wars. Only a century later, at the cost of more than a million lives of soldiers, Russia was able to subdue this proud and warlike people. The most powerful tribe of western Circassia, the Abadzekhs, also comes to terms with the capture of Shamil.

Over the centuries, the Circassians created a special military culture - "Work Khabze", which distinguished them from their neighbors. An integral feature of this culture was a respectful attitude towards the enemy.

The Circassians did not burn houses, did not trample fields, did not break vineyards. The care of the Circassians for the wounded or fallen comrades also deserves admiration. Despite the danger, they rushed to the dead in the midst of the battle, only to carry out his body.

Adhering to the knightly code of honor, the Circassians have always waged open war. They preferred death in battle to surrender. “One thing I can praise in the Circassians,” the Astrakhan governor wrote to Peter I, “that all of them are such warriors as are not found in these countries, because if there are a thousand Tatars or Kumyks, there are quite two hundred Circassians here.”

Vainakhi

There is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Vainakh peoples laid the foundations of the Sarmatian and Alan ethnic groups. The Vainakhs are known to us primarily as Chechens and Ingush, who left no less bright mark on history than their formidable ancestors.

During the invasion of the hordes, first by Genghis Khan, and then by Timur, the Vainakhs who retreated to the mountains managed to offer them heroic resistance.

During this period, the Vainakhs perfected their defensive architecture: the watchtowers and fortresses towering today in the mountains of the Caucasus are the best confirmation of this.

An interesting description of the Vainakh is found in the diary of a Russian soldier who was captured by the highlanders during the Caucasian War: “This is truly a beast, perfectly equipped with all kinds of military weapons, sharp claws, powerful teeth, jumping like rubber, evasive like rubber, rushing away with lightning speed, with swiftness of lightning overtaking and smashing.

Ossetians

In the motley ethnic pedigree of the Ossetians, the militant Iranian-speaking tribes of the North Caucasus clearly emerge: the Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans. Unlike other Caucasian peoples, Ossetians establish relations with Russia quite early. Already in mid-eighteenth century, the head of the Ossetian embassy in St. Petersburg, Zurab Magkaev, declares his readiness to field an army of 30 thousand people to participate in military operations against Iran and Turkey.

Loyalty, courage and valor are the features that most accurately characterize the Ossetian warriors:

“Ossetians are especially fearless and hardened like Spartans. Negotiating with them is a political necessity,”

The Russian playwright Mikhail Vladykin writes in his notes. General Skobelev noted that if the Ossetians are the last, then only when retreating.

Tatars

From the time of the first conquests of Genghis Khan, the Tatar cavalry has been a formidable force.

On the battlefield, Tatar archers used the tactics of maneuvering and bombarding the enemy with arrows brought to perfection. The military art of the Tatars was also famous for intelligence, thanks to which small detachments could set up ambushes and make lightning attacks.

In the middle of the 15th century, the Moscow tsars had an idea to subordinate the Tatar militancy to their own interests.

Thus, Tatar enclaves appeared on the territory of the Russian state, whose members were obliged to carry out military service in exchange for the inviolability of the territory and religion.

To solve political problems, the Tatar troops actively used Vasily II and Ivan III. Ivan the Terrible relied on the Tatars during the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, in the Livonian War and in the oprichnina.

Nogais

The Golden Horde beklarbek Nogai gave rise to an ethnonym with which one of the most formidable and warlike peoples of Eurasia is associated. Already under its founder, the Nogai Horde spread its influence over vast territories from the Don to the Danube, the vassal dependence on it was recognized by the possessions of Byzantium, Serbia, Bulgaria and many southeastern lands of Russia.

The Nogais, who by the middle of the 16th century could field a 300,000-strong army, were a force with which few dared to compete. Moscow tsars preferred to build good neighborly relations with the Horde. In return for economic assistance, the Nogais carried out cordon service in the south of Russia, and their cavalry regiments helped the Russian troops in the Livonian War.

Kalmyks

An integral part of a Kalmyk's life was his physical training. Thus, the national wrestling "nooldan" trained young people for strength, endurance and unbending will to win.

During the Tsagan Sar holiday, Kalmyk youths met with each other in a real "cabinhouse", however, using whips instead of sabers. Such amusements subsequently made the Kalmyk warriors unsurpassed "swordsmen".

A special place among the Kalmyks was occupied by the ability to control negative emotions, which allowed them to accumulate physical and moral strength.

During the battle, the Kalmyk warrior entered a special state of mind, in which he felt neither pain nor fatigue, and his strength seemed to increase tenfold.

FROM In the 17th century, the Kalmyks demonstrate their martial arts, defending the borders of the Russian kingdom: the irregular cavalry of the Kalmyk Khanate took part in many wars waged by Russia throughout the 18th century.

Mansi

The Voguls (or Mansi), who have chosen the harsh northern region, have mastered the art of survival to perfection. Excellent hunters and fearless warriors, they forced their neighbors to reckon with them: Siberian Tatars, Nenets and Zyryans.

The squad of the Mansi Khan was a detachment of professional warriors - "skewed otyrs." The key to their success was covert movement and inconspicuous tracking down of the enemy.

At various times, the hordes of Batu and detachments of Novgorodians tried to penetrate the lands of the Voguls - all to no avail. Only after suffering a painful defeat from the Cossacks of Yermak, the Mansi retreated further to the North.

Tuvans

This small pastoral people during the Great Patriotic War demonstrated miracles of stamina and courage. It is no coincidence that the Germans called the Tuvans Der Schwarze Tod - "black death". Out of the 80,000 population of Tuva, 8,000 people fought in the ranks of the Red Army.

The Tuvinian cavalry that fought in Galicia and Volyn, without exaggeration, made an indelible impression on the German troops.

A captured Wehrmacht officer admitted during interrogation that his subordinates "subconsciously perceived these barbarians as Attila's hordes and lost all combat capability."

It should be noted that Tuvan cavalrymen were bellicose by their appearance: on small shaggy horses, dressed in national costumes with outlandish amulets, they fearlessly rushed to the German units. The horror of the Germans was intensified by the fact that the Tuvans, committed to their own ideas about military rules, did not take the enemy prisoner in principle, and with a clear superiority of the enemy, they fought to the death.

Tuvins, Mansi, Kalmyks and others are the most warlike peoples in the history of Russia according to the "Russian Seven".

Russians

The harsh climate, vast territories and an endless series of conquerors forged in the Russians tremendous willpower and perseverance in achieving victories.

“The Russians often went on the attack on our machine guns and artillery, even when their attack was doomed to failure. They did not pay attention to either the strength of our fire or their losses, ”recalled the German general of the First World War, Anton von Posek.

A quarter of a century later, another German general, Gunther Blumentritt, added to his compatriot: “The Russian soldier prefers hand-to-hand combat. His ability to endure hardship without flinching is truly astonishing. Such is the Russian soldier whom we recognized and respected.”

"Suvorov crossing the Alps", Vasily Surikov, 1899

The writer Nikolai Shefov in his book "Battles of Russia" gives statistics of wars from the 18th to the 20th century in which Russia participated. According to the author, over 250 years, the Russian regular army won 31 of 34 wars, won 279 of 392 battles. In the vast majority of battles, Russian troops were outnumbered by their opponents.

Varangians

The Varangians were not a single people. However, these ethnically diverse groups that inhabited, among other things, the northern lands of Ancient Russia, were distinguished by their solidarity and warlike disposition. With them it was possible either to fight or to negotiate.

Europe did not succeed in either. Along the rivers, the Vikings penetrated deep into the continent, devastating Cologne, Trier, Bordeaux, Paris.

"Deliver us from the ferocity of the Normans, O Lord!" - came from many churches in Western Europe.

Along the Dnieper, the Varangians reached the Black Sea, from where they made their devastating campaigns against Constantinople.

Oleg's farewell to the horse. Viktor Vasnetsov, 1899

The developed technique of iron processing allowed the Vikings to create high-quality weapons and armor, which had practically no analogues. Historian Alexander Khlevov notes that neither Europe nor Asia at that time could create military formations equal in combat capability to the Vikings.

Byzantine emperors and Russian princes preferred to have the Varangians as mercenaries. When the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, with the help of the Varangian squad, seized the throne of Kyiv in 979, he tried to get rid of his wayward comrades-in-arms, but in response he heard: “This is our city, we captured it, we want to take a ransom from the townspeople for two hryvnias per person.”

Baltic Germans

In the XII century, following the Hanseatic merchants, the crusaders came to the eastern coast of the Baltic. The main goal of expansion is the conquest and baptism of pagan peoples. In 1224, the Germans captured Yuriev, founded by Yaroslav the Wise, and the Livonian Order, which they soon created, would become one of the main threats to the western borders of Russia for a long time.

Since the beginning of the 17th century, the descendants of the Livonian captives of Ivan the Terrible have been actively involved in the formation of "foreign regiments".

At the end of the 18th century, along with the Baltic nobles, Prussian discipline, well-trainedness and combat training brought to automaticity came to the Russian army - that inspired Paul I to military reforms.

Many of the Baltic Germans in the Russian military service reach career heights. For example, a native of an old Estonian family, Karl von Toll. This talented staff general owns the plan for the war with Napoleon, it was he who developed the operational plan for the battle of Borodino. Later, Tol led successful operations during the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829.

Another famous Ostsee was Barclay de Tolly. The “scorched earth tactics”, which was used by the general during the war with Napoleon, provoked protest from the Russian landed nobility, but it was she who largely predetermined the outcome of the military campaign.

Before the Russo-Japanese War, the share of generals of German origin in the generals of the Russian army was 21.6%. On April 15, 1914, among 169 "full generals" there were 48 Germans (28.4%), among 371 lieutenant generals - 73 Germans (19.7%), among 1034 major generals - 196 Germans (19%).

A large percentage of officers of German origin were in the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, in which, according to tradition, mainly Baltic (Ostsee) Germans were recruited.

Other famous Baltic Germans in the Russian army and navy were P.K. Rennenkampf, E.K. Miller, Admiral von Essen, Baron A. Budberg, General N.E. Bredov.

Baron Roman Ungern von Sternberg.

Baron Ungern von Sternberg stands apart among the Baltic Germans. Exceptionally decisive, neglecting dangers, even on the fronts of the First World War, he earned himself the glory of a hero.

During the Civil War, the army under the command of General Ungern became one of the main threats to Soviet Russia. The name of Baron Ungern is especially memorable in Mongolia: largely thanks to the general's talent as a general, this country was able to defend its independence from China.

gentry

The gentry of the Commonwealth more than once caused problems for the Russian state, not only encroaching on the territory of the eastern neighbor, but also owning the Moscow throne. The English historian Norman Davies characterizes the "honor gentry" as follows: "They did not engage in any trade or trade, but could only enter the military service or manage the estate."

The gentry was originally a military knighthood. The lion's share of the gentry's way of life was occupied by hunting, fencing, horse racing and shooting. In the collegiums of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, military sports games were practiced, for example, fights on the “fingers”, which imitated saber fights.

“This combat beginning was a projection of gentry fights, duels - games with death in real life,” notes historian Igor Uglik.

A lot of noise in Europe was made by the "winged hussars" - the elite cavalry of the Commonwealth, which repeatedly defeated Russians, Swedes, Turks and Germans. The success of the hussar was brought by her favorite tactics: the increasing pace of the attack and the compacted front of the banner, which made it possible to inflict maximum damage on the enemy in a collision.

Since the 16th century, the gentry began to replenish the ranks of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, bringing to it a knightly gloss and military democracy. For the impoverished or guilty part of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry, the Cossacks were perceived as a restoration of honor - "either fall with glory, or return with military booty."

After Pereyaslav Rada part of the so-called Russian gentry from the Left-Bank Ukraine voluntarily swear allegiance to the Moscow Tsar. The gentry more than once had the opportunity to prove themselves in military affairs. So, in 1676, when the Bashkirs and Kirghiz besieged the Menzepa fortress, the gentry fought bravely and held the city for a long time, until reinforcements arrived.

Cossacks

This free people was often at the forefront of those who raised uprisings and riots, he was also in the ranks of the pioneers who conquered new lands for the empire.

The exceptional military qualities of the Cossacks are the result of multi-stage combat training. For example, a long process of training a Cossack-plastun made it possible to develop different skills: “crunching shot” - the ability to hit any target in poor visibility, “wolf mouth” - the ability to carry out a lightning-fast striking attack, or “fox tail” - the art of covering one’s tracks when returning from tasks.

A bright page in the annals of the Cossacks is the feat of the Don Cossack Kozma Kryuchkov, the St. In August 1914, a small detachment of Cossacks attacked a pair of German cavalry patrols. “I was surrounded by eleven people. Not wanting to be alive, I decided to sell my life dearly, ”the hero recalled. Despite the 16 stab wounds that the Cossack received, not one of the 11 Germans survived that day.

Circassians

Already the self-name of the Circassian - "Adyg" - means "warrior". The whole way of life of the Circassians was permeated with military life. As the writer A. S. Marzey notes, “their state of life is in constant readiness for defense and battle, the choice of a less vulnerable place for settlements and temporary camps, mobility in collections and movement, moderation and unpretentiousness in food, a developed sense of solidarity and duty, led, of course, to militarization.

Along with other Zakubans, the Circassians offered the most fierce resistance to the Russian army during the Caucasian wars. Only a century later, at the cost of more than a million lives of soldiers, Russia was able to subdue this proud and warlike people. The most powerful tribe of western Circassia, the Abadzekhs, also comes to terms with the capture of Shamil.

Over the centuries, the Circassians created a special military culture - "Work Khabze", which distinguished them from their neighbors. An integral feature of this culture was a respectful attitude towards the enemy.

The Circassians did not burn houses, did not trample fields, did not break vineyards. The care of the Circassians for the wounded or fallen comrades also deserves admiration. Despite the danger, they rushed to the dead in the midst of the battle, only to carry out his body.

Adhering to the knightly code of honor, the Circassians have always waged open war. They preferred death in battle to surrender. “One thing I can praise in the Circassians,” the Astrakhan governor wrote to Peter I, “that all of them are such warriors as are not found in these countries, because if there are a thousand Tatars or Kumyks, there are quite two hundred Circassians here.”

Vainakhi

There is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Vainakh peoples laid the foundations of the Sarmatian and Alan ethnic groups. The Vainakhs are known to us primarily as Chechens and Ingush, who left no less bright mark on history than their formidable ancestors.

During the invasion of the hordes, first by Genghis Khan, and then by Timur, the Vainakhs who retreated to the mountains managed to offer them heroic resistance.

During this period, the Vainakhs perfected their defensive architecture: the watchtowers and fortresses towering today in the mountains of the Caucasus are the best confirmation of this.

An interesting description of the Vainakh is found in the diary of a Russian soldier who was captured by the highlanders during the Caucasian War: “This is truly a beast, perfectly equipped with all kinds of military weapons, sharp claws, powerful teeth, jumping like rubber, evasive like rubber, rushing away with lightning speed, with swiftness of lightning overtaking and smashing.

Ossetians

In the motley ethnic pedigree of the Ossetians, the militant Iranian-speaking tribes of the North Caucasus clearly emerge: the Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans. Unlike other Caucasian peoples, Ossetians establish relations with Russia quite early. Already in the middle of the 18th century, the head of the Ossetian embassy in St. Petersburg, Zurab Magkaev, announced his readiness to field an army of 30 thousand people to participate in military operations against Iran and Turkey.

Loyalty, courage and valor are the features that most accurately characterize the Ossetian warriors:

“Ossetians are especially fearless and hardened like Spartans. Negotiating with them is a political necessity,”

The Russian playwright Mikhail Vladykin writes in his notes. General Skobelev noted that if the Ossetians are the last, then only when retreating.

Tatars

From the time of the first conquests of Genghis Khan, the Tatar cavalry has been a formidable force.

On the battlefield, Tatar archers used the tactics of maneuvering and bombarding the enemy with arrows brought to perfection. The military art of the Tatars was also famous for intelligence, thanks to which small detachments could set up ambushes and make lightning attacks.

In the middle of the 15th century, the Moscow tsars had an idea to subordinate the Tatar militancy to their own interests.

Thus, Tatar enclaves appeared on the territory of the Russian state, whose members were obliged to carry out military service in exchange for the inviolability of the territory and religion.

To solve political problems, the Tatar troops actively used Vasily II and Ivan III. Ivan the Terrible relied on the Tatars during the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, in the Livonian War and in the oprichnina.

Nogais

The Golden Horde beklarbek Nogai gave rise to an ethnonym with which one of the most formidable and warlike peoples of Eurasia is associated. Already under its founder, the Nogai Horde spread its influence over vast territories from the Don to the Danube, the vassal dependence on it was recognized by the possessions of Byzantium, Serbia, Bulgaria and many southeastern lands of Russia.

The Nogais, who by the middle of the 16th century could field a 300,000-strong army, were a force with which few dared to compete. Moscow tsars preferred to build good neighborly relations with the Horde. In return for economic assistance, the Nogais carried out cordon service in the south of Russia, and their cavalry regiments helped the Russian troops in the Livonian War.

Kalmyks

An integral part of a Kalmyk's life was his physical training. Thus, the national wrestling "nooldan" trained young people for strength, endurance and unbending will to win.

During the Tsagan Sar holiday, Kalmyk youths met with each other in a real "cabinhouse", however, using whips instead of sabers. Such amusements subsequently made the Kalmyk warriors unsurpassed "swordsmen".

A special place among the Kalmyks was occupied by the ability to control negative emotions, which allowed them to accumulate physical and moral strength.

During the battle, the Kalmyk warrior entered a special state of mind, in which he felt neither pain nor fatigue, and his strength seemed to increase tenfold.

Since the 17th century, the Kalmyks have demonstrated their martial arts, defending the borders of the Russian kingdom: the irregular cavalry of the Kalmyk Khanate took part in many wars waged by Russia throughout the 18th century.

Mansi

The Voguls (or Mansi), who have chosen the harsh northern region, have mastered the art of survival to perfection. Excellent hunters and fearless warriors, they forced their neighbors to reckon with them: Siberian Tatars, Nenets and Zyryans.

The squad of the Mansi Khan was a detachment of professional warriors - "skewed otyrs." The key to their success was covert movement and inconspicuous tracking down of the enemy.

At various times, the hordes of Batu and detachments of Novgorodians tried to penetrate the lands of the Voguls - all to no avail. Only after suffering a painful defeat from the Cossacks of Yermak, the Mansi retreated further to the North.

Tuvans

This small pastoral people during the Great Patriotic War demonstrated miracles of stamina and courage. It is no coincidence that the Germans called the Tuvans Der Schwarze Tod - "black death". Out of the 80,000 population of Tuva, 8,000 people fought in the ranks of the Red Army.

The Tuvinian cavalry that fought in Galicia and Volyn, without exaggeration, made an indelible impression on the German troops.

A captured Wehrmacht officer admitted during interrogation that his subordinates "subconsciously perceived these barbarians as Attila's hordes and lost all combat capability."

It should be noted that Tuvan cavalrymen were bellicose by their appearance: on small shaggy horses, dressed in national costumes with outlandish amulets, they fearlessly rushed to the German units. The horror of the Germans was intensified by the fact that the Tuvans, committed to their own ideas about military rules, did not take the enemy prisoner in principle, and with a clear superiority of the enemy, they fought to the death.

Each of us knows the legends about powerful fair-haired Viking warriors who knew no fear, worshiping their pagan gods and capturing vast territories of other countries. To the inhabitants of Western Europe, these warriors from the Scandinavian Peninsula were known as the Normans, and it is under this name that the inhabitants of Scandinavia are mentioned in most modern textbooks. The representatives of the indigenous peoples of the Scandinavian Peninsula called themselves Vikings, and several northern peoples lived on the territory of the peninsula - Germans, Goths, Swedes, etc. Unlike many other ancient peoples who could not divide one territory and regularly fought among themselves, tribes and the peoples of Scandinavia have repeatedly united in powerful military-political alliances, and it is thanks to this that the Viking troops were able to different times occupy the territories of France, England, Ireland, Scotland and some Mediterranean islands.

One of the main factors uniting the peoples inhabiting Scandinavia was. All Vikings believed in the same gods and observed similar traditions, so it is not surprising that the Norman tribes could always find each other " mutual language"The religion of the Normans was a complex polytheistic system based on the worship of deities, the veneration of the spirits of nature, ancestors and mythical creatures - gnomes, alves, valkyries, giants, etc. Both the rites associated with the veneration of deities and the myths of the Scandinavian religion are very colorful, and few religions have as many traditions, mythical characters and legends as the Vikings.

Worlds and deities in Scandinavian religion

The gods of the Normans, according to belief, like people, had families and belonged to one of two clans: Ases or Vans. Apart from these two kinds of deities stood the goddesses of fate Norns , to which both people and gods obeyed, and also did not belong to divine families various mythological supernatural beings. According to the Vikings, in ancient times aces and baths they were at enmity with each other, but later they made peace, and began to jointly rule both people and some mythical creatures.

The Ases family was more numerous, and most of the gods revered by the Normans belonged to it. Aces-gods lived in Asgard - a fortified city built during the war with the Vanirs. Ases were considered deities of order, therefore, in their city, each inhabitant was assigned a separate place - a chamber, and in each chamber a palace of one or another god was erected. In addition to the halls with the castles of aces, Asgard was located Valhalla - the place where the Vikings who fell in battle spend. Valkyries , warlike maidens, taking away souls of the dead from the battlefield, also lived in Asgard. The most famous and revered Norman gods from the Ases family are:

• Odin - the supreme god of aces, the god of warriors, the sky and the lord of the dead
• Thor - god of thunder
• Tyr - god of war and courage
• Frigga - goddess of marriage and procreation
• Yord - goddess of the earth
• Idunn - goddess of eternal youth
• Balder - god of spring, intellect and wisdom
• Bragi - god of poets
• Var - the goddess of truth and the keeper of human oaths
• Snotra - goddess of wisdom, decency and courtesy

Vanaheim , the city and habitat of the Vanir, was the opposite of Asgard. Vans lived in this city - the most ancient gods of nature and fertility, and after the end of the war with the Ases, deities from the Ases family were admitted here. This city, according to Scandinavian religion, was a seaside settlement in the bosom of nature; there were many flowering gardens, all the plants always bloomed and everything planted bore fruit. The most revered gods from the Vanir family were:

• Freya - goddess and fertility
• Freyr - god of fertility and summer
• Ull - god of fertility, law, sky and sea
• Gullveig - sorceress goddess
• Aegir - god of the sea
• Ren - goddess of nature and storms

According to the Viking religion, in addition to Asgard, the world of the Aesir gods, and Vanaheim, the world of the Vanir gods, there were still 7 following worlds:

1. Jotunheim - the world of giants-jotuns
2. Alfheim - the world of light alves (elves)
3. Midgard - the world of people
4. Muspelheim - the world of fire giants
5. Niblheim - the world of frost giants
6. Svartalfaheim - the world of flowers (gnomes)
7. Helheim - the world of the dead, in which the goddess of death and rebirth Hel reigns.

Beliefs and rituals in the religion of the Normans

The Scandinavian religion claims that the worlds of people and supernatural entities were created by the first gods, and in the creation of mankind they took direct involvement three deities: Trill who created the slaves, Charles who created the tillers, and jarl, progenitor of warriors. Since the Vikings had a war as the main way of extracting resources and new territories, it is not surprising that in the Scandinavian peoples the deities and entities associated with the war enjoyed the greatest honor, and had privileges and high status in society.

The worship of the gods among the Normans was accompanied by numerous rites and rituals, often including sacrifices. Some Viking gods were believed to have favorite sacred animals, and they were often sacrificed to them; grain, vegetables and fruits were sacrificed to most of the gods of fertility and the elements, but the priests sacrificed prisoners of war to the gods of war and the patrons of warriors. Sacrifices and rituals associated with the worship of the gods were performed in Uppsala - the then capital of the peoples of the Scandinavian Peninsula (now this old City is an administrative-territorial unit of Sweden). In Uppsala, a temple covered with gilding was erected, around which grew sacred groves , and it was on the branches of the trees of these groves that the priests hung the bodies of animals and people sacrificed to the gods.

Like the Vikings, they believed in the inevitable end of the world - Ragnarok. According to ancient legend, a prophecy about the end of the world, in which most people and gods will die, and all worlds will be destroyed, said the dead seer Velva raised by Odin from the grave. The prophecy says that before Ragnarok, both the gods and people will forget moral standards, and enmity will begin in families. Then there will be a battle between the forces of good and evil, but there will be no winner in it, and the fiery giants will burn all the worlds with their flames. However, after Ragnarok, several gods, supernatural entities and two people will survive, who will build a new ideal world.

Viking religion and runes

Modern, extrasensory perception and the ability to predict the future often turn to runes for help. And the most used for this purpose are Elder Futhark runes , which were used to communicate with the gods, conduct various rituals and enchant things by the priests of the Scandinavian gods. According to legend, the runes of the Elder Futhark were mined by three powerful gods - Freya, Heimdal and Tur . There are 24 runes in the Elder Futhark, and they are all divided into three atta - families. Each atta has 8 runes associated with the deity that obtained them.

Elder Futhark, the oldest rune system used by priests and later ordinary people exclusively for magical purposes, it is still widely used today. It is believed that each rune initially carries a charge of a certain energy, using which you can achieve specific purpose. Therefore, now in shops selling souvenirs and products related to esotericism, a wide selection of amulets from the image of the Elder Futhark runes is provided, and people involved in fortune-telling and magic make their own runes from wood, clay or other materials to use them in his work.

Germans and Slavs, unity and opposites. Synchronized history from the very beginning. There are often such phenomena in history when some peoples consider themselves the most ancient, the most intelligent and the most civilized. The Egyptians, Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans considered themselves to be such. In fact, the most ancient civilizations on Earth were those about whom we know almost nothing. These are the civilizations of the Asuras, Atlanteans, Hyperboreans, the existence of which is official historical science mostly does not recognize (with the exception of rare scientists and researchers). human civilization originates from 300-200 million years ago. And these first civilizations were very highly developed (our modern civilization has never reached such a level). In this article I will consider the history of the emergence and development of two groups of peoples - Germans and Slavs. In the Middle Ages (and even now), the Germans considered the Slavs "barbarians", and themselves as a highly civilized people (" true Aryans"). Often at the same time, the Germanic peoples quickly forgot that they were often defeated by the Slavs, despite the fact that they considered themselves the smartest. And now I will begin the presentation of the synchronized history of the Germans and Slavs, I will consider this topic mainly on the basis of my own materials (my Historical Atlas of Peoples, Tribes, Cultures, Atlas of the States of the World, and other reference literature). 17500 BC - at this time many more European peoples were one people. This people was called the Hyperboreans. The ancient Greeks even considered the Hyperboreans to be their gods. But modern historians do not recognize the existence ancient Hyperborea. Well, let them believe so, since they defended their scientific works on a simplified history, which begins with the transformation of monkeys into people who created the first states in Egypt and Sumer in the 4th millennium BC (although such states began to appear much earlier, just winners always destroyed all information about previous highly developed civilizations). 9000 BC - at this time, too, all the Indo-European and Ural peoples were a single people, they lived in the north of Europe. By the way, the myths and legends of the Germans, Slavs, Greeks, Indians and Persians confirm that it is in the north that the homeland of many is located. There are many hypotheses about the ancestral home of the ancient Indo-Europeans (as this ancient people in those days, no one knows - Hyperboreans, Boreas, Boreals, Biarmians, etc.). There is a hypothesis that this homeland was called Hyperborea, the country of Thule, Biarmia (Ancient Perm the Great). Some scientists believe that the homeland of the Indo-Europeans was in the valley of the Oka and Volga rivers (I don’t think so). I believe that the ancestors of the ancient Indo-Europeans at that time were a single people and lived in the Northern and Middle Urals, as well as in the territories west of the Urals up to the territory of Finland. 7500 BC - from that time on a vast territory from the Middle Urals to the Baltic (wide band) lived the tribes of the Shigir culture. It is the Shigirs (the name is given conditionally) that are the ancestors of all Indon-Europeans (Celts, Germans, Slavs, Aryans, Italics, Greeks). Why I called the "Aryans" separately from the Germans and Slavs. Because the Aryans are the ancient tribes of the ancient Indo-Iranians (ancient Indian and Iranian peoples), and modern “historians” often use the word “Aryans” as ancient Indo-Europeans, or ancient Germans, and often all white-skinned Europeans are called Aryans. This is a misinterpretation of the word "aria". 4800 BC - about this time from total weight Three new groups of peoples (tribes) stood out among the Shigirs, who moved south. These are the tribes of the Narva culture, these are the tribes of the Upper Volga culture, and these are the tribes eastern group Indo-Europeans (ancestors of most Indo-European peoples). But once again I remind you that all of the above groups of tribes were the ancestors of all Indo-European peoples. 3100 BC - by this time a large group of Indo-European peoples began to form - these are the tribes of the Yamnaya (ancient Pit) archaeological culture. These tribes settled over a vast territory - in the steppes from the Irtysh to the lower reaches of the Danube. The tribes of the Narva and Upper Volga culture remained almost on their own territory. But by this time, new cultures (groups of tribes) emerged from these groups of tribes, which appeared much to the south - North Belarusian, Dnieper-Donetsk, Ryazan, Belevskaya, Balakhna. The picture of all groups of Indo-European tribes becomes more diverse. 2500 AD is one of the turning points in the history of all Indo-European peoples (tribes). By this time, a new large group of Indo-European tribes, the Corded Ware tribes, had formed on the territory between the Don and the Volga. These were mobile, mobile tribes of Indo-European shepherds. It was this group of Indo-Europeans that subsequently moved west and began to populate (conquer) Europe. 2300 BC - by this time, the Corded Ware tribes (shepherds - Indo-Europeans) made a strong breakthrough to the west - to Europe. They inhabited a vast territory (modern northern Ukraine and Belarus) are the tribes of the Middle Dnieper culture. In addition, by this time, the Corded Ware tribes had penetrated into the Baltic states and the southern part of Scandinavia - these are the tribes of boat-shaped axes. From now on, I will not talk about the Indo-European peoples, whose history does not concern the ancient history of the Germans and Slavs. Roughly speaking, it was these two ancient cultures that basically laid the foundations for the future Germans and Slavs. True, in those days there were no big differences between these tribes. At the same time, other cultures of other (related Indo-European) tribes continued to exist close to these cultures - Ryazan and Belevskaya (they occupied the territory in the Oka valley and the upper reaches of the Don). The tribes of these cultures also influenced the formation of the Indo-European peoples in Europe. 2100 BC - by this time, the Western Indo-Europeans penetrated even further into Europe. A new culture arose on the territory of Poland - złota. From the culture of boat-shaped axes, a new culture stood out - the Baltic (in the territory of the Baltic). More a small remark about this time. According to the ancient legend "About the princes of Slovene and Rus" at about this time, these princes already had their own cities - the centers of their tribal associations - this is the city of Slovensk (on the site of modern Novgorod) and the city of Rusa (on the site modern city Staraya Russa). And I don't see anything surprising in this. Indeed, at the same time, in the south of the Urals, the city of the ancient Aryans appeared - Arkaim (the center of all the ancient Indo-Iranians). But we will not consider the history of the settlement of the eastern and southern Indo-European peoples. We are only interested in the history of the Germans and Slavs. So by this time in Europe there were four groups of Indo-European tribes that most likely participated in the formation of the Celts, Germans, Letto-Lithuanians and Slavs - the tribes of the culture of boat-shaped axes, the Baltic culture, the Middle Dnieper culture and the culture of Zloty. Of course, in these times, the languages ​​of these tribes did not differ much from each other, but differences in culture and language among these groups had already begun to form. 1900 BC - by this time a new group of Western Indo-European tribes had already appeared in the center of Europe - these were the tribes of the Saka-Thuringian culture (they occupied the territory of modern Germany. But at that time non-Indo-European tribes began to move towards the Indo-Europeans (from the territory of Spain and France) (the tribes of the culture of bell-shaped cups are the distant ancestors of the Iberians - modern Basques). These tribes moved east and even reached the territory of Poland, colliding with the Indo-Europeans. The confrontation between these two numerous groups was long (up to about 1500 BC. The Indo-Europeans turned out to be stronger 1500 BC - around this time in the center of Europe (based on the Zloty culture) a new big culture- Tshciniec (it occupied the territory, which includes part of Ukraine, southern Poland and eastern Germany). Some researchers consider the tribes of this culture to be the ancestors of the ancient Slavs, but I (and many other historians) believe that these tribes were the ancestors of not only the Slavs, but also partly the ancestors of the Germans, you will learn about this later, when another one will exist in approximately the same places culture - Lusatian, whose descendants will be both Slavs and Germans in the future. This proves once again that ancient history Germans and Slavs was common. 1300 AD - on the vast territory of the center of Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Austria), a new culture was formed on the basis of the Saka-Thuringian culture - the culture of burial mounds. The tribes of this culture were undoubtedly the ancestors of the ancient Celts, and in subsequent times they began to settle more and more west (in France, England, Spain, in northern Italy), displacing the ancestors of the Iberians from there. 1100 AD - by this time, a new culture appeared on the territory of eastern Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, western Belarus - Lusatian. And again, one thing can be said that the tribes of this culture participated in the formation of both Germanic and Slavic tribes. To the west of the Lusatian culture, the Hallstatt culture was formed - these are the Celts. On the territory of Denmark and the south of Scandinavia, the tribes of the boat-shaped ax culture continued to live (but of course they changed a lot, tribes constantly penetrated to them both from the south - from Germany, and from the north of Scandinavia). In the Baltics, there was a southeast Baltic culture (these tribes are the ancestors of the ancient Letto-Lithuanians). The Sosnitsa culture existed in the northern half of Ukraine and on the territory of Belarus. You can certainly say that these are the ancestors of the ancient Slavs, but not all Slavs, the tribes of the Sosnitsa culture most likely participated in the formation of only Eastern Slavs. In the western part of Ukraine there was the Belogrudov culture, whose tribes also participated in the formation of the Slavic tribes, especially the eastern ones. To the south of these tribes lived the ancestors of the Thracians, Cimmerians and Scythians. 700 BC - by this time in the south of Scandinavia, in Denmark and the north of Germany, a new culture was formed - Jastorf. Now we can say with all confidence that the tribes of this culture are the direct ancestors of the Germanic tribes. But at the same time, the Jastorfians (ancient Germans) moved south and absorbed the tribes of the Lusatian culture. The tribes of the Lusatian culture that were intermediate between Germans and Slavs gradually divided into Germans and Slavs. To the east of the Lusatian tribes lived the tribes of the ancient Slavs. These are the tribes of the following cultures - Chernolesskaya, Yukhnovskaya, Vysotskaya. 300 AD - by this time there were no longer any tribes of the Lusatian culture (intermediate between the ancient Germans and Slavs). Germans (Jastorf culture) occupied most of Germany, Denmark and southern Scandinavia. To the east of them lived the ancient Slavs (these are the tribes of the following cultures - Pomeranian, Milograd, Yukhnov, Guba, Zarubinets). But I will immediately make a reservation that the tribes of the Zarubinets culture may have been North Scythian, but perhaps they were generally Slavic-Scythians. After all, even the Greeks who lived in the Greek colonies of the Northern Black Sea region mentioned the tribes of Scythian plowmen. It is possible to use the terms "Germans" and "Slavs" in the description of the history of the Germans and Slavs from now on. But the ethnonym "Germans" really came into circulation in the 2nd half of the 1st century AD, after Gallic Wars Julius Caesar to designate the peoples who lived east of the Rhine and north of the upper and lower Danube, that is, for the Romans it was not only ethnic, but also geographical concept. Linguists made an assumption about the separation of the Proto-Germanic language from the Proto-Indo-European at the very beginning of the Iron Age, that is, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e., there are also versions about its formation much later, until the beginning of our era: Thus, according to the versions of linguists and archaeologists, the formation of the Germanic ethnos on the basis of Indo-European tribes dates back approximately to the period of the 6th-1st centuries. BC e. and occurred in areas adjacent to the lower Elbe, Jutland and southern Scandinavia. In the peat bogs of Denmark, well-preserved mummies of people are found, appearance which do not always coincide with classic description ancient authors of the tall race of Germans. The ancient world for a long time did not know anything about the Germans, separated from them by the Celtic and Scythian-Sarmatian tribes. For the first time, the Greek navigator Pytheas from Massalia (modern Marseille) mentioned the Germanic tribes, who made a trip to the shores of Alexander the Great (2nd half of the 4th century AD) North Sea, and even presumably the Baltic. 150 years BC - The cultures of the Slavic tribes were formed - Przeworsk (from the Pomeranian), Oksyvskaya (from the Pomeranian). 113-101 BC - the Romans first encountered the Germans during the formidable invasion of the Cimbri and Teutons, who, during the resettlement from Jutland, devastated the Alpine Italy and Gaul. Contemporaries perceived these Germanic tribes as hordes of northern barbarians from unknown distant lands. By the middle of the 1st century AD - early ethnographic information about the Germans was reported by Julius Caesar, who conquered by the middle of the 1st century AD. Gaul, as a result of which he went to the Rhine and faced the Germans in battles. Roman legions towards the end of the 1st century AD. advanced to the Elbe, and in the 1st century, works appeared that described in detail the resettlement of the Germanic tribes, their social structure and customs. In the 2nd half of the 1st century, the empire went on the defensive along the line of the Rhine and Danube rivers, repelling the raids of the Germans and making punitive campaigns in their lands. Raids were made along the entire border, but the Danube became the most threatening direction, where the Germans settled along its entire length on its left bank in the course of their expansion to the south and east. Already about two thousand years ago, Greek and Roman scientists knew that in the east of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and by the Baltic Sea, live numerous tribes of Wends. These were the ancestors of modern Slavic peoples. By their name, the Baltic Sea was then called the Venedian Gulf of the Northern Ocean. 200 - Germanic peoples formed - Goths, Saxons, Lombards (from the Germans), Slavs (from the tribes of the Przeworsk and Zarubinets culture), 250g - the appearance of the Goths in the Northern Black Sea region In the 250-270s, the Roman-German wars called into question the very existence of an empire. In 251, Emperor Decius died in a battle with the Goths, who settled in the northern Black Sea region, followed by their devastating land and sea raids into Greece, Thrace, and Asia Minor. In the 270s, the empire was forced to abandon Dacia (the only Roman province on the left bank of the Danube) due to the increased pressure of the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. The empire survived, consistently repelling the attacks of the barbarians, but in the 370s the Great Migration of Nations began, during which the Germanic tribes penetrated and entrenched themselves in the lands of the Roman Empire. 300 - New Germanic peoples formed - Alamans, Franks, Quads. In 332, Emperor Constantine the Great defeated the Goths on the lower Danube, after which he accepted them into the number of federal allies. In the 350s, the Franks, Alemanni and Saxons, using unrest in the empire, captured the part of Gaul adjacent to the Rhine. The future emperor Julian drove them out of the Rhine, but the raids continued later. The Roman Empire managed to keep the Germans on the Rhine during the 4th century, until the threat from the Goths from the east at the beginning of the 5th century forced Rome to withdraw its legions from Gaul, leaving it defenseless against a new powerful wave of migration of Germanic tribes. Around 300-400, the Slavs were divided into two groups, western (Sklavins) and eastern (Antes). Just at that time, the great migration of peoples began, or rather, it could be called the invasion of a large multi-tribal association of Hun tribes into Europe, as a result of which large movements of ancient peoples began to occur in Europe. This particularly affected the Germanic tribes. Slavic tribes did not participate in these movements for the most part. They only took advantage of the weakening power of the Illyrian and Thracian tribes and began to methodically occupy their lands. The Sklavins began to penetrate into the territory previously inhabited by the Illyrians, and the southern Antes began to penetrate into the territory of modern Bulgaria. The main part of the Ants remained on their territory, which in the future became Kievan Rus. By about 650, these migrations were completed. Now southern neighbors Steppe nomads - Bulgars, Hungarians, Khazars - became Ants. 350 - an alliance of East Slavic tribes - the Ants, was formed, which resisted the attacks of the Goths, and later - the Huns. The East Slavic tribes already in those days had the power of princes, and the tribes had their own tribal centers (prototypes of future cities). In 370 - the unstable balance of the forces of Rome with the Germans overturned with the arrival in the steppe northern Black Sea region warlike nomadic tribes of the Huns. The invasion of the Huns gave impetus to the Great Migration, during which the Western Roman Empire fell. 375 g - the victory of the Huns over the Goths, the invasion of the Huns into Europe. 375 - at the head of the Slavic union of the Ants was Prince Bozh. In 376, fleeing from the Huns, a number of Gothic tribes, with the permission of Emperor Valens, crossed the Danube to the lands of the empire in Thrace. Oppressed by the imperial authorities and suffering from hunger, the Goths revolted. Decisive battle took place on August 9, 378 near Adrianople in Thrace. The Roman army suffered a crushing defeat, the emperor Valens died and most of his troops. The new emperor Theodosius managed to stop the ruin of the Goths and other barbarians of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In 395, in connection with the death of Emperor Theodosius, the Visigoths, led by Alaric, revolted again. Alaric attacked the Western Roman Empire. 400 - New Germanic peoples formed - Angles, Jutes, Sueves, Vandals, Burgundians, Gepids. The Slavs had new groups of antes and sklavins. In 405, taking advantage of the fact that the Roman legions were withdrawn from Gaul to defend Italy, the Vandals, Suebi, and later the Burgundians and Franks broke into Gaul. 406 - the formation of the state of the Burgundians in France In 409, the Vandals, the Sueves, broke from Gaul to another Roman province, Spain, capturing most of it. By this time, the formation of the first German states. Establishment of the Suevian state in Spain. In 410, Alaric succeeded in capturing and sacking Rome. Other Germanic tribes also took advantage of the weakening of the empire. In 410, the Visigoths founded their kingdom in Aquitaine (Gallia) with its center in Toulouse. 414 - the appearance of the Visigoths in Spain. In 585, the kingdom of the Suebi fell, it fell under the blows of the Visigoths. Kingdom of the Suebi better times occupied most of Spain In 429, the Vandals moved from Spain to North Africa, where the kingdom of the Vandals was founded on the lands seized from the Western Roman Empire. 450 - the formation of the kingdom of Burgundy in France. Burgundians captured western part Switzerland. In Spain, possessions appeared Visigothic kingdom. The capture of England by the Angles and Saxons begins. In 455, the Vandals captured Rome and sacked it. In 476, the German mercenaries who made up the army of the Western Empire, led by Odoacer, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus. This event is formally considered the end of the Roman Empire. 481 - King Clovis of the Franks began to rule. In 486, the Franks of King Clovis destroyed the last state of the Romans (“the state of Siagria”) on the territory of Gaul, after which they began to gradually seize all of Gaul in wars with the Visigoths and Burgundians. In 493, the ruler of Italy, Odoacer, was overthrown by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, who chose Italy as the place of settlement of his tribe. The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy lasted until 552. In 494, the kingdom of the West Saxons, Wessex, was founded in England, later during the 6th-7th centuries. other Germanic kingdoms(Essex, Sussex, Northumbria, Mercia, East England, Kent). 495 - the kingdom of Wessex was founded / Hampshire, Dorset, Wiltshire, Somerset and south Avon /, later expanded north along the river Thames / Devon, Cornwall / ancient name Slavs - Wends - preserved in the language Germanic peoples up to late medieval, and in Finnish Russia is still called Venice. The name "Slavs" (or rather, the Slavs) began to spread only one and a half thousand years ago - in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. At first, only Western Slavs were called that way. Their eastern counterparts were called Ants. Then the Slavs began to call all the tribes speaking Slavic languages. 511 - the end of the reign of Clovis - King of the Franks. In 534 the Vandal kingdom was defeated by the Byzantine army. 540 g - the conquest of the lands of the Batavians / the Netherlands / by the Franks. Byzantium conquered Ravenna in Italy 550 - the Duchy of Bavaria (southern Germany) was formed. In the VI century, Slavic unity was split by invading Central Asia Avars. 551 - the habitat of the Proto-Slavic tribes: Veneti, Antes and Sclaveni is described as follows: “... At their left slope [the Alps], descending to the north, starting from the birthplace of the Vistula River, a populous tribe of Veneti is located in immense spaces. Although their names now change according to different genera and localities, they are still predominantly called Sclaveni and Antes. The Sklavens live from the city of Novietauna and the lake called Mursian to the Danastra [Dniester], and north to the Visla [Vistula], instead of cities they have swamps and forests. Antes - the strongest of both [tribes] - spread from Danastre to Danapr [Dnieper], where the Pontic [Black] Sea forms a bend; these rivers are separated from each other by a distance of many crossings. (Jordan "On the origin and deeds of the Getae", part 34-35). In 570, Byzantine troops after long war cleared all of Italy of the Ostrogoths. However, soon in the 570s, the Lombards captured the north of Italy, thus ending the turbulent era of the Great Migration of Nations. The year 602 is the last mention of the Ants, this is apparently connected with the collapse of this union of tribes. In 622 in Moravia, as a result of an uprising against the Avars, the first Slavic state of Samo was founded with an unidentified capital in the place of Vogastisburg 622-658 - the state of Samo among the Western Slavs. 650 g - the principality of Carantania arose, after the collapse of the state of Samo. 650 g - an alliance of seven Slavic tribes was formed - the first state of the Slavs in the Balkans (on the territory of Bulgaria). By 700 BC, the ancient Slavs inhabited a vast area of ​​Eastern and Central Europe, including eastern Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Balarus, Ukraine, western regions Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk). To the south of them lived the Scythians, probably there were still tribes who spoke the Scythian-Slavic language. More south of the Slavs lived the Thracians of the Balkan Peninsula, and west of the Slavs lived ancient Germanic tribes and the Celtic tribes. To the north of the Slavs lived the Finno-Ugric Ural peoples. During this period, the Letto-Lithuanian tribes had much in common with the ancient Slavs (for sure, the language of the Baltic tribes still had much in common with the Slavs). The tribes of the Slavs were still led by princes, as before, each tribe of the Ants had its own breeding center(city), although there is no exact data on these cities. Most likely, some large settlements existed in Novgorod, Ladoga, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Kyiv. In ancient scriptures and legends, many names of Slavic princes are mentioned - Boreva (it seems that this name remained as a memory of the name of the Borean civilization), Gostomysl, Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv). It is believed that the princes Askold, Dir, Rurik, Sineus, Truvor were Varangians, which was undoubtedly possible. Especially in the northern part of Ancient Russia, there were traditions to hire foreigners from among the Varangians for military leadership. But perhaps the Varangians were called mercenaries (for military service) from among both local and alien people. But you can say it differently. Slavic princes, trying to be like their Western colleagues, called themselves names similar to the Varangian ones. There are sayings that Rurik had the name Yurik, Oleg had the name Olaf. At the same time, the long coexistence (close to each other) of the Old Russian and Norman (Scandinavian) tribes also entailed a common culture (some important heads of clans and leaders bore both Russian and Scandinavian names). By the 8th century, the Slavs settled in the Balkans and in the north reached the shores of Lake Ladoga. 750 g - the formation of the Slavic principalities - Raska, Duklja, Travuniya, Hum, Bosnia. 750 g - the probable time of the reign of Prince Kiy in Kyiv as the capital of the Polyan principality. 768 - Charlemagne, king of the Franks, began to rule, from 800 - he is the emperor. 772 - 804 - the wars of Charlemagne with the Saxons, the conquest of Saxony. In the Life of Stefan of Surozh, the Russian prince Bravlin is mentioned. The prince's name probably comes from Bravalla, during which in 786 a great battle took place between the Danes and the Frisians. The Frisians were defeated, and many of them left their country, moving to the east. The Bavarian geographer names the Ruses next to the Khazars, as well as some Ross (Rots) somewhere between the Elbe and Sala rivers: These were the tribes - Attoros, Viliros, Khoziros, Zabros. At the beginning of the 9th century, most of Western Europe was united by the Frankish king Charlemagne, who was proclaimed emperor in 800. Of the Germanic peoples, only the settlers in England, the inhabitants of Jutland and Scandinavia remained outside his empire. 830 - the formation of the Great Moravian Principality - Slavic state in the Czech Republic and Moravia. 839 - The Vertinsky annals report the arrival of representatives of the people of Ross, whose ruler bore the title of kagan (prince), to Louis I the Pious with the ambassadors of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus. Until 842. The life of George of Amastrid tells about the attack of the Ross on Amastrida (Asia Minor). 843 - the division of the empire of Charlemagne into three kingdoms. The emergence of the East Frankish state in Germany. 844 - Al-Yakubi reports an attack by the Rus on Seville in Spain. 844 - Ibn Khordadbeh calls the Rus a kind or a kind of Slavs. 845-864 - Prince Tirimir. The unification of Croatia under his rule June 18, 860 - the attack of the Ross on Constantinople. 863 - in a document confirming the previous award, Rusaramarha (brand of the Rusars) is mentioned on the territory of modern Austria. 866 - the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir made a trip to Constantinople. OK. 874 - a protege of Rome, the Patriarch of Constantinople Ignatius sent a bishop to Russia. Chapter Frankish Empire Charlemagne led to the formation of the East Frankish kingdom, roughly coinciding in the borders with modern Germany (excluding the Baltic seaside, where the tribes of the Slavs lived). As the Xanten Annalist writes under the year 869, its first king, Louis the German, ruled "among the Slavs, in Bavaria, Alemannia and Rezia, Saxony, Swabia, Thuringia and Franconia with the regions of Wormsfeld and Speyer." 882 - the capture of Kyiv by Oleg - the beginning of the consolidation of the Old Russian state ( Kievan Rus) around the Dnieper trade route The princes of Kyiv Askold and Dir died in the war in the Novgorod principality, center Novgorod principality transferred to Kyiv (the beginning of Kievan Rus). Until 885 - chronicle of Dalimil early XIV century calls the Archbishop of Moravia Methodius a Rusyn. 907 - The Czech Republic is founded. The end of the 9th - the beginning of the 10th century - Al-Balkhi (c. 850-930) speaks of three groups of Rus: Kuyab, Slavia, Arsania. The nearest to the Bulgar on the Volga is Kuyaba, the most distant is Slavia. 912-913 - the campaign of the Rus to the Caspian Sea from the Black Sea, noted by the Arab scientist Masudi (middle of the 10th century) and other oriental authors. 921-922 years - ibn Fadlan described the Rus, whom he saw in Bulgar. 925 - Tomislav I is crowned King of Croatia - creation of the Kingdom of Croatia. 941 - the attack of the Ross or Russ on Byzantium. The Greek authors Theophanes, the Successor of George Amartola and Simeon Magister (all in the middle of the 10th century) explain that the dews are “dromites” (i.e., migrants, migrating, fidgets) descending “from the family of the Franks”. In the Slavic translation of the Chronicle of George Amartol, the last phrase is translated as "from the Varangian family." Langobard Liudprand (c. 958) wrote a story in which he called the Rus " northern people", which the Greeks "according to appearance called the Rus" (i.e., "red"), and the inhabitants of Northern Italy "according to their location, the Normans." In northern Italy, the “Normans” were called those living north of the Danube, in southern Italy the Lombards themselves were identified with the northern Veneti. 954-960 - wounds-rugi act in alliance with Otto I, helping him in the conquest of the rebellious Slavic tribes. As a result, all the tribes living by the sea "against Russia" were conquered. Similarly, Adam of Bremen and Helmold locate the island of the Rugs as lying "against the land of the Vilians". 959 - embassy to Otto I of the "Queen of the Rug Helena" (Olga), shortly before that, baptized byzantine emperor Roman, with a request to send a bishop and priests. Libutius, a monk of the Mainz monastery, was appointed bishop of Russia. But Libutius died in 961. Instead of him, Adalbert was appointed, who made a trip to the Rugs in 961-962. The enterprise, however, ended in complete failure: the Rugs expelled the missionaries. C. The message about these events is described by the so-called Continuer of Reginon, behind which the researchers see Adalbert himself. In other chronicles, Russia is called instead of Rugiya. 960 - Mieszko I founded the Principality of the Western Glades (Poland). In 962, the East Frankish king Otto I significantly expanded the borders of the kingdom, transforming it in 962 into the "Holy Roman Empire". German nation”, where the Slavs, Italians, Swiss, Hungarians and other peoples were subsequently included. This state remained a loose formation, consisting of virtually independent small states (counties, duchies, electors, kingdoms, eaiscopates, abbeys) until 1861. 12th-13th century - Old Russian state entered the stage feudal fragmentation, it actually broke up into many small states (principalities). Let me remind you that Germany entered the path of feudal fragmentation even earlier. 1380 - a strong centralized state- Grand Duchy of Moscow. His prince Dmitry Donskoy was able to give for the first time strong rebuff Tatar-Mongol Horde. Dmitry Donskoy accelerated the unification of Russian lands into one centralized state. 1480 - The Russian united state became completely independent from the Horde. 1521 - The last Russian principality - the Grand Duchy of Ryazan - is subordinated to the Russian state (Moscow). Russian state became completely unified. 1868 - on the initiative of Prussia, the North German Union was created in Germany - the prototype of the future unified German state. 1870 - established German Empire a unified German state. As we can see from this article, the history of the ancient Germans and the ancient Slavs is not much different, and the history of Germany and Russia is also very similar .. We can add to this that the repeated wars between Russia (Russia) and Germany constantly ended with the victory of Russian weapons (starting with the victory of Alexander Nevsky). And who should consider himself smarter than everyone else?