In Eastern Europe, dissatisfaction with the repressions and the ideological dictate of the authorities was gradually growing. It first manifested itself in the GDR, where success in economic recovery was very modest compared to West Germany. In 1953, after the death of I.V. Stalin in the GDR, demonstrations began demanding better living conditions and changes political regime. They were accompanied by the seizure of government and party institutions. The speeches were suppressed with the help of Soviet troops.

In 1956, after Stalin's personality cult was exposed by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, the Information Bureau was dissolved. USSR and Yugoslavia restored diplomatic relations. This gave rise to Eastern European countries ah hope that the Soviet leadership will give up tight control over their domestic politics.

The theorists of the communist parties (Milovan Djilas in Yugoslavia, Leszek Kolakowski in Poland, Ernst Bloch in the GDR) tried to rethink new phenomena in socio-economic life developed countries West. Demands began to be put forward for an end to repressions, the resignation of the leaders of the ruling parties, appointed at the direction of I.V. Stalin.

In most states, the removal of the Stalinists from power was peaceful. However, Poland was not without strikes by workers who protested against wage cuts.

The most acute situation has developed in Hungary. In 1956, mass rallies in Budapest grew into an anti-communist democratic revolution. A wave of reprisals against communists and employees of state security agencies swept across the country. Imre Nagy, who headed the government, did not object to the restoration of a multi-party system, announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from its territory. The USSR intervened in the Hungarian events. Budapest was taken by storm, more than 200 thousand people fled the country. I. Nagy was arrested and executed in 1958 for "organizing a conspiracy and betraying the Motherland." This sentence was declared illegal only in 1989.

After the Hungarian crisis, the Soviet leadership became very suspicious of any changes in the Eastern European countries. As a result, economic reforms aimed at increasing the flexibility of the planning system, expanding the economic independence of enterprises, and deepening participation in the international division of labor were carried out indecisively, inconsistently, and steadily lagged behind. The CMEA mechanisms worked less and less effectively.

Extremely a complex system mutual settlements, the need to approve any transaction at the level of top political leadership hampered the development of integration. The results were not slow to tell. If in the 1950s the average annual GDP growth rate in Eastern European countries reached 6.9% (only Japan and the USSR had the best performance), then in the 1960s. they amounted to 3.6%, in the 1970s - 2.3%, that is, less than in most Western European states.

Especially a difficult situation formed in the GDR in the early 1960s. Conducted in 1957-1960. forced collectivization, attempts by the authorities to "catch up and overtake" the FRG by increasing labor productivity led to mass discontent. In 1961, about 207 thousand people, mostly young specialists, left the country through the territory of West Berlin. To stop this, on August 13, 1961, the construction of the Berlin Wall began, dividing the Eastern and West Berlin. Relations between the USSR and the GDR with Western countries became aggravated. The wall has become a symbol of lack of freedom in the eyes of Europeans.

negative attitude to any changes in Eastern Europe, the Soviet leadership again demonstrated in 1968. At the initiative of the leader of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Alexander Dubcek, an attempt was made to move to human face". She was also stopped by force. In a country where freedom of speech appeared, independent political parties, the prospects for economic reforms were discussed, the troops of the ATS countries (USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR and Poland) entered. A. Dubcek and his supporters were removed from all party and government posts many of them emigrated.

After the events Prague Spring» The Soviet government declared the "right" of the USSR to interfere in the internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies in order to protect socialism. In Western countries, this approach is called the Brezhnev Doctrine.

Its proclamation was due to two reasons.

First, ideological considerations. Recognition of the bankruptcy of socialism in Eastern Europe could raise doubts about the correctness of the course of the CPSU among the peoples of the USSR as well.

Secondly, under the conditions cold war”and the split of Europe into two military-political blocs, the weakening of one of them turned out to be a gain for the other. The exit of Hungary or Czechoslovakia from the Warsaw Pact (and this was one of the demands of the reformers) would lead to a violation of the balance of power in Europe. historical memory about incursions from the West prompted the Soviet government to strive to ensure that the troops of a potential enemy, which was considered the NATO bloc, were as far as possible from the borders of the USSR. Many Eastern Europeans felt like hostages of the Soviet-American confrontation. They understood that in the event of a serious conflict between the USSR and the USA, the territory of Eastern Europe would become a battlefield for interests alien to them.

Relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia remained difficult. During the years of "excommunication" from socialism, this country has established economic ties with Western states. It was not part of any military blocs, declaring itself a neutral state. After the restoration of relations with the USSR, Yugoslavia again began to be recognized as a socialist country. However, the economic independence of enterprises high degree ideological freedom still aroused in Soviet leaders discontent.

Crisis phenomena of the "era of stagnation"

Lesson number 42. Socialism in Eastern Europe.

During the lesson:

identify the prerequisites and methods for establishing pro-Soviet regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe after the Second World War;

to characterize the contradictory results of the social economic development countries " socialist camp» in the second half of the 20th century, noting the inefficiency of the Soviet economic model, which became one of the causes of acute socio-political crises in Eastern Europe;

to determine, on the basis of a comparison with the Soviet model of socialism, the main distinctive features the Yugoslav model of socialism;

analyze the factors that led to acute socio-political crises in a number of Eastern European countries, methods for overcoming them;

consider the political crises in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, caused by an attempt to create democratic socialism, and the policy of the USSR to protect its interests in Eastern Europe;

reveal the interrelationships of internal political changes, changes in foreign policy USSR and political processes in the countries of the "socialist camp" of Eastern Europe.

Basic concepts: Yugoslav model of socialism, "Prague Spring", "Brezhnev's doctrine".

Main dates: 1953 - uprising in the GDR against the pro-Soviet regime.

1956 - crisis in Poland, suppression Soviet troops

uprisings in Hungary.

1968 - "Prague Spring", the entry of troops of the Warsaw Pact countries into

Czechoslovakia.

Persons: W. Ulbricht, W. Gomulka, J. Nagy, J. Kadar, A. Dubcek.

Questions for follow-up conversation:

Expand the changes that took place in the ruling elite of the Soviet Union in the 60s - 80s. How did they influence the change in the internal political guidelines of the "Brezhnev" leadership?

What is the essence and causes of failure economic reform the government of A.N. Kosygin?

Describe the causes and manifestation of crisis phenomena in the Soviet economy in the 70s - the first half of the 80s.

Name the prerequisites for the emergence of the dissident movement in the USSR, the participants and forms of protest against Soviet reality.

Lesson Plan Questions	Techniques, means and content of training
1. The establishment of pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe. a). Factors contributing to the coming to power of the communists. b). Contradictions in the development of Eastern European countries.	 Work with the text of the textbook (§32), map No. 18 "Europe after the Second World War" (p. XXII) to determine the prerequisites and methods for establishing pro-Soviet regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe after the Second World War. Discussion with elements of repetition of students' answers to the questions: “Remember what events after the war accelerated the formation of communist regimes in Eastern Europe?”, “What methods did the Stalinist leadership achieve the establishment of pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe?”, “What successes did the socialist countries of Europe achieve? ? What problems did you encounter?"
2. Conflict Tito - Stalin. Yugoslav model of socialism.	 Conversation with students with elements of repetition. Drawing up a basic outline or diagram: "The Yugoslav model of socialism." Note! The first disagreements arose between the USSR and Yugoslavia. The reason for the political conflict was the excessive aggressiveness of the Yugoslav leadership, which created the danger of an open clash between the USSR and the USA. The reason for the gap was Tito's demand to bring Yugoslav troops into Albania, including it in Yugoslavia, and the Balkan integration with Bulgaria. These actions would inevitably lead to a military conflict with the United States and its NATO allies. Stalin harshly rejected Tito's initiatives. Using the textbook material and the given facts, formulate a set of reasons for the political conflict between the leaders of Yugoslavia and the USSR. Think! What period of politics Soviet state reminiscent of the Yugoslav model of socialism? Compare the model of socialism in Yugoslavia and the NEP. What features bring them together, what is the difference? In the process of completing the assignment to determine the features of socialism in Yugoslavia, students, with the help of a teacher, consolidate the results in the form of a reference summary or diagram: "The Yugoslav model of socialism."

3. Germany: divided nation. a). Education Germany b). Crises East Germany. 4. Events in 1956 in Poland and Hungary. a). Influence of the 20th Congress CPSU to countries Of Eastern Europe. b). Speeches of the workers of Poland. in). Anti-communist uprising in Hungary. 5. "Prague Spring". a). "Thaw" in Eastern Europe. b). liberalization in Czechoslovakia. in). The entry of troops of the Warsaw Pact countries into Czechoslovakia. G). Brezhnev Doctrine.

 Independent work students with the text of the textbook, preparing a detailed plan for the question: "Socio-political crises in the Eastern European socialist countries in the 50s - early 80s." Working with the task document for the paragraph (p. 227). Identification and discussion of the relationship between internal political changes in the USSR and political processes in the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. Definition of the essence of the concept " Brezhnev Doctrine». Think! Compare the situation and conditions for the entry of Soviet troops into Hungary in 1956 and the armed action of the Warsaw Pact countries against Czechoslovakia in 1968. Note! With the coming to power in the USSR, L.I. Brezhnev in the country and in the countries of the socialist camp, a period of "stagnation" began. “Stagnation” is a symbol of the suspension of reforms, a refusal to look for new solutions to urgent problems. The mechanism of "stagnation" turned out to be the same for all countries of the socialist camp. The formation of the "Brezhnev Doctrine" in 1968 became a symbol of the forced unity of the socialist camp. The essence of the "Brezhnev Doctrine" or the "Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty" is the right of the USSR to interfere in the internal affairs of the socialist countries in the name of preserving the socialist social order. What event gave rise to the Brezhnev Doctrine? What methods were involved in the application of this doctrine? Think! On the eve of the invasion of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia, USSR Minister of Defense A.A. Grechko said that the Soviet leadership would carry out an operation in Czechoslovakia even if it started a third world war. The Soviet embassy in the United States warned the administration of President L. Johnson that the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia was being prepared. The American response stated that the US would not interfere "in a Communist family quarrel." What in the events of the "Prague Spring" caused concern among Soviet leadership? How does Grechko's statement characterize the leadership of the USSR? Why couldn't the US presidential administration intervene in the events of 1968?  Option number 2. The work of students in compiling the filling comparison table"Socio-political crises in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia" according to the criteria proposed by schoolchildren, followed by a discussion of the results of the presented works.  Option number 3. The study of the questions of the points of the lesson plan can be carried out in the form school lecture with elements of conversation. It is advisable to offer students during the lecture to draw up a detailed plan of the main issues of the period under study.

Socio-political crises in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia

	Poland 1956	Hungary 1956	Czechoslovakia 1968
Causes of the socio-political crisis Leaders Fighting methods results	The exposure of Stalin's personality cult at the 20th Congress of the CPSU led in Poland to a rejection of the idea and practice of socialism. Difficult living conditions for workers. V. Gomulka Strikes that escalated into a general strike. It was possible to stabilize the situation in the country, to avoid the intervention of Soviet troops. Refusal of the PUWP leadership from collectivization. The USSR provided loans for the purchase of grain and goods. An end to the repression of the Catholic clergy. Work councils have been introduced at enterprises.	The exposure of Stalin's personality cult at the 20th Congress of the CPSU led in Hungary to the rejection of the idea and practice of socialism. Demands to put an end to the Stalinist methods of government. attempts at democratic reform. Armed uprising against the communist regime in Budapest. An attempt to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact, the withdrawal of parts of the Soviet Army. Brutal reprisals against communists and employees of state security agencies. The entry of Soviet troops, the armed overthrow of the government of I. Nagy, the suppression of the rebellion (669 Soviet soldiers and 2,700 Hungarians died). I. Nagy was executed, 200,000 Hungarians emigrated. Liberalization of the economic and political foundations of society.	Liberalization of the economic and political foundations of society in the 50s - 60s. Exhausted sources of extensive development - the socio-economic crisis. The slogan of building "socialism with a human face", i.e. the need for democratization, ensuring pluralism of opinions. A. Dubcek Company of disobedience to the Soviet military and supporters of the USSR in the CPC. The occupation of Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact troops. Resistance is suppressed, reforms are stopped.

Lesson number 43. Final repetition and generalization historical material chapter 7 is carried out with the help of questions and tasks proposed in the textbook No. 1-5 (pp. 227 - 228). As in other final iterative and generalizing lessons, the volume of oral and written work, forms of conducting a repetitive-generalizing lesson - a collective discussion of questions and tasks, an individual survey, a frontal conversation, test work, etc. - the teacher determines in accordance with the level of preparation of students, intellectual and psychological features specific class, as well as educational tasks, which in this moment are the most important. A lesson on final repetition and generalization can be organized in the form of a discussion of questions or a test lesson.

Option number 1. Discussion of the main problems of the history of the USSR in the 40s - the first half of the 80s. on questions and assignments for chapter 7 (No. 1-5, pp. 227-228). Problems that are preferable to discuss in the lesson of the final repetition and generalization:

Description of the main features of the political, ideological and economic development of the USSR in the post-war Stalinist period.

Role in the history of the country I.V. Stalin, N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.

Development of the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe: general and specific features.

The historical significance of the XX Congress of the CPSU in the life of the country.

De-Stalinization in the USSR and Eastern Europe.

The crisis of "developed socialism" in the 70s - the first half of the 80s.

crisis phenomena in the USSR and countries of Eastern Europe.

Option number 2 . Lesson-offset. Oral and written compositions of students, solution of test tasks.

Test tasks:

one). Rapid post-war reconstruction economy of the USSR was due to

financial and economic aid USSR Marshall Plan

selfless labor of Soviet citizens

insignificant material losses USSR during the war

2). USSR victory in the Great Patriotic War contributed to domestic politics

democratization public life

ending repression and persecution of dissent

strengthening the Stalinist regime

3). The accusation of figures of Soviet culture in the absence of patriotism and admiration for the "rotten" Western culture was called

cosmopolitanism

internationalism

chauvinism

four). With the name of the leader of the party and state N.S. Khrushchev in domestic politics is bound (oh)

return to Stalinism

the beginning of the process of de-Stalinization

continued mass repression

5). "Thaw" in the domestic policy of the Soviet leadership is typical for the period

1953 - 1964

1945 - 1953

1964 - 1982

6). Which event or event not connected with the activities of L.I. Brezhnev?

The concept of "developed socialism"

Communism building program

Complete bureaucratization of Soviet society

7). In 1964, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, N.S. Khrushchev was accused of

voluntarism

cosmopolitanism

revival of Stalinism

eight). The essence of the economic reform of A.N. Kosygin in the second half of the 60s. was

forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture

introduction of a system of territorial management of industry - economic councils

introduction of economic levers of enterprise management

9). The economy of the USSR in the 70s - the first half of the 80s. depended to a large extent

dynamic development of agriculture

foreign exchange earnings from the sale of oil and gas

mass computerization of the national economy

ten). The period of L.I. Brezhnev was named

"thaw"

"voluntarism"

"era of stagnation"

eleven). “Application, embezzlement and corruption, ceremonial window dressing, total bureaucracy ... with the connivance of the highest hierarchy in state apparatus corroded society, hampered its development. Healthy forces practically did not have the opportunity to resist this unscrupulousness of officials and leaders.

So the famous poet S.V. Mikhalkov characterized the period of government

I.V. Stalin

L.I. Brezhnev

N.S. Khrushchev

12). A symbol of the Cold War in Europe and the split German nation became (a) _____________ .

13). The armed suppression of the uprising in Hungary by the Soviet troops took place in

fourteen). What event or phenomenon is called the "Prague Spring"?

The entry of troops Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia

Restoration of conservative forces within the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia

Liberalization of public life in Czechoslovakia

fifteen). The most important feature of the "Yugoslav model" of socialism was

allowing private enterprise in the service and trade sectors

accelerated pace of industrialization

rigid centralization of the management of industry and agriculture

16). Led (a) a surge in the labor movement, mass strikes in Poland in the 80s.

Polish United Workers' Party

trade union "Solidarity"

Catholic Church

Answer key for test tasks:

Questions and tasks:

1. Compare the goals and nature of the actions of the Polish "Solidarity" with the speeches in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968). What are the features Polish movement? Was there something common in the events in all three countries?

The participants of the Polish Solidarity association, as well as the participants in the speeches of Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), aimed to reform societies, advocated the recognition of free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, an end to persecution for their beliefs, and expansion of access for public and religious organizations to the media, etc.

A feature of the movement "Solidarity" was its mass character. If the actions in Hungary took place only in Budapest, and in Czechoslovakia they came from the top of the Communist Party, then the Solidarity movement embraced all Polish workers.

Similar for all three speeches was the military intervention of the USSR, i.e. resolving the issue by force.

2. What were the main driving forces events of November-December 1989 in the GDR? * How would you answer the question: why did the communist regime fall in the GDR?

Basic driving force The events of November-December 1989 in the GDR became the desire of the people to update the existing system in everything - in the economy, politics, ideology, etc.

A significant influence on the fall of the communist regime in the GDR had, firstly, parallel anti-communist speeches in neighboring countries, secondly, the presence of a neighboring prosperous Germany and low productivity and living standards in the GDR, thirdly, the mutual desire of the two Germanys to unite, and the power of the communists in the GDR prevented this.

3. Find out from the textbook of national history what events took place in the 1980s - early 1990s in the USSR. How did they influence the events of 1989-1990? in Eastern European countries?

In the early 1980s stagnation was observed in the USSR, and later crisis phenomena began to appear. Since 1985, “perestroika” began in the USSR, the purpose of which was the comprehensive democratization of the socio-political and economic system that had developed in the USSR.

In 1987 "perestroika" in the USSR was declared a new state ideology.

Since that time, a policy of publicity has been proclaimed in public life - mitigation of censorship in the media and the lifting of bans on discussing topics that were previously hushed up;

The economy allowed private entrepreneurship in the form of cooperatives, and joint ventures with foreign companies are beginning to be actively created.

In foreign policy, the “New Thinking” becomes the main doctrine - the course: the rejection of class approach in diplomacy and improving relations with the West.

All these phenomena could not but affect the life of the Eastern Bloc, where the reform took place simultaneously with the USSR, since the communist parties received instructions from Moscow.

In addition, in the course of perestroika in the USSR, a deep economic and economic political crisis and control, as it was before, he could not control his allies, since internal matters were more important. Thus, no one interfered with the countries of the Eastern Bloc by conducting internal political coups.

4. Why were the events of November-December 1989 in Czechoslovakia called the "Velvet Revolution"? How did they differ, for example, from the events in Romania?

Because the speeches of the citizens of Czechoslovakia, as well as their dispersal, took place in a fairly peaceful way. Despite initial clashes between demonstrators and power structures Communist Party, in general, the revolution was carried out without bloodshed, in connection with which it received its name. However, as a result mass protests there was a transfer of power from the communists to the democratic forces. The government was forced to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament repealed articles of the constitution on leadership The Communist Party in society and the defining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. December 10, 1989 was established coalition government, which included communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties.

For example, in Romania, the transfer of power from the communists was accompanied by more bloody actions, such as the death sentence for Ceausescu and his wife.

5. What are the main reasons for the aggravation of national contradictions in the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1990s. *Express your opinion on how such conflicts can be resolved.

The main reason for the aggravation of national contradictions in the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1990s was the desire of many countries to obtain national self-determination.

In 1991 - 1992 the Yugoslav state collapsed. As part of Federal Republic Yugoslavia was left with two of the six former Yugoslav republics - Serbia and Montenegro. independent states became Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia. However, the state demarcation was accompanied by an aggravation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.

An intractable situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs, Croats and Muslims historically coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population who converted to Islam after Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were supplemented by religious ones: in addition to the division into Christians and Muslims, the Serbs belonged to Orthodox Church, and the Croats - to the Catholic. In a single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (among the Serbs) and Latin (among the Croats).

Throughout the 20th century strong central authority in the Yugoslav kingdom, and then in a federal socialist state, it held back national contradictions. In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke away from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular severity. The Serbs, who made up half of the population of Bosnia, refused to recognize secession from the Yugoslav federation, and then proclaimed the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992 - 1994 flared up armed conflict between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among those who fought, but also among the civilian population. In the prisoner camps settlements people were killed. Thousands of people left their villages and cities and became refugees. To contain the internecine struggle in Bosnia were sent peacekeeping troops UN. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped by the efforts of international diplomacy.

In Serbia, after 1990, a crisis arose related to the autonomous province of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims according to religious affiliation). The limitation of the province's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the "Republic of Kosovo". An armed conflict broke out. At the end of the 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the leadership of Serbia and the leaders of the Kosovo Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO troops began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale. In 2006, Montenegro seceded from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.

It seems to me that these conflicts could have been avoided if the countries could agree among themselves, as was the case during the division of Czechoslovakia, from which the Czech Republic and Slovakia peacefully separated after a referendum in 1992.

6. What forces were in power in the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1990s and in early XXI in.? Describe their domestic and foreign policy.

At the beginning of the XXI century. in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe, left-wing and right-wing governments and state leaders were replaced in power. Thus, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government was supposed to cooperate with President W. Klaus, who occupies the right positions (elected in 2003), in Poland, left-wing politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as president by right-wing representative L. Kaczynski (2005). It is noteworthy that both "left" and "right" governments in one way or another decided general tasks accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and economic systems in line with European standards, and settling social problems.

In foreign policy, the economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries have become the center of attraction for the countries of the region, primarily European Union and NATO. In 1999, Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 another 7 states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) joined NATO. In the same 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria.

In recent months former countries The Eastern bloc, one after another, enter a new period of disappointment. Nothing out of the ordinary is happening in Hungary. Figuratively speaking, all of Eastern Europe is now one big Hungary.

General "diseases"

Of course, such heated clashes as in Budapest are rare. But, on the other hand, in Lithuania, for example, relatively recently it came to the impeachment of the president. In Poland, mass actions of disobedience took place, covering entire regions. All Eastern European countries are of the same type and suffer from approximately the same diseases. And political systems they are all lined up in roughly the same way: the post-communists, who grew out of the former Soviet era “nomenklatura”, oppose right-wing nationalists.

Back in the early 1990s. in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic countries, facilitated access to the markets of Western Europe was opened, which allowed them to sufficiently compensate for the losses from the loss of the Russian market. The states of Central and Eastern Europe were admitted to the WTO, the World Bank, the IMF. However, as soon as Western companies mastered new markets, they immediately captured all the leading industries, pushing local manufacturers into the background. As a result, the prices of everything from food and clothing to gasoline and the price of a room in hotels of any number of stars have risen in the new EU member states.

At the same time, all (without exception) countries of Eastern Europe lost almost all of their large-scale industry and, as a result, received very high level unemployment, which, after joining the EU, "results" in the mass migration of cheap labor from Eastern Europe to "old Europe". In some cases (as in Lithuania and Estonia, for example), over 10% of the population has already migrated. Almost all Eastern European youth are "sitting on their suitcases" ready to fill vacancies in Paris and London as plumbers and taxi drivers. As a result, in all Eastern European countries, the authority nation states and especially the national elites are shockingly low.

Anti-system sentiment

So, the Eastern European countries are struck by a deep moral and systemic crisis. There is also a crisis of European institutions of power, which are not able to insure the citizens of the EU member states against the loss of real controllability. As a result, “anti-systemic” protest moods are trying to break through to the surface everywhere in Eastern Europe in one form or another. Usually politicians who use them are called "populists". Paksas and Uspaskikh in Lithuania, Lepper and both Kaczynski brothers (according to at least, before coming to power) - in Poland, the current nationalists in power in Slovakia - everywhere the forces that play on the distrust of the people in relation to their elites and institutions of power in general take over. While there is no single ideology for this social protest. In some countries, this protest takes the form of left-wing populism. In others, the right. Often people withdraw into private life and become fundamentally apolitical. But in every country there is already a noticeable electoral field, which of the same type demands to conduct politics in the interests of their nations seriously, and not in the interests of abstract liberal values ​​or some corporate groups that are almost everywhere called the same - "mafia". The problem, however, is that, having come to power, “populists” very quickly adopt the leadership style of the very “pragmatists” whom they previously so zealously criticized and accused of corruption ...

There is another important internal factor for all Eastern European countries: the most dynamic of them left for old Europe; In a sense, these countries have become socio-cultural "sumps". The level of political culture and understanding of one's place in the world in the societies of these countries has really fallen very much. In the wake of instability, the voices of the ultra-right, in fact, outright neo-Nazis, are being heard louder and louder.

Second class countries

As for the migration sphere, there have been no visible changes at all. Visas for citizens of Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland were canceled back in 1990, and for the Baltic states and Slovenia - a year later, after the recognition of their independence. The main thing that the new member countries hoped for in this part was the free search for work in Western Europe. However, nothing happened here. Thanks to the efforts of Germany and Austria, full-fledged work visas have been preserved for those who want to find work in Western Europe, which must be issued at consulates. Of course, it is much easier for a Pole to do this than for a Russian, but still. They were not accepted into the Schengen Agreement either - border control both on the old border of the European Union and between the new countries was preserved, and in some places, like on the Czech-Slovak border, it even intensified, because the Czech Republic and Slovakia were ordered to break the customs union, concluded immediately after the collapse of the united Czechoslovakia. These half-hearted decisions of the European Union once again prove that the majority of Eastern European countries in the EU are not ready to be treated as equals.

An unpleasant surprise

But besides this, the Eastern Europeans were in for another unpleasant surprise - since 2006 they will be obliged to accept some of the refugees from third world countries that were previously in Western Europe. In all cases it will be 2% of total strength the population of the country. Most of the Arabs, Afghans, Negroes, Hindus and Chinese will go to Poland - up to 750 thousand. Czech Republic and Hungary - more than 200 thousand, Slovakia - over 100 thousand, Lithuania - 75 thousand, Latvia - 55 thousand, Slovenia - 40 thousand, Estonia - 35 thousand. national minorities in some of them, new citizens will become for them a real "tub of cold water".

The most telling thing here is the numbers. Thus, according to the European Commission, only 4 newcomer countries exceeded the 50% threshold of the average EU standard of living: Slovenia - 69%, Cyprus - 63%, the Czech Republic - 59% and Malta - 53%. But the indicators of the rest of the former socialist countries fluctuate around 40%. Hungary and Estonia are slightly above this bar, Poland and Lithuania are slightly lower. And Latvia and Slovakia generally have per capita income levels of 30 and 28% of the EU average. So, having expanded, the European Union noticeably became poorer, and the citizens of the countries remaining in the way " New Europe The obstacles only confirm this.

Shadows of the past

The enlargement of the European Union has once again placed on the agenda in Eastern Europe "sore issues" stemming from the past. Thus, Hungary is considering the possibility of expanding its borders at the expense of adjacent territories inhabited by ethnic Hungarians. In addition to the 11 million Hungarians in Hungary, another 2 million live in Romania, over 600,000 in Slovakia and over 400,000 in Serbia. In the first two cases, they make up to 10% or more of the population of these countries. Considering that ex-Prime Minister Viktor Orban, known for his nationalist statements, receives more than 40% of the votes in each election, it is easy to guess that the Hungarian voter is not against using EU membership to expand the borders of his own country.

Much more serious is the fact that the European Union can become a tool for revising the results of the Second World War for Germany and Austria. Even at the stage of negotiations, both of them, especially Austria, demanded that Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia cancel the decrees according to which millions were evicted from their territory as Nazi accomplices 60 years ago. ethnic Germans. The issue of compensation for their lost property or even their return to the homeland of their ancestors is one of the main points of the program not only of the radical Austrian Freedom Party or the German National Democrats, but also of the respectable German CDU / CSU and the Austrian People's Party. The latter is already in power, and the return to power in Germany of the Christian Democrats is likely to happen as early as next year.

And the question of the eviction of the Germans will certainly come up very quickly, because after Angela Merkel, the head of the government of Bavaria, Edmund Stoiber, the representative of the land that accepted the largest number settlers. It is the Bavarian Christian Socialists, among whom Stoiber, who are already now the main heralds of the revision " eastern politics". And not only Austria, but also Italy, which puts forward the same demands on Slovenia, can become their ally. It turns out that instead of being included in a single European family, Eastern Europe can get a new “Drang nach Osten - an onslaught to the east” with a possible revision of the borders of Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Lithuania and Slovenia in favor of Germany and Austria. In general, the new EU members did not become subjects in the global political process, remaining its object. The United States, on the one hand, and France and Germany, on the other, argued for their inclusion in their sphere of influence. This is where lies the main problem EU - double and triple standards, the absence of a clearly defined goal of European unification and its future borders. Energy without a vector almost always leads to destruction. Whether this vector will appear, only time will tell.

A quarter of a century has passed since the beginning of the so-called "reforms" in the countries of Eastern Europe. It's time to draw some conclusions. At least from my point of view - a Ukrainian who visited many of these states in the Soviet years, and now, in search of work, he walked this region far and wide on foot.

Eastern European countries were until 1989 political and economic systems developed mainly under the influence of the Soviet model of socialism. However, these systems have by no means become small mirror copies of our orders. Many of which, as we now realize, were not the best. Some mistakes of the USSR former allies Moscow were immediately taken into account.

It is a paradox, but the average layman in the Soviet Union was then much better informed about life in the United States and other Western countries than about the realities of his former friends in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). So, by the 70s of the last century, the agro-industrial complex of a number of Eastern European countries surpassed in efficiency most of the same industries in some Western European states. The average yield in the countries of the socialist camp, advanced in this regard, already then reached 50 centners per hectare. Which for the USSR, however, seemed like a fairy tale. Many small cooperative, family and private shops and cafes flourished.

Although in Eastern Europe, each country, of course, had its own specifics. The store shelves in most of them in the 80s were bursting with goods in the widest range, although, say, in Romania and Poland, there were exceptions in some crisis years.

At the same time, formally, their then money was not officially convertible. However, there was no such strict control over foreign currency as in the USSR. Anyone could easily buy it from their hands and “stock” it in a foreign exchange store.

However, the exchange rate of the "grey" foreign exchange market turned out to be artificially low, which somewhat irritated the population.

And now a quarter of a century of notorious "reforms" in Eastern Europe has passed. In order to correctly understand their results, one must always remember famous quote laureate Nobel Prize in Economics by Paul Krugman. In his regular feature in The New York Times, he translates complex economic concepts into ordinary human language, advising at the same time: "If you have to choose what to believe - official economic statistics or your own eyes - always believe your eyes."

Average salaries today in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary - on paper! - are approximately the same. And they are about 800 euros per month. Minimum - about 350-400 euros. Unemployment is said to be just over 10%. It seems that GDP is growing at the very least everywhere.

Nevertheless - sketches from nature.

Poland

The highest - on paper - the average salary in Eastern Europe. Equivalent to 900 euros! And at the same time the most monstrous deindustrialization and unemployment among all countries in the region.

First, about the salary: we are talking, firstly, about those few lucky people who have a job. Including - temporary and seasonal.

Secondly, about legal, official work. First of all, most residents of Warsaw have it. Some of it is shared with other major cities. While the province in some places returned almost to the Middle Ages. Don't be surprised to hear about Poles who agree to work for less than half the legal minimum wage. That is, for 150-200 euros per month. And they are still glad that they have at least such income. But such earnings, of course, do not fall into the statistics and do not spoil it.

At one time, the deputy chairman of the commission of the Solidarity trade union of the well-known Gdansk shipyard (where this trade union appeared), Pan Fryderyk Radziusz, gave me an interview. And, in particular, he said:

The former management of our shipyard, as well as the company "Synergia-99" and the syndicate in Gdynia, who bought our shipyard, are solid thieves. They took loans and didn't repay them. But they bought a mansion for a million dollars, and so on and so forth. They were removed, criminal cases were initiated. Their relatives are also involved in the scams. It is impossible to sort out all this mess with the sale and purchase, but there is no doubt that fraud has taken place.

Our shipyard was sold for 70 million zł. At that time, we had 40 million in our bank account alone. There were also components, an almost built ship - real money.

Why, immediately after the purchase of the shipyard by the Gdynia syndicate, were the docks dismantled for the construction of small ships? To get rid of unwanted competition? Yes, at that time there were no orders for them, but they could well appear later.

With what money do our enterprises buy? No one knows this, a lot of financial scams.

The government is silent about the illegal payment of workers below officially established level. It doesn't interest him. He has another concern - to get his supporters into the European Parliament.

For information: this huge shipyard was created by Germany before the First World War. There, to a large extent, its navy was created. Warships were also built in Gdansk for Russia. Today, the famous shipyard is virtually non-existent.

Agriculture also collapsed in Poland. Driving through the country, pay attention to the mass of abandoned fields overgrown with shrubs.

And here is the opinion of another Pole:

It's bad in Poland right now. Terrible, indescribable unemployment. Factories operate in best case partially. But everywhere new Western supermarkets are opening, ruining local merchants. Interestingly, they hire sellers exclusively from persons with higher education. People are treated like dogs there. This is how things stand here in Warsaw. It's even worse in the provinces.

Czech

Nominally wages are even slightly lower than in Poland. But what a huge difference between these countries! Unlike Poland, the Czech Republic still retained, even in the provinces, the appearance of a civilized country. Unemployment is very high, but not so high as to be homeless, like the Poles, throughout Western Europe. And the fields are processed here.

The city of Teszyn, united during the times of Austria-Hungary, is divided in half between Poland and the Czech Republic. I have crossed this border many times on foot. There is a railway station on the Czech side, numerous trains run there. On the Polish side, the station has been closed for several years. And what a difference today in the appearance of people in this and that part of Teshin!

I believe, largely because the Czech Republic is surrounded by the most prosperous regions of Europe, which in least degree affected by the crisis recent years. Bavaria - in the west and Austria - in the south. Border population trying to get a job there at any cost. In the morning - there, in the evening - back. But the Germans regularly go to the Czech Republic for a standard set: cheap supermarkets - "ecotourism" - cheap porn and gambling sex parlors.

The vast majority of privatized Czech factories also have serious problems. But due to proximity to industrial centers Bavaria and Austria, with which they managed to somehow establish cooperation, these problems are not as nightmarish as in Poland.

Hungary

Once upon a time, "market socialism" was built here. The small private sector flourished especially. The restrictions on his activities concerned mainly the number of hired workers. A private owner had the right to hire all his relatives and, in addition to them, up to five people from outside.

One of the most efficient agro-industrial complexes world based on cooperatives. They have largely survived to this day. At the very least, agriculture is also holding on. However, the manufacturing industry has been sold off for next to nothing to foreign corporations and has come to a near standstill.

Atilla, an ethnic Hungarian from Romania, a professional European laborer, told me in Corsica, where they worked together in the vineyards: “The first country in which I began to work abroad was Hungary. Worked there for several years in the 90s. Then a lot of things stopped in this country. Then he was forced to move to Spain. But even there, everything soon collapsed. Now, as you can see, I am earning money in France.”

Actually main source currency receipts in Hungary - Austrian tourists. AT summer season their families come by car for the weekend to swim at Lake Balaton. BUT local population rents out his dachas to them, feeds and entertains guests.

The most visible difference from bygone days socialism lies in the fact that private shops and cafes in Hungary have become an order of magnitude smaller. Handicrafts and manufactured goods of local production disappeared. Imports and supermarkets have ruined most of the small producers. But Budapest has become a world center for the production of pornographic films, if anyone does not know!

Slovakia

Before World War II, Slovakia was very backward. Unlike the industrialized Czech Republic. After 1945, Czechoslovakia as a whole quickly became a major world producer and exporter of weapons, and the most modern and high-tech. At the same time, new military plants were built in Slovakia.

After the beginning of the "reforms", President Havel announced that Czechoslovakia - peaceful country and therefore closes all military factories. Thus, in one fell swoop, he stopped all the factories in Slovakia. As I was told, it was because of this that the Slovaks hated Havel.

The story of a Slovak about privatization in the republic: "Small privatization" somehow went relatively calmly. When the "big" privatization began - my God, what a robbery reigned, what chaos!

Today, the capital of the republic, Bratislava, is a sleepy city, from where buses run to Vienna every hour. Before Austrian capital- a little more than an hour. Even faster - with your car. This is how Slovakia lives today.

Bulgaria and Romania

Let's not even remember either the "average" or the "minimum" salary. Industry in these countries collapsed. Irrigation canals overgrown with bushes. Great amount arable land has not been cultivated for a long time.

Romania is a country of police terror. On every corner you can find policemen armed with Kalashnikovs. Their cruelty in our border Odessa region is known firsthand. Coffins are regularly brought here with the corpses of Ukrainian citizens (even with criminal, mostly inclinations), killed for something by the Romanian police.

I saw the results of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia shortly after the end of hostilities in the Balkans. And today in Bulgaria, the remains of cooperative farms with collapsed roofs, dilapidated railway stations and plants overgrown with weeds are striking everywhere. And if you purely visually compare the destruction here and there, if you compare the number of ruins, then it seems that NATO was mistaken. And instead of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria was bombed.

Former borders of the socialist camp

It is exceptionally informative to cross the borders of the former socialist countries, now members of the EU, on foot. For example, I recently crossed the Hungarian-Slovenian border in this way along a provincial local road.

The Hungarian border village used to be, apparently, rich. Good, decent houses. Today there are almost no people there. The windows are closed or boarded up. Everyone has gone somewhere where there is at least some work. It feels like a neutron bomb exploded - people were killed, but the houses remained intact.

The neighboring Slovenian village was, apparently, not so prosperous. But no one lives there today.

But the most interesting thing is that the zones of the former customs and border control with all their ancillary buildings are carefully fenced and guarded. Not a single glass is broken. Although the former cooperative farms in the neighborhood have long been smashed stone by stone. Thus, if necessary, border control can technically be restored in a few days.

I observed the same situation on the Bulgarian-Greek border. Border crossing Petrich. Complete destruction of former residential and commercial buildings on the Bulgarian side. But the buildings of the former border service are completely intact, although they are locked. And the dying, deserted villages on the Greek side - almost the entire population fled somewhere.

The feeling is that the EU will not last long. And the authorities of many countries understand this ...

Alexander Sivov, Free Press