Modeling itself is a method scientific knowledge of the world and is defined as the representation of an object by a model in order to obtain information about it by conducting experiments with its model. Model yes
“a sample of something” or “likeness of an object”. It (but to G. Klaus) is a display of facts, things and relations of a certain field of knowledge in a simpler, more visual material structure this or that area.
Modeling of biological systems has its own history. In the V-I centuries. BC. modeling was a reproduction of the external similarity of the object. Until the 16th century reproduction of the simplest selective reactions of living systems dominated. At the stage from the XVI to the middle of the XX century. the principle of self-regulation and the simplest functions of brain activity was reproduced. Since the second half of the XX century. a transition was made to modeling all kinds of (including complex) processes of living nature. At the same time, on the one hand, the model of a biological system must be simplified enough to allow a physical or mathematical interpretation, on the other hand, it must reflect the most important and essential features of the phenomenon, i.e. be complex enough so as not to lose the adequacy of the prototype.
In the literature, they are defined by at least two main model types: physical and mathematical. To physical type include models that have a physical, chemical or biological nature, similar to the nature of the phenomenon under study, retaining similarity to the original and differing from it only in size, speed of flow of the studied phenomena and material. Math type represents models that have a different physical, chemical or biological nature from the prototypes, but allow a mathematical, programmatic or logical description of the process with the original. To build a mathematical model of any object, it is necessary first of all to identify the factors related to it, and describe its characteristics, while highlighting the variables that have a major impact on the result.
There are three stages of creating mathematical models:
- 1) creation of a logical-mathematical scheme;
- 2) comparison of theoretical and experimental concepts (scheme-experiment);
- 3) specific application of the logical-mathematical scheme.
The effectiveness of mathematical modeling depends on the nature
research tasks, the researcher's skill, the chosen model, time and means regulations. Mathematical modeling in psychology faces a number of difficulties associated with some "restraint" of researchers. This is due to the fact that mathematical modeling is a method associated with complex mathematical calculations, a certain reductionism and a special status of the computer in the experiment.
Classification of models. Within the framework of experimental psychology, the classification of models can be represented as classes of sign, program, and physical (real) models.
The class of iconic models is represented by figurative, conceptual and mathematical models of the object of study. figurative models -
these are images contained in the individual consciousness of a person, disappearing with the death of the carrier. Concept Models represent a verbal description of mental activity in a certain language (for example, a characteristic of the object of study), which should be accurate and of equal significance for all users. Maximum development conceptual model leads to a mathematical (formal) model. Mathematical model involves the analysis of the psychological system by precise means. Its main disadvantages are: the distortion of natural conditions in order to use ready-made (standard) models and the desire for linearity. The use of linear functions in psychology is due to the adequate perception of such dependencies by people from the point of view of common sense. Moreover, a comparison of linear and non-linear dependencies obtained by approximation shows that they differ statistically insignificantly.
Software model class is represented by strictly algorithmic, heuristic and block diagram models. Algorithmic Models are based on the use of content prescriptions and a sequence of operations that translate the initial data into the desired result. Heuristic Models - these are the most developed software models. Block diagram models are a reflection in the model of the relationship between the information process of solving problems and problem situations with emotional and mnemonic processes of mental activity. Their main drawback is the insufficient depth of analogy between the model and the prototype.
Physical class (material) models appear to be hypothetical, bionic and biological models. Hypothetical model - this is a system for analyzing data from psychological research, creating a constructive hypothesis about the material, structural mechanisms of the processes of mental activity, building a technological model in accordance with the hypothesis, the functioning of which is used to check the adequacy of the hypothesis. The basis bionic model a hypothesis about the structure of the substrate capable of generating subjective phenomena was put forward. In bionic models, all subjective experiences (sensations, images, memory) are formed from material elements - nerve impulses, caused by external (physical) influences, and in artificially created machines, interacting impulses, as well as in a living organism, form artificial subjective phenomena. biological models are experimental animals, insects, etc., used in psychological experiments as a natural model for the course of the studied mental function.
Thus, in the course of psychological modeling, as noted by A. A. Bratko, at least three aspects should be taken into account: 1) the structure of the studied mental process should be reproduced in the model,
2) the model should take into account the data of neurophysiology and logical structure psyche, 3) when transferring data, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the system used as a model.
Modeling the subject of psychological research. In psychological research, as in most other types of experimentation, the model of the object under study is manipulated. Therefore, in the course of psychological research, first conceptual and theoretical (construction of a hypothesis) is carried out, then content-logical, and already at the implementation stage - formal mathematical, instrumental, methodological and interpretive modeling.
To illustrate psychological modeling, consider the measurement cognitive activity schoolchildren.
1. theoretical model cognitive features of the subjects in the training system can be any concept of intelligence 1 . Intelligence is sometimes defined as the generalized ability to learn. This position has its opponents. However, many researchers agree that it is intelligence tests that strongly correlate with school performance.
As a result of the research, the presence of general and specific learning ability in the structure of human cognitive activity was revealed. General learning is determined by the ability of an individual to acquire knowledge (or information) regardless of the content and form of presentation. She abstracts from motivational component intellectual activity and depends largely on thought processes individual. Specific learning is characterized orientation and selectivity acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. Both general and specific learning is inherent in rate of assimilation of information.
Thus, specific learning consists of two dynamic components: assimilation educational information and focus this assimilation, which is dictated by the personal characteristics of the subject and the specifics of the content of this information. The static component of learning is “experience”, which, through the directed appropriation of external information by an individual, has become its internal component. "Experience" plays active role in the cognitive process. L. S. Vygotsky called “experience” the “level actual development» (UAR) personality. An integral part of learning along with “experience” is its dynamic part: the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD), which determines the potential cognitive capabilities of a person in the form of the ability to assimilate educational information under the guidance or in cooperation with a mentor, teacher, i.e. prediction of potential cognitive features of the subject. The psychological basis of the ZPD is the conscious and internally controlled "imitation" of the student by the actions of the teacher. Yu. 3. Gilbukh proposed the ZPD structure in the form of zones of "relevant learning" 1 (ZAO) and "creative independence" (ZTS). Both "zones" are dialectically interconnected and structurally articulated. The "zone of proximal development" exists potentially. It is realized in the process of alternating ZTS and ZTS and is fixed in the methods of intellectual activity in the actual experience of the subject.
Thus, learning as a psychological category is structured on at least three planes. The first plane is defined as general and specific learning; the second - as the pace, selectivity and orientation of the assimilation of educational information and, finally, the third plane - these are the dynamic and static aspects: the process of "assimilation" and "experience" as the active storage and use of learned information. The process of "assimilation" is characterized by internal dynamic structure, which is a dialectical unity of two processes - CJSC and ZTS.
- 2. Content-logical (quality) model, based on the provisions of the theoretical model (hypothesis), reflects the reduced overall idea of the experimenter about the content of the subject of research. In the case under consideration, learning (LLC) as a characteristic of the subject's cognitive activity is a certain function of the unity of the static and dynamic components of the learning process - the "level of actual development" in the form of "experience" (He), the "zone of actual learning" in the form of "imitation" (Po ) and “zones of creative independence” (TS): OBCh = / (He, Po, TS).
- 3. Instrumental and methodological model includes methodological means of psychological measurement of the elements of the conceptual-theoretical and content-logical models.
In our case, methods were chosen that passed the reliability check in a number of educational organizations in Moscow. The sample consisted of more than 1200 high school students. For the purpose of measuring the variable "experience" is determined using an intellectual test that diagnoses the general knowledge of the subjects learned in the process of studying the school curriculum (STC). "Imitation" was measured using orientation tests (TPA-SBP). "Creative independence" is determined using the methodology for assessing creativity (modification of the test by S. Mednik).
- 4. Formal-quantitative (.mathematical) model learning is a mathematical function of "experience", "imitation" and "creative independence". It was empirically determined that each element is included in the OB with its own weight coefficient: Op -
- 0.333; By - 0.343; TS - 0.324. As an abstract model by approximation method least squares linear regression was chosen (y = b + ah d)."Experience" is determined using an intellectual test that diagnoses the general knowledge of the subjects acquired in the process of studying the school curriculum, and is modeled as a linear regression equation: where Y 0p - evaluation of "experience"; X ( - test indicator. Correlation coefficient Rxy = 0,54 (R x 2 - indicator of the orientation test. Correlation coefficient Rvy = 0,67 (R R4/ = 0.42 (p 0.05)1.
Thus, TBN was calculated using the formula TBN = 2.53 + 0.15^! + + 0.09x 2 + 0.01lg 3 , which is a mathematical model for assessing learning ability, i.e. we are dealing with a model for predicting learning, which can be fully used in the educational process at school.
5. Interpretation model represents a cumulative conclusion about the level of development and manifestation of the variables "experience", "imitation" and "creativity" of the subjects, based on the parameters normal distribution data (Gauss-Laplace law). The interpretation model can be described as ranges of indicators in raw test values or in standard scores. The calculation of the boundaries of the ranges is carried out according to the formula M x+ 8 Г The number of interpretive ranges is determined based on the required dimension of the field of decisions about the level of development of the quality under study.
For example, if the field of decisions within the framework of training in an educational organization involves a four-point assessment of the quality under study, then the interpretive model will consist of four interpretive ranges (Fig. 6.2). one
Rice. 6.2.
Thus, in a broad sense, the main goal of modeling is the formation experimental hypothesis and implementation of measures for its experimental confirmation.
Organizational and procedural model of psychological experiment. Modeling the process of psychological research presents the following general algorithm: the emerging social or scientific need leads to hypothetical ideas that require experimental testing, as a result of which the hypothesis is accepted or rejected (Fig. 6.3).
Rice. 6.3.
play an important role in scientific research hypotheses those. certain predictions based on theoretical research, a small amount of experimental data, observations, conjectures. The verification of the put forward hypotheses is carried out in the course of a specially designed experiment. In this case, the theoretical hypothesis is transformed into an experimental one, i.e. into some construction of measured variables.
Experiment modeling is possible on the basis of understanding the essence of the experimental procedure. The presentation of the experimental procedure since the entry of the experiment into psychological science has been based on the tradition of behaviorism. It was in this vein that the initial theoretical justification of the psychological experiment was given by W. Wundt. Researchers of the Würzburg School, in particular I. Ach (N. Ach), questioned the adequacy of the model "S-R"(“stimulus - reaction”) for the purposes of psychological research, indicating that the researcher himself intervenes in the experimental situation (instruction, communication with the subject, etc.), and stimulus should be considered as experimental impact, And How interpersonal interaction. L. S. Vygotsky also noted the unsuitability of the behavioral model of the experiment, since the scheme "S-R" considering the psyche of the subject as reactive, is applicable only to the study of lower mental functions. In his opinion, subject's activity should be the basis for studying the higher mental functions of a person. The instrumental method, providing for this activity, should be dominant in a psychological experiment. L. S. Vygotsky presented the corresponding model of the experiment (Fig. 6.4).
Rice. 6.4.
according to L. S. Vygotsky
Since the material in natural-science psychological research is human behavior, the so-called experimental model is described by a special logical language developed by K. Levin (K. Lewin), C. Fillmore (S. Fillmore), G. X. von Wricht (G. N von Wright), G. A. Ball, J. Nuttin, T. Parsons and others. - Marev, A. V. Brushlinsky and other researchers used as global conceptual constructs Wednesday(world, environment, many objects), system(agent, subject), action(operation, behavior, act), interaction environments and systems.
Modern developments of psychological experiment models are dominated by reality principle, i.e. explicit and hidden variables, their relationships, connections are distinguished, and the logic of interpretation is also built. Changes in the states of the environment, the system and the states of the subject are also taken into account. Two forms of interaction between the environment and the system are considered, where the behavior is directed to the environment (performing action, transformation) and the characteristics of the change in the spatio-temporal states of the system. It also provides for the possibility of two options for describing behavior and action - active expedient and reactive behavior. In accordance with this, two types of its explanation are defined - teleological 1 and causal 1 . Their complementarity was emphasized by N. A. Bernshtein.
Experimentation in psychology is characterized by an abundance of uncertainties that are a source of error. Often, the fuller the psychological data, the greater the likelihood of ambiguities and errors. The problem of the psychological experiment model is not so much in the adequate application of statistical procedures (many perfect mathematical methods for analyzing and interpreting data have been developed), but in the application of statistics in relation to adequately selected variables. There are problems of the validity of the dynamics of variables, the ability to find the facts of their change due to experimental exposure. The problems of explaining the dynamics of variables in a psychological experiment are akin to the "art of understanding" the essence of the subject's personality.
An essential problem in the interpretation of experimental results is choice of interpretation strategy psychological data. The first strategy includes ideas about the determination of interaction in the personality structure of various traits. In this perspective, a person is presented as a correlation of binary personal properties. The second strategy is distinguished by a pronounced profile or radicalism. Binary systems of opposite traits in the personality structure can have a certain accent - a radical, which is made up of parts (features, qualities) and represents a whole, a personality structure. The task of the experiment is to reveal this structure, to determine its dynamic components and a rigid, relatively unchanging "framework".
So the model pilot study is a system of not only the interaction of variables, but also the relationship between the researcher and the subject in an experimental situation.
The main elements of the experimental situation can be: 1) object of influence(agent, subject, person, group) with its controlled and uncontrolled parameters (age, gender, level of knowledge, skills, certain mental variables, motivation) - OB; ; 2) formal interaction the subject and the researcher (experimental task (goal), experimental impact, instrumental task, instruction, device) - FI II; 3) emotional interaction the subject and the researcher (informal relations, sympathy / antipathy) - EV II; four) interaction in surveyed group(formal and informal relations, "group effect") - VOG; 5) interaction with the environment(background, set of objects, informational factors, habitability factors) - BC; 6) action(understanding instructions, decision making, execution of decisions, satisfaction, fatigue) - D.
Temporal, procedural and spatial factors relatively order the elements of the system in such a way as shown in the diagram (Fig. 6.5).
Rice. 6.5.
It should be emphasized that the task of modeling experimental effects is the maximum approximation of the experiment, on the one hand, to reality, on the other hand, to the hypothesis. V. N. Druzhinin proposed a hypothetical scheme of relationships between the main characteristics of an experimental study in the form of a certain coordinate system 1 (Fig. 6.6).
Rice. 6.6.
The closest approximation to a theory or hypothesis is the main task of designing an experiment. This desire corresponds to the so-called "perfect experiment"”- this is how G. Keppel (G. Kerre]) first called him. It is practically impossible to conduct a "perfect experiment", since it is assumed that the researcher, by manipulating the independent variable, exercises complete control over the dependent variable. It is also assumed that the experimenter ensures the constancy of conditions, the equivalence and invariance of the samples, the “absence” of time characteristics, the possibility of simultaneously conducting experimental effects, as well as repeating the experiment in different situations and with any subjects. The measure of approximation perfect experiment» to the hypothesis is operational validity. Coordinate " reality" implies a correlation between the hypothesis and external conditions conducting the experiment. In the experimental
psychology, there is such a thing as "experiment of full compliance”, where the experimental reproduction of practice is carried out. The measure of compliance of such a study real situation is external validity, i.e. the possibility of transferring experimental results to real life and their generalization for other objects.
D. Campbell "real experiment" associates with internal validity, i.e. a measure of influence on the dependent variable of those conditions (independent and external variables) by which the researcher varies. " Real experiment» carried out under conditions in which the variables are not fully controlled. Therefore, the design of the experiment pursues the main goal - increasing the validity. And the higher it is, the higher the probability that the effect is caused by a change in the independent variable.
Bratko A. A. Modeling of the psyche. Moscow: Nauka, 1969. Causal characteristics of human behavior.
Modeling in psychology Etymology.
Comes from lat. modulus - sample.
Category.Methodological setting.
Specificity.Construction of models for the implementation of certain psychological processes in order to formally test their performance.
Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .
MODELING IN PSYCHOLOGY
(English) modeling in psychology) - application of the method modeling in psychological research. It develops in 2 directions: 1) sign, or technical, imitation of mechanisms, processes and results of mental activity - mental modeling; 2) organization, reproduction of a particular type human activity by artificially constructing the environment of this activity (for example, in laboratory conditions), which is commonly called psychological modeling.
Modeling the psyche- a method for studying mental states, properties and processes, which consists in building models mental phenomena, in studying the functioning of these models and using the results obtained to predict and explain empirical facts. According to the completeness of the reflection of the object in the model, one can single out the following. classes and subclasses of models of the psyche: iconic(figurative, verbal, mathematical), software(rigidly algorithmic, heuristic, block diagram), real(bionic). Such a sequence of models reflects a gradual transition from a descriptive imitation of the results and functions of mental activity to a material imitation of its structure and mechanisms.
Modeling the psyche is closely related to the problem artificial intelligence and construction of complex control information and computers and systems. Work on the modeling of the psyche is carried out not only in psychology, but also in related areas - bionics, cybernetics, computer science, informatics, synergy. The first successes in modeling the psyche were achieved in the middle of the 20th century. based on digital and analog computing technology.
Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
See what "modeling in psychology" is in other dictionaries:
Modeling in Psychology- building models for the implementation of certain psychological processes in order to formally test their performance ... Psychological Dictionary
MODELING IN PSYCHOLOGY- (from the French modele sample ...) the use of the modeling method in psychological research. It develops in two directions: 1) symbolic or technical imitation of mechanisms, processes and results of mental activity modeling ... ...
The process of recognizing a sequence of ideas and behaviors that makes it possible to accomplish a task. The foundation accelerated learning. Process of observation and copying successful actions and the behavior of other people; sequence recognition process... Great Psychological Encyclopedia
MODELING IN SOCIOLOGY- a method of research of social. phenomena and processes on their models, i.e. indirect study of social. objects, in the process of which they are reproduced in an auxiliary system (model), which replaces the original in the cognitive process and allows ... ...
SIMULATION MODELING IN SOCIOLOGY- a method of research of social. phenomena and processes with the help of special simulation models, suggesting such a representation of the object under study, while its qualitative nature is distorted to the minimum extent possible and accurately enough ... Russian sociological encyclopedia
METHODS OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY- the main ways and methods of cognition of the patterns of interaction between man and technology. Since engineering psychology is characterized by systems approach to the consideration of the processes and phenomena under study, it uses a wide range of ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
Psychological modeling- Psychological modeling the creation of a formal model of a mental or socio-psychological process, that is, a formalized abstraction of this process, reproducing some of its main, key, according to this ... ... Wikipedia
Teaching direction in psychology- includes a variety of approaches based on the idea of learning, which refers to the process of "development" and accumulation of individual experience, and the result of this process. One of the first approaches of this kind, along with ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY- the main initial provisions that determine its attitude to the study of the subject of its study. The principles of engineering psychology are integral part methodology of engineering psychology. Practical implementation principles of engineering psychology ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
Video technology in psychology (video psychology)- Video equipment is used in psychology to collect and disseminate information, to assist people in the implementation of changes (behavior, feelings and attitudes) and to present experiments. incentives. All of these features are briefly reviewed here under... Psychological Encyclopedia
Books
- Modeling of goal-setting, Yu. T. Glazunov. The monograph contains the first systematic presentation of the results of studying the processes of the emergence and development of mental phenomena by the method of mathematical modeling. In the spotlight…
Scientific research methods- these are the methods and means by which scientists obtain reliable information, which is used further to build scientific theories and develop practical advice. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively a given branch of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in the knowledge of the world.
All of the above applies to psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and peculiar, so difficult to study, that throughout the history of this science its success has directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it turned out to be integrated methods of various sciences. These are the methods of philosophy and sociology, mathematics and physics, computer science and cybernetics, physiology and medicine, biology and history, and a number of other sciences.
History of the application of research methods in psychology
Thanks to the application of the methods of the natural and exact sciences, since the second half of the last century, psychology has become an independent science and has begun to develop actively. Up to this point, psychological knowledge was obtained mainly through self-observation (introspection), speculative reasoning, and observation of the behavior of other people. Analysis and reasonable generalization of this kind of life facts played their part. positive role in the history of psychology. They served as the basis for the construction of the first scientific theories explaining the essence psychological phenomena and human behavior. However, the subjectivity of these methods, their lack of reliability and complexity were the reason that psychology for a long time remained a philosophizing, non-experimental science, capable of assuming, but not proving, causal relationships that exist between mental and other phenomena. At the same time, due to excessively expressed theorizing, it was actually divorced from practice.
The intention to make it a real, more or less accurate, practically useful science, not only describing, but also explaining phenomena, was associated with the introduction of laboratory experiment and measurement into it. Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena have been made since the second half of the 19th century. One of the first such attempts was the discovery and formulation of a series of laws that relate the strength of human sensations to the stimuli expressed in physical quantities that act on the body. These include the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, Stevens, which are mathematical formulas that determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the absolute and relative thresholds of sensations. This should also include the initial stage in the development of differential psychological research (the end of the 19th century), when methods began to be used to identify common psychological properties and abilities that distinguish people from each other. mathematical statistics. Subsequently, already in the 20th century, the tendency to use mathematical models and calculations became widespread in various branches of psychology. Not a single serious scientific psychological research is now complete without them.
From the end of the 80s of the XIX century. in psychology, special technical instruments and devices began to be created and used for laboratory experimental scientific research. The pioneer in this respect was the German scientist W. Wundt, who organized the work of the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig. Technical instruments and devices allowed the researcher to set up and conduct a controlled and controlled scientific experiment, to dose the effects of physical stimuli to which a person should respond, to measure his reactions. At first, these were rather simple technical devices, mostly mechanical. At the beginning of the XX century. electrical devices have joined them, and in our time many types of modern equipment are used in psychological laboratory research, including radio, video and electronic, including computers.
Basic methods of psychological research
Along with mathematization and technicalization of research in psychology, the traditional methods collection scientific information, including such as observation, self-observation and questioning. There are several reasons for maintaining their value. The first is that the phenomena studied in psychology are complex and unique, and cannot always be studied using methods borrowed from other sciences. In many cases, the methods of the natural and exact sciences are not suitable for the study of such subtle phenomena that psychology is concerned with. Observation and self-observation make it possible to catch much of what is practically inaccessible to instruments, indescribable with the help of precise mathematical formulas. Self-observation is often used in cases where the researcher wants to directly, and not from the words of other persons or according to the testimony of soulless devices, obtain information about the sensations, emotional experiences, images, ideas, thoughts that accompany a particular behavioral act.
However, observational data, and especially self-observation data, almost always require validation and reliability. Where possible, these data should be controlled using other, more objective methods, in particular mathematical calculations. Below are the methods that are used in modern psychology to collect the so-called primary data, i.e. information to be further refined and processed. The main methods of psychological research and their variants used to collect primary data:
Observation
External (surveillance)
Internal (self-monitoring)
free
Standardized
Included
third party
Writing
Free
Standardized
Test questionnaire
Test task
projective test
Experiment
Natural
Laboratory
Modeling
Mathematical
Boolean
Technical
Cybernetic
Observation as a method of research in psychology
Observation has several options.
outside surveillance is a way of collecting data about the psychology and behavior of a person by direct observation of him from the side.
Internal Surveillance or introspection, is used when a psychologist-researcher sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind. Internally perceiving the corresponding phenomenon, the psychologist, as it were, observes it (for example, his images, feelings, thoughts, experiences) or uses similar data communicated to him by other people who themselves conduct introspection on his instructions.
Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, program, procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature in the course of the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.
Standardized Observation, on the contrary, is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is carried out according to a certain pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens in the process of observation with the object or the observer himself.
At enabled surveillance(it is most often used in general, developmental, pedagogical and social psychology) the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process, the course of which he is monitoring. For example, a psychologist can solve a problem in his mind while simultaneously observing himself. Another variant of participant observation: when investigating people's relationships, the experimenter can engage himself in communication with the observed people, without stopping at the same time observing the relationships that develop between them and these people.
Third Party Surveillance unlike the included one, it does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process that he is studying.
Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most reliable results. External observation, for example, is less subjective than self-observation, and is usually used where the features to be observed can be easily isolated and evaluated from the outside. Internal observation is indispensable and often acts as the only available method for collecting psychological data in cases where there are no reliable external signs of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
Free observation is advisable to carry out in those cases when it is impossible to determine exactly what should be observed, when the signs of the phenomenon under study and its probable course are not known in advance to the researcher. Standardized observation, on the contrary, is best used when the researcher has an accurate and fairly complete list of features related to the phenomenon under study.
Participant observation is useful when the psychologist can give correct assessment phenomenon, only by experiencing it for yourself. However, if, under the influence of the researcher's personal participation, his perception and understanding of the event can be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, the use of which allows you to more objectively judge what is being observed.
Survey as a research method in psychology
A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. There are several survey options, and each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Let's consider them.
oral questioning used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of a person than a written one, but it requires special training, training and, as a rule, a large investment of time for research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on the personality of the person who conducts the survey, and on the individual characteristics of the one who answers the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the survey situation.
Written survey allows you to reach more people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that, using the questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions in advance and, based on this, change them.
Free Poll- a kind of oral or written survey, in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. Interview of this type allows you to flexibly change the tactics of research, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them. In turn, a standardized survey, in which questions and the nature of possible answers to them are determined in advance and are usually limited to fairly narrow limits, is more economical in time and material costs than a free survey.
Tests as a research method in psychology
Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can get an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon under study. Tests differ from other research methods in that they imply a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare psychology with each other different people to give differentiated and comparable assessments. Test options: test questionnaire and test task.
Test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-conceived, carefully selected and tested questions in terms of their validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge psychological qualities test subjects.
Test task involves assessing the psychology and behavior of a person based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series special assignments, based on the results of which they judge the presence or absence and the degree of development of the studied quality. The test questionnaire and test task are applicable to people of different ages, belonging to different cultures, having different levels of education, different professions and different life experiences. It's theirs positive side. And the disadvantage is that when using tests, the subject can consciously influence the results at will, especially if he knows in advance how the test works and how his psychology and behavior will be evaluated based on its results. In addition, the test questionnaire and test task are not applicable in cases where psychological properties and characteristics are subject to study, the existence of which the subject cannot be completely sure, does not realize or consciously does not want to admit their presence. Such characteristics are, for example, many negative personal qualities and motives for behavior.
In these cases, it is usually the third type of tests - projective. Such tests are based on the projection mechanism, according to which a person tends to attribute unconscious personal qualities, especially shortcomings, to other people. Projective tests are designed to study the psychological and behavioral features people who call negative attitude. Applying tests of this kind, the psychology of the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives and evaluates situations, the psychology and behavior of people, what personality traits, motives of positive or negative character he ascribes to them.
Using the projective test, the psychologist introduces the subject into an imaginary, plot-indefinite situation that is subject to arbitrary interpretation. Such a situation can be, for example, the search for a certain meaning in the picture, which depicts who knows what kind of people, it is not clear what they are doing. It is necessary to answer the questions of who these people are, what they are concerned about, what they think, and what will happen next. Based on the meaningful interpretation of the answers, they judge about own psychology responders.
Projective-type tests impose increased requirements on the level of education and intellectual maturity of the subjects, and this is the main practical limitation of their applicability. In addition, such tests require a lot of special training and high professional qualifications on the part of the psychologist himself.
Experiment as a research method in psychology
The specificity of the experiment as a method of psychological research lies in the fact that an artificial situation is purposefully and thoughtfully created in it, in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than all other methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and development. However, it is not easy to organize and conduct a real psychological experiment that meets all the requirements in practice, therefore it is less common in scientific research than other methods. There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow studying the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality.
natural experiment It is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere in the course of ongoing events, fixing them in the form in which they unfold on their own.
Laboratory experiment involves the creation of some artificial situation in which the property under study can best be studied. The data obtained in a natural experiment best correspond to the typical life behavior of an individual, real psychology people, but are not always accurate due to the lack of the experimenter's ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. The results of a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, win in accuracy, but they are inferior in the degree of naturalness - correspondence to life.
Modeling as a research method in psychology
Modeling as a method is used when the study of a phenomenon of interest to a scientist through simple observation, questioning, test or experiment is difficult or impossible due to complexity or inaccessibility. Then they resort to creating an artificial model of the phenomenon under study, repeating its main parameters and expected properties. This model examines in detail this phenomenon and draw conclusions about its nature.
Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic. A mathematical model is an expression or formula that includes variables and relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomenon under study. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics as elements of the model. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic. The most famous examples of mathematical modeling in psychology are formulas that express the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner and Stevens laws. Logic modeling is widely used in the study of human thinking and its comparison with the solution of problems by a computer. With many various examples technical modeling we meet in scientific research devoted to the study of human perception and memory. These are attempts to build perceptrons - machines capable, like a person, of perceiving and processing sensory information, memorizing and reproducing it.
An illustration of cybernetic modeling is the use in psychology of the ideas of mathematical programming on a computer. The development of computer software over the past few decades has opened up new prospects for psychology to study processes of interest to it and human behavior, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning in solving problems are very close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs are being developed. This led to attempts to represent and describe human behavior, his psychology by analogy with the operation of electronic computing devices. Pioneers in this respect in psychology were well-known American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram. Noting the presence in the body of the same complex, hierarchically built system of behavior regulation that characterizes the structure and functioning of computer programs, they concluded that human behavior can be described in a similar way.
Other Research Methods in Psychology
Except listed methods, designed to collect primary information, are widely used in psychology various ways and techniques for processing this data, their logical and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. facts and conclusions arising from the interpretation of the processed primary information. For this purpose, in particular, various methods of mathematical statistics are used, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena under study, as well as methods of qualitative analysis.
Introduction
The relevance of the abstract is the description of the modeling method in psychological research. The modeling method is of great cognitive importance; it was used by Democritus and Epicurus, Leonardo da Vinci. Widespread in social sciences he acquired over a hundred years ago.
The purpose of the abstract is to reveal the essence of the modeling method in psychological research.
The objectives of the abstract are to determine what the essential characteristics and functions of the method are, the typology of models and the main means of modeling, as well as the advantages and limitations of the modeling method in social psychology.
1. Essential characteristics of the modeling method
Modeling (English modeling in sychology) - the application of the modeling method in psychological research. It develops in 2 directions:
sign, or technical, imitation of mechanisms, processes and results of mental activity - mental modeling.
organization, reproduction of a particular type of human activity by artificially constructing the environment for this activity, for example, in laboratory conditions, which is commonly called psychological modeling. Modeling of the psyche is a method of studying mental states, properties and processes, which consists in building models of mental phenomena, in studying the functioning of these models and using the results obtained to predict and explain empirical facts. According to the completeness of the reflection of the object in the model, one can single out the following. classes and subclasses of models of the psyche: iconicfigurative, verbal, mathematical, softwarestrictly algorithmic, heuristic, block diagram, realbionic. Such a sequence of models reflects a gradual transition from a descriptive imitation of the results and functions of mental activity to a material imitation of its structure and mechanisms. The modeling of the psyche is closely connected with the problem of artificial intelligence and the construction of complex control information and computers and systems. Work on the modeling of the psyche is carried out not only in psychology, but also in related areas - bionics, cybernetics, computer technology, computer science, synergetics. The first successes in modeling the psyche were achieved in the middle of the 20th century. based on digital and analog computing technology. Modern level knowledge of mental activity allows to expand research widely only at the first steps of approaching the model to the object, therefore, the most developed at present are symbolic, in particular, mathematical and software, in particular, heuristic models. With their help, it was possible to imitate some aspects of such processes and properties of the psyche as perception, memory, learning, logical thinking etc. The first attempts are being made to build real - hypothetical and bionic - models of visual recognition, for example, F. Rosenblat's perceptron, O. Selfridge's pandemonium, etc. The word "model" comes from the Latin word "modelium", which means - measure, image, method, etc. Its original meaning was associated with the art of building, and in almost all European languages it was used to denote an image or prototype, or a thing similar in some respect to another thing. The term "model" is defined in science quite ambiguously, and this makes it difficult to determine some of its features and classify models. A model is often understood as a mentally represented or materially realized system that displays or reproduces a set of essential properties and parameters of an object and is capable of replacing it in the process of cognition. The model always operates with idealized constructs and does not have a causal relationship with the prototype object, in contrast to the theory this object. It is a set of interconnected assumptions about the world. The essential properties of models are: subjectivity of the model. The model is subjective, since it is the person who selects those properties in which it corresponds to the original. The model and the original are always in famous researcher objective correspondence. Models, therefore, do not exist in nature and society, they are created by the subject of knowledge. The dual nature of models. In the process of cognition, the model itself replaces the object, while retaining some important features for the researcher and itself becomes the object of direct research. The model is both a prerequisite and a means of cognition. model transformation. You can do things with the model that you can't do with the original. The possibility of transformations is the most fundamental, most informative side of the modeling method. The model is used to study objects that are difficult or even impossible to handle for ethical or organizational reasons. The compactness of the model. The model is more compact than the original and therefore acts as an alternative physical experiment. Models reproduce the object of study in a simplified form. Since the model is poorer in properties and relationships than reality, any simulation is associated with the problem of model adequacy. Models of the same object can be different and reflect this object with different sides. For a more comprehensive coverage of reality, many models are required. There can be multi-model constructions and multi-level models. In turn, one can move from a complex model to particular models. Specific informativeness of the model as a means of cognition. The model is an abstraction. You can always select properties that are not represented in this model. Any model requires interpretation. Knowledge of this kind belongs to the category of relative truths. This is not an axiom, but probabilistic knowledge. We will understand a model as a natural or artificial phenomenon (object, process, situation, etc.) created for the study of socio-psychological processes and states. In connection with the above properties, a theory becomes of great importance for modeling, which substantiates the possibility and legitimacy of the transition from an object to models and vice versa. When the model and the object belong to the same form of motion of matter, such a theory is the theory of similarity. If the object and the model refer to different forms of matter motion, then the theoretical substantiation of the legitimacy of constructing such models is given by the theory of analogies, or even more general theory of system isomorphism. The term "simulation" is used to refer to various scientific procedures. Modeling is often considered as the creation of analogues (schemes, structures, sign systems) of a certain fragment of social reality or a conceptual and theoretical formation, etc. The purpose of the method is to obtain new knowledge about any object by inference by analogy. The inference by analogy is logical basis modeling method. Inferences by analogy are inferences in which the premise refers to one object and the conclusion to another. The conclusion about the identity of some properties of the modeling and simulated systems is made on the basis of the identity of other properties in the same systems. Obviously, the legitimacy of inference by analogy depends on the nature of similar relationships, on their significance in the system being modeled. A model is what is being compared to, but not all analogies can be called modeling. Since the model as a means of cognition is based on analogy, it loses its meaning both in the case of the identity of the model and the prototype, and in the case of their great difference. The need for modeling appears when the compared systems (prototype and model) are partially known. But, since the identity between the model and the prototype is excluded, modeling is inevitably associated with simplification, coarsening in some respects of the prototype, with its abstraction from a number of aspects of the prototype. In addition to the relations of analogy, the model and the prototype are in the relations of isomorphism and homomorphism. An isomorphic or homomorphic image of an object is its model. Systems are isomorphic if a one-to-one correspondence exists or can be established between their elements, as well as functions, properties and relationships. In psychology, the principle of isomorphism of mental, neurophysiological and physical phenomena introduces Gestalt psychology. Systems are homomorphic if knowledge is transferred only from a homomorphic image to a prototype, but not vice versa. Homomorphism is a more general, weaker relation, when one of three conditions is not met: the correspondence of elements, the correspondence of functions, the one-to-one correspondence of properties and relations. Today it is considered sufficient if a homomorphic relationship, no longer symmetrical, is maintained between the model and its object. Socio-psychological systems are mostly homomorphic. The process of building a model based on analogy, following A. Mol, can be represented in the following sequence of steps (11): Finding a figurative (metaphorical) analogy between the system under study and some other, more studied one; Checking the validity of the found image, its compliance with the observed reality; The introduction of analogy into a logical framework that allows you to check the degree of completeness of the correspondence of analogies with real data; Checking the materiality, value of analogy, i.e. establishing the significance in the model and prototype of those relationships that have not yet been taken into account. If taking into account the latter does not lead to serious corrections in the image, then the analog model is recognized as useful. After that, the stages of detailing the model begin; Establishment of the scales included in the logical model of values and the limits of their variability (validity area) at which this analogy is quite fair; Study of the possibility of interpretation in terms of the model of secondary relations of the prototype; The description of the proposed model is possible in a more formal way. Both a real analogue and an ideal conceptual model may be inherent in visibility. Such, for example, are some models of motivation. The P-O-X model, or "Heider's triangle", proposed by F. Haider, is widely known. The use of this model turned out to be productive in describing interpersonal relationships, as well as (in Newcomb's modification) in the study of the speech impact on the group and personality. The very first sensory-visual basis of modeling are metaphors. Metaphor can be considered as one of the forms of analogy. In the methodology of Flood and Jackson, for example, the attributes of five systemic metaphors are considered. The authors include the metaphor of a machine, an organism, a brain, culture and politics as scientific metaphors. Cognitive maps are also a visual basis for modeling. The concept of "cognitive map" was introduced by the neobehaviorist E. Tolman in 1948. It means - a schematic, simplified description of the picture of the world of the individual. In mathematics, an example of a cognitive map is a directed graph. Cognitive maps can be rule systems, semantic networks, and relationship structures. The visibility of the model, the figurativeness of the idea of the system under study is also provided by the theory of graphs, which also preserves formal rigor. A graph is a mathematical example of a cognitive map. A graph is a diagram consisting of given points (vertices) connected by a certain system of lines. The segments connecting the vertices are called edges (arcs) of the graph. A graph is said to be oriented if the direction of all its edges is indicated by an arrow. A path in a graph is a sequence of arcs, the first vertex is the beginning of the path, the last one is the end of the path. When the beginning and end coincide, we have a cycle. A graph without cycles is called a forest. Genealogical tree is an example of a cycle-free (forest) graph. The graph "parents - children" is directed, and the graph "familiar people" is undirected, there are no directed arcs in it. When considering graphs, much attention is paid to the definition of the shortest path. A graph containing only edges is called undirected; a graph containing only arcs is oriented. It is natural to use the language of graph theory when modeling structures. For the first time, graph models of objects of social psychology began to be used in the school of K. Levin. The works of F. Harari, D. Cartwright, J. Riley use graph theory to study the structure of relationships between individuals within a group and the dynamics of its changes. Thus, in social psychology, graph theory has long been used in the study of small groups (see also "Sociometry"), with its help, you can explore the emotional and other relationships of group members (referentometry). Thus, the technique of "choice in action" involves observation in a real or experimental situation and can identify subgroups. For example, the researcher observes how children give cards to their comrades. In addition, graph theory can contribute to the study of structures complex organizations, relations between families. However, it should be remembered that only the structure of interpersonal relations is being studied, group norms, values, socio-demographic characteristics are not considered. An example of a model in the form of a graph is the cyclic model of group development by V. Satir. The model has some degree of integrity and in this sense is a system. Currently under investigation of large systems. Including socio-psychological, for example, large groups, system analysis is used, modeling in the form of a system analogy. The system description of an object is an analogy that can be expressed both in a figurative and visual form and in a conceptual form, in a certain set of basic assumptions. To describe the object being modeled as a system means to determine the boundaries of its interaction with the external environment, its structure, elements and subsystems, connections and relationships, functions and their extreme values. In socio-psychological knowledge, communication processes, options for organizational development (resistance to change), consumer behavior and others are described in the form of systems. System analysis operates with a large amount of information different nature, which allows not to miss important aspects and connections of the object under study. 2. Main types of models A unified classification of types of modeling is difficult due to the ambiguity of the concept of "model" in science. It can be carried out for various reasons: by the nature of the models (by the means of models), by the nature of the objects being modeled, by the areas of their application and its levels. In this regard, any classification is doomed to incompleteness. Depending on the modeling tools, material and ideal models are distinguished. Material (substantial) modeling is based on the material analogy of an object and its model. To build this type of model, it is necessary to select functional characteristics(geometric, physical) of the object under study. The research process is associated with the material impact on the object. Material (substantial) models of socio-psychological phenomena include those that model one type of group activity through another. An example of this type of simulation is the cybernometer research conducted by N.N. Obozov, playing situations in socio-psychological training. For example, in modeling situations in groups of active socio-psychological learning, the leader is the subject and the group is used as “material” for building and defining models. The subject can be a group together with the leader. Such modeling implies the inclusion in the model of personality manifestations as a whole, affecting the affective, value and unconscious part of a person's experience. As a result, the intrapersonal experience of the participants is reformulated. Also, socio-psychological experiments can be attributed to substantive models. Thus, A. Makarenko's colony was a substantive model for the organization and implementation of educational work with adolescents. A large class of models is represented by ideal models. Ideal modeling is based on a conceivable analogy. Ideal modeling is subdivided into sign (formalized) and intuitive modeling. The latter is used where the process of cognition is just beginning or the systemic relationships are very complex. Life experience a person can be considered as an intuitive model of interpersonal relationships. It is possible to build a model in which the formal structure is chosen on intuitive grounds. Models of sign modeling are diagrams, graphs, drawings, formulas. The most important type of sign modeling is mathematical modeling. Not every sign system acts as a model, since a sign system only becomes a model if it becomes the subject of research, if tasks are solved within its limits and by its means, the solution and meaning of which lie outside the given sign system. So, natural language can act as a model in the study of everyday life, culture, economic and social relations; natural languages act as models in the study of the patterns of thinking, which is a reflection of the objective world. An essential moment in the creation of any sign model is formalization. Any formalization is accompanied by the following procedures: The alphabet is set (finite or infinite). Rules are set that generate "words", "formulas" from the initial characters of the alphabet. Rules are formulated by which one can move from one word, formula of a given system to other words and formulas (the so-called inference rules). Depending on the nature and goals of the created model, proposals that are considered initial (axioms or postulates) may be formulated (but may not be formulated). As a rule, it is not the axioms of a given sign system that are formulated, but axiom schemes with the corresponding substitution rules. Sign models have some independence. Within their limits and by their means, tasks are often set and solved, the real meaning of which may not be initially clear. In sign models, the theory of similarity is absolutely not applicable. Today most of research on sign models is carried out in line with logical and mathematical ones. In these models, the nature of the prototype and model no longer plays any role. In these models, purely logical and mathematical properties. The description of the model in this case is inseparable from the model itself. The possibility of experimentation is absent and is replaced by inference. New knowledge is obtained by logical and mathematical inferences from the initial description of the model. Mathematical modeling in social psychology is not limited to quantitative operations, it can also deal with qualitative characteristics. Some socio-psychological processes, such as decision-making in elections or the distribution of votes, can be fully defined in mathematical terms. AT similar cases mathematical models are a means of studying the logical consequences of observed rules. In the case of complex systems, when the quantitative expression of the set of objective functions is unclear, simulation models are used. Simulation modeling is used to analyze the behavior of a system; fundamental laws of system dynamics are not studied here. In this case, the functioning of a complex system is presented in the form of a certain algorithm, which is implemented on a computer. It is possible to build a model in which the formal structure is chosen on intuitive grounds. The adopted formal model can give us a general structural idea of the system under study. In this case, the awareness and verbalization of the concept follow its already finished mathematical form. The set of possible abstract structures is obviously less than the set of their concrete interpretations. Mathematical and computer models. An example of a mathematical model social behavior the Lewis F. Richardson model, or the arms race model, can serve. Consider it to illustrate the compactness, transformability and efficiency of mathematical models. This model takes into account the action of only three factors: a) state X feels the presence of a military threat from state Y, exactly the same logic operates on the part of state Y; b) the burden of spending; c) past grievances. Хt +1 = kYt - aXt + g+1 = mXt - bYt + h and Yt are the armament levels at time t The coefficients k, m, a, b are positive values, and g and h are positive or negative, depending on how hostile or friendly states are in general. The magnitude of the threat is reflected in the terms kYt and mXt, because the larger these numbers, the more weapons the opposing side has. The amount of expenditure is reflected in terms aXt and mYt, because these terms reduce the level of armaments in the next year. The constants g and h reflect the value past grievances, which is assumed to be constant in this model. By the end of the seventies, the model had already been tested hundreds of times in various arms races. The Richardson model is generally effective in cases of short-term forecasts; the nature of the arms race and, consequently, the prediction of wars, since almost everyone modern wars preceded by an unstable arms race. The Richardson model is only one of the representatives of a large class of dynamic models, i.e. those that model the development of some process in time. Many of these models are implemented as differential equations, and many borrow mathematical tools from models of demographic growth and other biological processes. One of the most developed areas of mathematical modeling of social behavior is called game theory. "Games" within the framework of this theory are situations in which two or more participants make a choice regarding their actions, and the payoff of each participant depends on the joint choice of both (all). Games studied by game theory are usually more formalized than traditional ones, and the rewards in them are not just win or loss, but something more complex, but the principle of competition here and there is the same. Game theory was first considered on the material of one of the types of competition, which is called the zero-sum game. The condition of this type of game is: how much one player wins, the other loses the same amount. Most of the regular games belong to this category. However, most socio-psychological situations are non-zero-sum games, or cooperative ones, when both players can win under certain conditions (that is, the fact that one of the players won does not mean that the other lost as much). From cooperative games The best studied game is the prisoner's dilemma. This model can be used for mutual control of the implementation of business contracts, decision-making on the start of active actions (strike, collective agreements). In reality, players are more likely to choose to cooperate, despite all the factors pushing them to cheat. A third example of mathematical models that are very well known is the Downs model. The model helps explain why general election candidates do not occupy concurrent positions and why candidates often change their ideological positions between primary and secondary elections. The simplest version of the Downs model is a bell-shaped curve that runs along a single fixed ideological axis. In addition to the considered models, mathematical models include models of expected utility. They are effective at deciding what actions to take (prescriptive models), but they cannot predict the actual behavior of people (descriptive models). Similar to these models are optimization models, which were mostly borrowed from economics and engineering. These models are useful for determining optimal behavior, for example, when the opponent is an unpredictable future, in competitive situations with a small number of participants, and also in competitive situations where the situation is determined a large number participants. The mathematical description of oscillatory processes is of interest in connection with the study of motivation, models of the formation of public opinion are described using kinetic equations. Static problems are usually written in the form of algebraic expressions, dynamic - in the form of differential and finite difference equations. The multidimensionality of socio-psychological phenomena can be quite fully described at the present time by the methods of modern multivariate analysis, including, in particular, the methods of multivariate statistics, cluster analysis and analysis of latent structures, multidimensional scaling, etc. Computer models are based on programming using not equations, but algorithms (strictly formulated sequential instructions). Computer models are especially effective in studying situations involving the processing of a large amount of information, for example, learning processes, non-numerical processes. Very often, such a form of computer model as an expert system is used. It uses a large number of "if ... then" installations. Expert systems have shown their ability to accurately reproduce the actions of people in a wide variety of areas. The Talk and Search Man programs developed by scientists from Omsk can serve as examples of computer models of socio-psychological processes. The first serves for complex modeling of transactional communication of individuals. The second was created for the purpose of conducting computer experiments concerning the problem of choosing a spouse by a woman in order to form a family. Even more complex are dynamic computer simulation models that model complex processes using large systems of equations that cannot be solved by algebraic means. The objects of computer simulation models can be extensive socio-psychological processes (changes in the mood of the masses, mass behavior) and these models are increasingly used to play scenarios such as "what will happen if ...". Models of nonlinear processes. The rapid development of synergetics, the theory of self-organization of complex systems, was due to the search for models to describe nonlinear processes. Synergetics deals with open non-linear dissipative systems that are far from equilibrium. Almost all the objects that social psychology encounters can be attributed to this class. Open systems are understood as those that can exchange energy, matter, information with environment. And individual person and social groups belong to open systems. The non-linearity of systems suggests that in real social and socio-psychological systems, the consequences are the result of the influence of many causes. Moreover, effects have an inverse effect on the causes that gave rise to them. The property of dissipativity in a broad sense is understood as the ability of the system under study to “forget” the details of external influences. The main property of such systems is an extraordinary sensitivity to all kinds of influences and, in connection with this, an extreme non-equilibrium. The disequilibrium of socio-psychological phenomena is manifested in their irregular behavior. Complex socio-psychological processes are reminiscent of an endless computer in which infinite number communicants, this makes it impossible to single out the “initial signal” (leadership) and determine a clear addressee. Systems in which self-organization occurs can be complex and have a huge number of degrees of freedom, which can lead to the implementation of completely random sequences. The presence of a variety of degrees of freedom generates chaos, which in synergetics is considered as the cause of the development of structures, as a complexly organized sequence. Over time, a small number of leading degrees of freedom are allocated in the system, to which the rest “adjust”. In the process of self-organization, the whole acquires properties that none of the parts possesses. The development of nonlinear systems is irreversible and multivariant. The evolution of such a system is determined not by its past, but by its future. To control such a system, it is necessary to influence it at the moment when it is in a state of instability (near the so-called bifurcation point), and it is necessary to organize a very precise action. It may be extremely weak, but, being very accurate, will lead to a radical change in the entire evolution of the system. as new priorities contemporary painting The world of synergetics thus introduces the phenomenon of uncertainty and multi-alternative development, the idea of the emergence of order from chaos. The fundamental importance of the processes of self-organization for the human psyche has been repeatedly pointed out by prominent psychologists. The key category of K. Levin "dynamic field" was considered as an integral self-organizing system. G. Allport discussed the concept of self-confrontation, which can be considered within the framework of the idea of self-organization. Models illustrating the connection of phenomena with the theory of self-organization: the model of prison riots, the theory of catastrophes, the model of migration, the Model of developing a consensus G.A. Simon and G. Gutzkov. The typology of models also includes structural, functional and mixed models. Substantial models are brought to life by technical and organizational difficulties. Structural models mimic the internal organization of the original. They can be either signed or unsigned. Functional models mimic the way the original behaves. They, like structural models, are less tied to the original. These models can be both material and ideal. Functional modeling is the main method of cybernetics at the present stage. The objective basis of the cybernetic approach is the relative independence of the function from the structure, i.e. the fact of the existence of a potential set of specific structures capable of performing a given function. Separate types of models in pure form are rare. Models are usually converted from one-dimensional to multidimensional. A substantive model must be either structural or functional, or both. Functional-structural models in terms of the probability of conclusions are significantly inferior to structural-functional models. Models can also be divided according to the degree of completeness. On this basis, they are divided into complete and incomplete. The more complete the model, the more complex it is, so it is not necessary to strive for a complete model in every case. As initial stage studies, it is more profitable and more convenient to create incomplete models, as they allow you to get results faster. Although this result is less accurate than when using the full model, in most cases its use is quite justified at the first stage of the study. The larger the model, the more careful it should be. To build an effective model means to find a description of it that gives an answer to a specific question. The general model of a complex object is called aggregated and is composed of detailed models. simulation psyche social psychology 3. Stages of modeling The problem situation is the basis of any analysis, it is the subject of modeling. Any problem situation has an objective and subjective basis, and it is important not to allow any of them to be absolutized. Example. Model of socio-psychological adaptation of forced migrants. Purpose: organization of socio-psychological assistance and adaptation of migrants. Tasks: monitoring the socio-psychological state of migrants; counseling and provision of medical and psychological assistance; provision of centers for social and psychological adaptation of migrants. Theoretical problem: lack of a typology of socio-psychological adaptation of migrants and ignorance of the models of their adaptive behavior. Practical problem: inconsistency between intra-group requirements and the requirements of the new ethnic group for migrants. For example: Example: social adaptation forced migrants - acceptance of norms, values of the new social environment, forms of social interaction + personal, public interest, social functions. Building a conceptual model. Representation of the mechanisms of action and interaction of the structure-forming units of the model, the formation of indicators. There shouldn't be too many variables. Example: separation of active and passive adaptation in a theoretical way. Definition as indicators of protective mechanisms of behavior, group mechanisms, conflict with norms, deviant behavior and etc. Designing a formalized model. Formation of the space of variables and description of model units in their terms, data collection and identification of model parameters and relationships, model verification. Formalization does not necessarily reach the level at which the discovered relationships are described mathematically. Any study of a concept in an unambiguous language can be considered formal in the broad sense of the word. Thus, it is necessary, at a minimum, to turn an unordered set of categories into a deductive system. But since the set of possible abstract structures is obviously less than the set of their concrete interpretations, the psychologist's concept follows the already prepared mathematical form. Empirical verification is not always necessary, since the process is sometimes described in an exhaustive way. Model verification includes the stage of operationalization, measurement and statistical analysis. Example. The starting position of the deductive system: normal adaptation leads to stable adaptability without personality pathology and without violation of norms. Studying models and obtaining new information. Example. It was revealed that some migrants overcome intra-group problem situations in an unusual way, there is a conflict with group norms; others have conflict with their group. The transition from the received model information to restructured knowledge about the subject of research. Deformalization and meaningful interpretation, analysis, generalization and explanation. Inclusion of model knowledge in the system theoretical knowledge about the object of study. Example. Creation of a more meaningful typology of socio-psychological adaptation of forced migrants: normal protective adaptation, non-protective adaptive processes, non-conformist adaptation, innovative adaptation, pathological adaptation. Conclusion In conclusion, attention should be paid to the difficulties associated with modeling. The model cannot be better than its original assumptions. The validity of a model does not depend on its apparatus, but on its assumptions. The most common drawback of models is oversimplified initial assumptions. For example, the Richardson model fails in situations involving nuclear weapons. The model does not take into account properties that are insignificant in a certain respect and may be significant in another respect. The results produced by the model must be correctly translated into natural language. Often the generality of the model's findings is overestimated. The model compactly and visually organizes the facts, suggests the interdependence of the established facts. The model includes phenomena that are expected with some probability. The model allows you to involve quantitative data in the analysis, build an explanation using some new variables, see the object from a new angle. The generalization of experimental data makes it possible to propose models that reflect the specifics of implicit socio-psychological patterns; such, in particular, are the patterns of semantic perception of persuasive speech in the model of K. Hovland and M. Sherif. The essential characteristics of the modeling method are: subjectivity of the model, dual nature, transformability, compactness and specific informativeness of the model. The main types of models include: models by their nature (material and ideal), by the nature of the objects being modeled, by their areas of application. The stages of modeling are the formulation of the research problem, the rationale for the need to refer to the modeling method, the theoretical preparation of the process, the construction of a conceptual model, the construction of a formalized model, the study of models and the acquisition of new information, the transition from the obtained model information to restructured knowledge about the subject of research, the inclusion of model knowledge in system of theoretical knowledge about the object. List of used literature 1. Kravchenko, A.I. Psychology and Pedagogy: textbook. [for universities] / A.I. Kravchenko. - M.: TK Velby: Prospect, 2007. - 400 p.
Modeling of psychological mechanisms
Guided by the above definition of psychological mechanisms, we refer to this direction all works that give in one form or another a description of any mental phenomena and any forms and levels of the psychological organization of animals, humans and social groups. And then any speculative constructions and any theoretical generalizations empirical material known to psychological science are psychological models psyche or its manifestations. Empirical material is supplied by psychological modeling and natural observation.
These models are presented through descriptions in symbolic form. By the nature of the reproducible aspects of the psyche, these are predominantly structural and mixed models, less often functional ones. Relevant examples have already been given above.
Thanks to scientific activity It is in this direction that modern psychology has subdivided all mental phenomena into three categories: processes, states, and properties. True, there are proposals to introduce a fourth category - mental constructs, which should include such mental phenomena as images, concepts, motives and other formations, which are, as it were, the result of the flow mental processes or states. It was this type of modeling that made it possible to single out three functional areas of the psyche with their specific processes, states, properties and constructs: cognitive (cognitive), regulatory and integration. Within the framework of this type of research activity, definitions of all mental phenomena are formulated from the sensory threshold to consciousness, personality and activity. Ultimately, this kind scientific research formalizes the ideas of scientists about the mental organization of a person in the form of various theories of personality and the socio-psychological structure of society.
Psychological modeling is artificial creation special conditions that provoke the responses, actions or relationships of the natural carriers of the psyche (people or animals) that are necessary for the task of research (survey, training). In other words, the researcher, depending on the subject and objectives of the study, creates a specific psychogenic situation for the object under study, as a result of which his behavior is modeled (for a person in the form of activity and communication).
Comparing the initial conditions of the psychogenic situation with the parameters of the object's behavior, one can, firstly, obtain indirect data on the organization and work of the psyche, which can be used to study and model it, and secondly, to identify correlation, cause-and-effect, and sometimes functional connections between psychogenic influences and behavioral characteristics, which gives grounds for deriving psychological patterns, and, thirdly, to develop effective methods of influencing people in order to provide them with psychological assistance.
Main Features of Psychological Modeling
1. The natural object and subject of research are people (animals) and their psyche.
2. Artificiality of research conditions (for example, an experimental laboratory, a diagnostic center, a psychotherapeutic room).
3. Application of modeling tools - teaching aids(for example, instructions, questionnaires, stimulus material), technical devices (for example, exposure equipment, measuring equipment) or pharmacological agents (for example, barbiturates in some types of psychotherapeutic interventions or psychedelics in transpersonal psychology).
4. Purposefulness of impacts on the object.
5. Humanization of influences.
6. Programming the procedure of influences (from a minimum of regulation in a free conversation to a maximum in testing or a laboratory experiment). 7. Registration of influencing (situational and procedural) factors and responses of the object of study.
It is possible to form a psychogenic situation using any empirical method of psychology up to provoked observation and introspection. The most characteristic in this regard, of course, laboratory experiment, testing, psychophysiological and psychotherapeutic methods.
Psychological modeling is an integral form of all types of psychological work: research, diagnostics, counseling, correction. In psychotherapeutic practice, it is the psychogenic situations themselves that often act as a tool for providing psychological assistance. Classic example to that - psychodrama, where, in fact, the stage action should lead to a therapeutic effect (catharsis). A specific type of psychological modeling are psychotrainings. All of the features of this direction listed above are especially clearly represented in them.
Section D Empirical Methods of Particular Psychological Significance
Chapter 15
Psychosemantic methods are methods of studying mental phenomena based on the establishment of semantic (semantic) connections and analysis individual systems meanings and meanings.
These categories and the mental phenomena they designate are the subject of research by the rapidly developing recent decades branch of psychological science called psychosemantics. The main achievements in this area can be found in the works of VF Petrenko.
