Early age refers to the period from one year to 3 years. At this time there are major changes in the mental development of children - thinking is formed, the motor sphere is actively developing, the first stable qualities of the personality appear.

The leading activity at this age is objective activity, which affects all areas of the psyche of children, largely determining the specifics of their communication with others. It arises gradually from the manipulative and instrumental activity of infants. This activity implies that the object is used as a tool according to the rules and norms fixed in this culture (for example, they eat with a spoon, dig with a spatula, and hammer nails with a hammer).

Revealing in the process of activity the most important properties object, the child begins to correlate these properties with certain operations that he performs, discovering which operations work best with a particular object. In this way, children learn to use objects so that they are not just an extension of their hand, but are used according to the logic of the object itself, that is, from what it is best for them to do. The stages of the formation of such actions assigned to an object-tool were studied by P. Ya. Galperin.

He showed that at the first stage - goal-directed trials - the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants, for example, to get the object he needs, but on the properties of this object itself. At the second stage - lying in wait - the child accidentally finds in In the course of his attempts, an effective method of action with a tool and seeks to repeat it.At the third stage, which Galperin called the stage of obsessive interference, the child actively tries to reproduce an effective method of action with a tool and master it.The fourth stage is objective regulation.At this stage, the child discovers methods of regulation / change of action, based on those objective conditions in which it has to be performed.

Halperin also proved that in the case when an adult immediately shows the child how to act with an object, the trial-and-error stage is bypassed, and the children begin to act from the second stage.

When diagnosing the development of objective actions in children, it is necessary to remember that instrumental actions include objective ones, since one of the variants of instrumental action is historically assigned to this object. So, you can dig with a spoon, pour the contents from one container to another, eat soup and perform other tool actions, but only the last way of using is also subject, historically assigned to this tool. During the second year of life, children learn the majority of objective actions, and when studying their mental development, it is important to remember that tool actions can to a certain extent serve as an indicator of the intellectual development of children, while object actions in more reflect the degree of their education, the breadth of contacts with adults.

Of great importance for mental development at this age is the formation of sensory. It was mentioned above that the studies of many scientists showed that in the first years of life the level of development of perception significantly affects thinking. This is explained by the fact that the actions of perception are associated with such operations of thinking as generalization, classification, summing up under the concept, etc. The leading role of perception, according to A. V. Zaporozhets, explains the features of the development of figurative memory and figurative thinking in this age period. He also argued that there are certain types activities to which perception is sensitive (drawing, designing), and showed how their formation affects the dynamics of the formation of the cognitive sphere of children.

The development of perception is determined by three parameters - perceptual actions, sensory standards and actions of correlation. Thus, the formation of perception consists in highlighting the most characteristic this subject or situations of qualities (informative points), drawing up stable images (sensory standards) on their basis and correlating these images-standards with objects of the surrounding world. When diagnosing the level of development of perception, it is important to determine the level of formation of all these three processes. It is also necessary to correlate the causes of the mistakes made by the Child with these processes, since there are practically no children in whom all mental processes. Therefore, as a rule, the correction of one of the sides helps to correct the entire activity of perception.

Perceptual actions make it possible to study the main properties and qualities of a perceived object, highlighting the main and secondary ones in them. Based on this selection, the child perceives information. positive points in each of the objects of the surrounding world, which helps to quickly recognize THIS object during repeated perception, assigning it to a certain class - a doll, a typewriter, a plate, etc. The actions of perception, which at first are external and deployed (the child must not only look at the object, but also touch it with his hands, act with it), then pass into inner plan and are automated. Thus, the development of perceptual actions helps the formation of generalization and other mental operations, since the selection of the most significant qualities each subject makes it possible to further combine them into classes and concepts.

At an early age, the formation of sensory standards also begins - at first subjective (appearing already by the end of infancy), which then, gradually generalizing, move to the sensory level. Thus, at first, the child's ideas about the form or color are associated with a specific object (for example, a round ball, green grass, etc.). Gradually, this quality is generalized and, breaking away from the subject, becomes a standard - color, shape, size. It is these three main standards that are formed in children by the end early age.

Correlating an object with a standard helps to systematize the knowledge that children receive when they perceive new objects. It is this knowledge that makes the image of the world integral and permanent. At the same time, at an early age, children still cannot divide a complex object into a number of standards of which it consists, but they can already find differences between a specific object and a standard (for example, by saying that an apple is an irregular circle).

Due to the close connection between perception and thinking, some tests are used in the diagnosis of children of this age to study both processes.

At an early age, in addition to visual-effective thinking, visual-figurative thinking begins to form. Since thinking involves orientation in the connections and relationships between objects, A.V. Zaporozhets and L. A. Wenger developed methods for studying and diagnosing thinking, based on the methods of orienting a child in a situation. This orientation can occur through direct actions with objects, their visual study or verbal description, thereby determining the type of thinking - visual-effective, visual-figurative, visual-schematic, verbal-logical. Visual-active thinking occurs by the end of the first year of life and is the leading type of thinking up to 3.5-4 years old, visual-figurative thinking occurs at 2.5-3 years old and remains the main one until 6-6.5 years old, visual-schematic thinking appears in 4.5-5 years old and remains leading until 6-7 years old; finally, verbal-logical thinking arises at 5.5-6 years old, becomes the leading one from 7-8 years old, remaining the main form of thinking in most adults. Thus, at an early age, the main and practically until the end of this age, the only type of thinking is visual-effective, involving direct contact of the child with objects and the search for right decision tasks through trial and error. As in the case of the formation of objective actions, the help of an adult who shows the child what parameters of the situation it is necessary to pay attention to in order to correctly orientate and solve the problem correctly helps the development of thinking and its transition to a higher, figurative level. At the same time, when solving simple problems related to past experience, by the end of an early age, all children should already be able to navigate almost instantly, without trial actions with objects, that is, rely on figurative thinking.

Studying the development of thinking at an early age, J. Piaget studied the process of transition from external operations to internal, logical ones, as well as the formation of reversibility. In his experiments with young children, he analyzed their ability to find hidden things, including those that disappeared before their eyes. He paid particular attention to the child's discovery of the fact that an object that has disappeared from view can be detected using external operations that make the situation reversible (for example, when opening a box in which a handkerchief was hidden). Of interest are Piaget's data on the accumulation in children of knowledge, experience of action with objects, which allows the child to move from sensorimotor thinking to figurative thinking.

characteristic feature the child's thinking during this period is his syncretism (non-segmentation) - the child tries to solve the problem without highlighting individual parameters in it, but perceiving the situation as a holistic picture, all the details of which have same value. Therefore, the help of an adult should be directed primarily to the analysis and separation of details, from which the child (perhaps with the help of an adult) will then single out the main and secondary ones. Thus, communication with an adult, joint objective activity can significantly speed up and optimize cognitive development children; not without reason M. I. Lisina called the leading type of communication in this period situational business.

The formation of speech is of great importance for mental development during this period. Investigating the stages of mental development of children, Stern for the first time conducted a systematic observation of the formation of speech. Having singled out several periods in this process, he emphasized that the most important of them is the one associated with the discovery by children of the meaning of the word, that each object has its own name (the child makes such a discovery at about a year and a half). This period, about which Stern first spoke, later became the starting point for the study of speech by almost all scientists who dealt with this problem. Having singled out five main stages in the development of speech in children, Stern described them in detail, in fact, having developed the first standards in the development of speech in children under 5 years of age. He also identified the main trends that determine THIS development, the main of which are the transition from passive to active speech and from word to sentence.

Developing these ideas of Stern, L. S. Vygotsky showed that the transition from a word to a sentence is characteristic of the child’s external speech, while internal speech, on the contrary, develops from sentence to word. This is due to the fact that, on the internal plane, the word spoken by the child for him, it means a whole phrase, for example, the word “mother” a child can associate with a request to give him something or help. As a rule, close adults, by the gestures and intonation that accompany these first words, guess the desires of the children, coming to their aid. Over time, having learned to build sentences in the external plane, the children in the internal speech assign to each word its own meaning, without expanding it to a whole phrase.

A somewhat different interpretation of the development of speech is given in Buhler's concept. Linking speech with the process of creativity, which, in his opinion, is the leading line in the formation of the psyche, he put forward a heuristic theory of speech. Buhler believed that speech is not given to the child in finished form, but is invented, invented by him in the process of communicating with adults. Thus, unlike other psychologists, Buhler insisted that the process of speech formation is a chain of discoveries.

At the first stage, the child discovers the meaning of words by observing the impact on adults of the sound complexes that the child invents. Manipulating adults with the help of vocalization, the child realizes that certain sounds lead to a certain reaction of an adult (give, I'm afraid, I want, etc.), and begins to use these sound complexes purposefully. In the second stage, the child discovers that every thing has its own name, thereby expanding its vocabulary, since he no longer only invents names for things himself, but also begins to ask adults questions about names. In the third stage, the child discovers the meaning of grammar, this also happens on his own. Through observation, he comes to understand that the relationship between objects and their number can be expressed by changes in the sound side of the word, for example, by changing the ending (table - tables).

L. S. Vygotsky paid great attention to the study of the development of speech. In his works, he proved that the combination of two different processes - the formation of thinking and the formation of speech, occurs in children at the age of one and a half years. At this age, the vocabulary of children sharply increases, questions about the names of objects appear, i.e., as Stern wrote, “the child discovers the meaning of words.” Vygotsky explained this discovery by the fact that speech is combined with thinking, and thus the child begins to comprehend the sounds that the adult utters. From Vygotsky's point of view, the word is for thinking the sign that turns visual-active thinking into a higher mental function.

Psychologists different directions showed the existence of a connection between the formation of thinking and the sign function of consciousness. This is manifested not only in the formation of speech, as shown above, but also in the development of the ability to draw. Stern's work, devoted to the study of the genesis of children's drawing, revealed the role of the scheme, which helps children move from ideas to concepts. This idea of ​​Stern, later developed by K. Buhler, helped to discover a new form of thinking - visual-schematic, or model thinking, on the basis of which many modern concepts developmental education for children.

Analyzing the connection between thinking and creativity, Buhler came to the conclusion that drawing has a direct impact on intellectual development children. He believed that a drawing is a graphic story built on the principle oral speech, i.e., the child’s drawing is not a copy of the action, but a story about it. Therefore, Buhler noted, children love stories in pictures so much, they love to look at them and draw on their own.

The analysis of children's drawings led Buhler, like Stern, to the concept of "scheme" and its significance in the formation of the psyche. He said that if a child uses a concept in speech, then in a drawing it uses a diagram, which is a generalized image of an object, and not an exact copy of it. Thus, the scheme is, as it were, an intermediate concept, making it easier for children to master abstract knowledge. These provisions of Buhler are used in modern developmental programs (primarily designed for 3-6-year-old children).

Communication with an adult is of great importance not only for the formation cognitive sphere but also for the development of the personality of young children. People around should remember that the self-image, the first self-assessment of children at this time, is, in fact, an internalized assessment of an adult. Therefore, constant remarks, ignoring, even if not always successful, attempts by children to do something on their own, underestimating their efforts can lead already at this age to self-doubt, a decrease in claims to success in the activities carried out.

E. Erikson also spoke about this, proving that at an early age children develop a sense of independence, autonomy from an adult, or, in an unfavorable direction of development, a feeling of dependence on him. The dominance of one of the two options is connected, in his opinion, with how adults react to the child's first attempts to achieve independence. To some extent, Erickson's description of this stage correlates with the description of the formation of the "I-Myself" neoplasm in domestic psychology. So, in the studies of D. B. El’konin, L. I. Bozhovich and other psychologists, it was emphasized that by the end early childhood children have the first ideas about themselves as a person who differs from others in independence own actions.

At the same time, the first signs of negativism, stubbornness and aggression appear in children, which are symptoms of a 3-year-old crisis. This is one of the most significant and emotionally intense crises in ontogeny. Fixation at the negative stage of this crisis, the obstacles that arise during the formation of independence, activity of children (high degree of guardianship - hyper-guardianship, authoritarianism, excessive demands, excessive criticism from adults), not only hinder the normal development of self-awareness and self-esteem of children, but also lead to the fact that negativism, stubbornness, aggression, as well as anxiety, isolation, become stable properties personality. These qualities, of course, affect all activities of children (their communication with others, study) and can lead to serious deviations in school and especially adolescence.

An important characteristic of this age stage is the lability of the emotional sphere of the child. His emotions and feelings that are formed at this time, reflecting the attitude towards objects and people, are not yet fixed and can be changed when the situation changes. Fixation on the prohibition when another positive stimulus appears, the absence of a positive emotional reaction to new toy and other indicators of emotional rigidity, as well as fixation on negative emotions, are serious indicators of deviations not only in the development of the emotional sphere, but also in general mental development at this age. 8.3.

The emergence of new activities in early childhood. At this age, the lines of mental development of boys and girls are separated. They have different types of leading activities. In boys, object-tool activity is formed on the basis of objective activity. In girls, on the basis of speech activity - communicative. Object-tool activity includes manipulation with human objects, the beginnings of design, as a result of which abstract, abstract thinking is better developed in men. Communicative activity involves mastering the logic of human relations. Most women have a more developed social thinking than men, the sphere of manifestation of which is the communication of people. Women have thinner intuition, tact, they are more prone to empathy. Sex differences in the behavior of children are due not so much to biological and physiological reasons as to the nature of their social communication. The orientation of boys and girls to different types of activity is set socially, as a result of cultural patterns. In fact, there are more similarities between male and female babies than differences. Differences appear later. Basically, boys and girls develop in parallel and go through the same stages.

So, by the age of three, children of both sexes develop the following neoplasms of age: the beginnings of self-awareness, the development of self-concept, self-esteem. The child does 90% of the work of language acquisition. In three years, a person goes half the way of his mental development.

cognitive features

Speech. Autonomous speech of the child rather quickly (usually within six months) is transformed and disappears. Mastering their native speech, children master both its phonetic and semantic aspects. The pronunciation of words becomes more correct, the child gradually ceases to use distorted words-scraps. By the age of 3, all the basic sounds of the language are assimilated. The most important change in the child's speech is that the word for him acquires for him substantive meaning. The first generalizations are connected with the appearance of the subject meanings of words. At an early age, the passive vocabulary grows rapidly - the number of understood words. By the age of 2, the child understands the adult's explanations (instructions) regarding joint actions. Later, at the age of 2-3 years, there is an understanding of the speech-story. rapidly developing and active speech: an active vocabulary grows, the first phrases appear, the first questions addressed to adults. By the age of 3, the active vocabulary reaches 1500 words. Offers in 1.5 years consist of 2-3 words. This is most often the subject and his actions (“mom is coming”), actions and the object of action (“I want candy”), action and the place of action (“the book is there”). By the age of 3, basic grammatical forms and syntactic constructions are assimilated mother tongue. Speech activity usually increases sharply between 2 and 3 years, and the circle of communication expands.

Perception. Early childhood is interesting because perception dominates among all mental functions. The dominance of perception means a certain dependence on it of other mental processes. Young children are maximally bound by the present situation - by what they directly perceive. All their behavior is field, impulsive; nothing that lies outside this visual situation appeals to them.

Imagination. At an early age, elementary forms of imagination, such as anticipation, are observed, but creative imagination is not yet present. A small child is not able to invent something, to lie. Only towards the end of early childhood does he have the opportunity to say something other than what it really is.

Memory. Memory is included in this process of active perception. Basically, this is recognition, although the child can already involuntarily reproduce what he saw and heard before - he remembers something. Since memory becomes, as it were, a continuation and development of perception, it is still impossible to speak of reliance on past experience. Early childhood is forgotten in the same way as infancy (“childhood amnesia”). An important characteristic of perception at this age is its affective coloration. Observed objects really "attract" the child, causing a vivid emotional reaction. The affective nature of perception also leads to sensorimotor unity. The child sees a thing, it attracts him, and thanks to this, impulsive behavior begins to unfold.

Actions and thinking. Thinking at this age is usually called visually effective. At this time, in joint activities with adults, the child learns how to act with a variety of objects. Actions with objects depend on their functional features and conditions of their use. Thinking initially manifests itself in the process itself. practical activities. This is especially evident when a child is faced with a task that adults did not teach him how to solve. Not only thinking develops due to external activity. The subject actions themselves are also being improved. In addition, they acquire a generalized character, separating from those subjects on which they were originally learned. There is a transfer of mastered actions to other conditions. Following this, the child acquires the ability to correlate his actions with the actions of adults, to perceive the actions of an adult as models. Joint activities begin to disintegrate. The adult asks the child for action patterns and evaluates their performance.

In addition to the actual objective actions for the development of the child, such as drawing and playing are also important. Picture a child under 2 years old - scribbles, at 3 years old forms similar to the depicted object appear, at 2.5 years old a completely distinct drawing of a person. Leading activity- subject-manipulative. At the end of an early age, in its original forms, it already manifests itself the game with the plot. This is the so-called director's game, in which the objects used by the child are endowed with a playful meaning. On the next age stage it will become one of the sources of the role-playing game. For the development of the game, the manifestation of symbolic or substitutive actions is important (the doll is placed on a wooden block instead of a bed).

Features of the self-concept. First impressions of myself occur in a child by the age of one. These are ideas about the parts of your body, but the baby cannot yet generalize them. With special training by adults, by the age of one and a half, the child can recognize himself in the mirror, masters the identity of the reflection and his appearance. By the age of 3 - a new stage of self-identification: with the help of a mirror, the child gets the opportunity to form his own idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis present self. The child is interested in all ways of confirming his Self, spiritualizing individual parts of the body, in the game he learns the will over himself. A three-year-old kid is interested in everything connected with him, for example, in the shadow. Begins to use the pronoun "I", learns his name, gender. Identification with one's own name is expressed in a special interest in people who have the same name. Gender identification. By the age of 3, the child already knows whether he is a boy or a girl. Children draw similar knowledge from observations of the behavior of parents, older brothers and sisters. This allows the child to understand what forms of behavior in accordance with his gender are expected of him by others. A child's understanding of belonging to a particular gender occurs for the first time 2-3 years of life, and the presence of a father is extremely important. For boys, the loss of a father after 4 years of age has little effect on the assimilation of social roles. The consequences of the absence of a father in girls begin to affect during adolescence, when many of them have difficulty in adapting to the female role when communicating with members of the opposite sex. The emergence of self-consciousness. By the age of three, the child shows the rudiments of self-consciousness, he develops a claim to recognition from adults. Positively evaluating certain actions, adults make them attractive in the eyes of children, awaken in children the desire to earn praise and recognition.

affective sphere. Children 1 to 3 years of age have a greater range fears, than in babies. This is explained by the fact that with the development of their abilities of perception, as well as mental abilities, the scope of life experience expands, from which more and more new information is drawn. Noticing that some objects may disappear from their field of vision, children are afraid that they themselves may disappear. They may be wary of the water pipes in the bathroom and toilet, thinking that the water might carry them away. Masks, wigs, new glasses, a doll without an arm, a slowly deflating balloon - all this can cause fear. Some children may be afraid of animals or moving cars, and many are afraid to sleep alone. Usually, fears disappear on their own over time as the child masters more subtle ways of thinking. Excessive irritability, intolerance, anger of parents can only exacerbate children's fears and contribute to the child's feeling of rejection. Excessive parental care also does not relieve the child of fear. A more effective way is to gradually accustom them to communicate with objects that cause fear, as well as a good example.

From the age of 2, the child begins to form moral experiences, i.e. emotions begin to be evoked not only by what is simply pleasant or unpleasant, but also by what is good or bad, which corresponds or contradicts the requirements of the surrounding people. Development of a sense of humor. At the end of the 3rd year of life, one can also note the understanding of the comic by children - during this period they develop a sense of humor. This happens as a result of the emergence of an unusual combination of objects and phenomena familiar to the child.

At the end of early childhood, a child may show empathic experiences in relation to not only close people. With the accumulation of life experience, empathic experiences in a child become more stable.

fears. Children from 1 to 3 years of age have a greater range of fears than infants. This is explained by the fact that with the development of their abilities of perception, as well as mental abilities, the scope of life experience expands, from which more and more new information is drawn. Noticing that some objects may disappear from their field of vision, children are afraid that they themselves may disappear. They may be wary of the water pipes in the bathroom and toilet, thinking that their water might carry them away. Masks, wigs, new glasses, a doll without an arm, a slowly deflating balloon - all this can cause fear. Some children may be afraid of animals or moving cars, and many are afraid to sleep alone.

Parenting strategy. Usually, fears disappear on their own over time as the child masters more subtle ways of thinking. Excessive irritability, intolerance, anger of parents can only exacerbate children's fears and contribute to the child's feeling of rejection. Excessive parental care also does not relieve the child of fear, as well as a good example.

Basic need. If in infancy the need for security was saturated, then it is updated need for love . Children between the ages of 1 and 3 are still dependent on their parents, they constantly want to feel the physical closeness of their father and mother. The leading role in meeting the basic need is given to the parent of the opposite sex. 3 - 4 years the formation of the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex. Tactile contact is important. The child learns the language of sensations. If the need is unsatisfied, the person remains tactilely insensitive (for example, at this age, the formation of erogenous zones occurs).

Crisis 3 years.

On the approach to the crisis, there is a clear cognitive symptomatology:

acute interest in his image in the mirror;

the child is puzzled by his appearance, interested in how he looks in the eyes of others. Girls have an interest in outfits;

boys begin to become preoccupied with their effectiveness, for example, in construction. They react strongly to failure.

The crisis of 3 years is among the acute ones. The child is uncontrollable, falls into a rage. Behavior is almost impossible to correct. The period is difficult for both the adult and the child himself. The symptoms are called seven-star crisis of 3 years.

Negativism. The reaction is not to the content of the adults' proposal, but to the fact that it comes from adults. The desire to do the opposite, even against their own will.

Stubbornness. The child insists on something, not because he wants to, but because he demanded it, he is bound by his original decision.

Obstinacy. It is impersonal, directed against the norms of upbringing, the way of life that has developed before the age of three.

Willfulness. Strive to do everything yourself.

Protest riot like a child in a state of war and conflict with others.

Symptom of depreciation It manifests itself in the fact that the child begins to swear, tease and call names to parents.

Despotism. The child forces the parents to do whatever he requires. In relation to younger sisters and brothers, despotism manifests itself as jealousy.

The crisis flows like a crisis social relations and is associated with the development of the child's self-awareness. Position appears "I myself." The child learns the difference between "should" and "want".

adult strategy. If the crisis proceeds sluggishly, this indicates a delay in the development of the affective and volitional sides of the personality. In children, a will begins to form, which Erickson called autonomy (independence, self-sufficiency). Children no longer need care from adults and tend to make their own choices. Feelings of shame and insecurity instead of autonomy arise when parents limit the manifestation of independence of the child, punish or ridicule any attempts at independence. The development of the child consists in finding "I can": he must learn to correlate his "I want" with his "should" and "not" and on this basis determine his "I can". The crisis drags on if the adult takes the position of “I want” (permissiveness) or “it is impossible” (prohibitions). It is necessary to provide the child with a sphere of activity where he could show independence. This area of ​​activity is in the game. A game with specific rules and regulations that reflect social connections, serves for the child as that "safe island where he can develop and test his independence and independence" (E. Erickson).

Psychotherapist Vladimir Levy says how to raise a 3rd child: “In 1/3 of the cases it is necessary to insist on one’s own, in 2/3 of the cases it is necessary to go along with the child, in 3/3 of the cases it is necessary to distract the child and distract yourself from the situation.”

Questions on the topic of the lesson.

prenatal period.

Neonatal period. Infancy.

Psychological characteristics of the child during prenatal and infancy.

Psychological characteristics of a child of pre-preschool age.

Crisis 3 years.

Test tasks on the topic with sample answers.

What is the leading activity of the child, according to J. Piaget

1. sensorimotor activity

   getting new experiences for the child

   infant resuscitation complex

   emotional development

3. L. Bozovic

   L.Vygotsky

What are the components of the infant resuscitation complex?

1. crying, smiling, cooing

   freezing reaction

   motor reactions

   freezing reaction, smile, cooing, motor reactions

Mental neoplasm of infancy is

1. the need to communicate with people and emotional attitude towards them

   speech and visual-effective thinking

   object-tool activity and awareness of one's "I"

   arbitrariness of mental phenomena, internal plan of action reflection

Individual mental life is a neoplasm

infancy

newborns

preschool age

adolescence

Revitalization complex appears

Neoplasm of infancy

Story - role-playing game

Self-esteem

Personal reflection

The emergence of self-consciousness, the development of I - concepts

The structure of speech action is formed

Feeling mature

Basic need of infancy

Understanding

Safety, security

Need for love

Need for independence

Basic need of preschool age

Understanding

Safety, security

Need for love

The need for respect

Leading activity in the pre-school period

1. Story - role-playing game

   Emotional Communication

At what age does a child develop passive speech?

1. 9 months - 1 year

   by 1.5 years

Leading activity during the neonatal period

Emotional Communication

Direct emotional communication

Subject - manipulative activity

Story - role-playing game

Neoplasm of pre-preschool age

Personal reflection

The emergence of self-consciousness, the development of I - concepts

The structure of speech action is formed

Feeling mature

Gender identification occurs

Situational tasks on the topic with sample answers.

Young parents often do not want to "accustom the child to the arms" and therefore rarely take him in his arms.

From the point of view of D.B. Elkonin, what is the leading type of activity they do not take into account?

When comparing the mental development of African children and European children, it was noted that the latter are inferior in terms of the pace of mental development.

How can this phenomenon be explained from the point of view of the views of J. Piaget?

Young parents often note that if a baby falls asleep in his mother's arms to her song, then attempts of a different kind to achieve the same remain unsuccessful.

What patterns of formation of the infant's GNI can cause this phenomenon?

It has long been observed that active, mobile infants learn to walk faster.

Infants brought up in the family are ahead of the pace of physical and mental development of children brought up in the Baby House.

How can this phenomenon be explained?

Rattles for a baby have such signs as - rounded shape, contrasting, moving, sounding.

How can this be explained, taking into account the peculiarities of the development of the infant's perception?

List and standards of practical skills.

1. The ability to assess the characteristics of the mental development of a child of early childhood.

Approximate topics of research work on the topic.

Historical and ontogenetic conditioning of the boundaries of childhood.

The history of the development of science about children.

Aggressive child behavior.

Genetic and structural relationships in personality development.

Meaning early periods childhood for the formation of a child's personality.

- obligatory:

Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books: textbook. - M.: VLADOS, 2008.

Pedagogy: tutorial/ ed. Pidkasty P.I. - M.: Yurayt, 2011.

Zhdan A.N. History of psychology: from antiquity to the present day: a textbook. - M.: Academproekt, 2010.

Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy: textbook. - M.: Higher education, 2009.

Maklakov A.G. General psychology: textbook. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.

- additional:

Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology: textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2006.

Romantsov M.G. Pedagogical technologies in medicine: textbook. - M.: GEOTAR - Media, 2007.

Sorokoumova E.A. Age-related psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.

Developmental psychology: Childhood, adolescence, youth: reader / ed. Mukhina V.S. etc. - M.: Academy, 2008.

Craig G. Psychology of development. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2009.

- electronic resources:

1. EBS KrasGMU

media library

From the first days of life, the baby has a system of unconditioned reflexes: food,

protective and orientation. Recall that one of the most favorable periods in the life of a child's body is intrauterine, when mother and child are one.

The birth process is hard crucial moment in the life of an infant. It is no coincidence that experts talk about the crisis of the newborn ™, or the birth crisis. At birth, the child is physically separated from the mother. He falls into completely different conditions (as opposed to intrauterine): temperature (cold), light (bright light). The air environment requires a different type of breathing. There is a need to change the nature of nutrition (feeding with mother's milk or artificial nutrition). To adapt to these new, alien conditions for the baby, hereditary fixed mechanisms help - unconditioned reflexes (food, protective, orienting, etc.). However, they are not enough to ensure the active interaction of the child with the environment. Without adult care, a newborn is not able to satisfy any of his needs. The basis of its development is direct contact with other people, during which the first conditioned reflexes begin to develop. One of the first to form conditioned reflex to the feeding position.

Active functioning of visual and auditory analyzers - important point in the mental development of the child. On their basis, the development of the orienting reflex "what is it?". According to A.M. Fonarev, already after 5-6 days of life, a newborn is able to follow the gaze of an object moving in the immediate vicinity, provided that it moves slowly. By the beginning of the second month of life, the ability to focus on visual and auditory stimuli appears with their fixation for 1-2 minutes. On the basis of visual and auditory concentration, the child's motor activity is streamlined, which in the first weeks of his life has a chaotic character.

Observations of newborns have shown that the first manifestations of emotions are expressed by a cry, accompanied by wrinkling, redness, and uncoordinated movements. In the second month, he freezes and focuses on the face of the person who leaned over him, smiles, throws up his arms, moves his legs, voice reactions appear. This reaction is called the "revitalization complex". The child's reaction to an adult indicates his need for communication, an attempt to establish contact with an adult. The kid communicates with the adult by means available to him. The appearance of the revitalization complex means the child's transition to the next stage of development - infancy (until the end of the first year).

At three months, the baby already singles out a person close to him, and at six months he distinguishes his own from strangers. Further, communication between the child and the adult begins to be increasingly carried out in the process of joint actions. An adult shows him how to act with objects, helps in their implementation. In this regard, the nature of emotional communication also changes. Under the influence of communication, the general vitality of the baby increases, its activity increases, which largely creates conditions for speech, motor and sensory development.

After six months, the child is already able to establish a connection between the word denoting an object and the object itself. He develops an orienting reaction to the objects called to him. The first words appear in the baby's vocabulary. In the restructuring and improvement of the motor sphere, a special place is occupied by the development of hand movements. At first, the child reaches for the object, not being able to hold it, then acquires a number of grasping skills, and by five months - the elements of grasping objects. In the second half of the year, he begins to form purposeful actions with items. From the seventh to the tenth month, he actively manipulates one object, and from the eleventh month - two. Manipulating objects enables the baby to get acquainted with all their properties and helps to establish the stability of these properties, as well as plan their actions.

According to K.N. Polivanova in its development during the first year, the child goes through several stages:

the child develops consistently attractive objects and situations;

new way to travel a short time falls into the center of attention of the child, becomes a special mediating object of need;

the prohibition (or delay) of the satisfaction of desire leads to a hypobulic reaction (in behavior) and to the appearance of aspiration (as a characteristic of mental life);

the word means retained affect.

The normal resolution of the crisis of the first year of life leads to the dismemberment of the objective and social environment to the subjectification of desire, i.e. for us - to the emergence of desire, aspiration for the child himself; to the destruction of the initial community with an adult, the formation of a certain first form of the “I” (I-willing) as the basis for the development of object manipulation, as a result of which the I-acting will arise in the future.

A great achievement in the development of a child of the second year of life is walking. This makes him more independent and creates conditions further development space. By the end of the second year of life, children's coordination of movements improves, they master more and more complex sets of actions. A child of this age knows how to wash, climb onto a chair to get a toy, loves to climb, jump, and overcome obstacles. He feels the rhythm of the movements well. Communication between babies and adults at an early age is an indispensable condition for the development of objective activity, which is the leading activity of children of this age (for more details, see below).

Significant importance in the development of the child given age has familiarity with a variety of subjects and mastery of specific ways of using them. With one item

(for example, a toy-hare) can be handled freely, taken by the ears, paw, tail, while others are assigned other and unambiguous methods of action. Rigid attachment of actions to objects-tools, methods of action with them are established by the child under the influence of an adult and are transferred to other objects.

A child of the second year of life actively learns actions with such tool objects as a cup, spoon, scoop, etc. At the first stage of mastering the tool action, he uses tools as an extension of his hand, and therefore this action was called manual (for example, a baby uses a spatula to get a ball that has rolled under a cabinet). At the next stage, the child learns to correlate tools with the object to which the action is directed (sand, snow, earth are collected with a spatula, water with a bucket). Thus, he adapts to the properties of the tool. The mastery of object-tools leads to the assimilation by the child of the social way of using things and has a decisive influence on the development of the initial forms of thinking.

The development of a child's thinking at an early age occurs in the process of his objective activity and is of a visual and effective nature. He learns to single out an object as an object of activity, to move it in space, to act with several objects in relation to each other. All this creates conditions for getting to know the hidden properties of objective activity and allows you to act with objects not only directly, but also with the help of other objects or actions (for example, knock, rotate).

The practical objective activity of children is an important stage in the transition from practical mediation to mental mediation; it creates conditions for the subsequent development of conceptual, verbal thinking. In the process of performing actions with objects and designating actions with words, the child's thought processes are formed. The most important among them at an early age is generalization. But since his experience is small and he still does not know how to single out an essential feature in a group of objects, generalizations are often incorrect. For example, the word "ball" baby refers to all objects that have a round shape. Children of this age can make generalizations on a functional basis: a cap (hat) is a hat, scarf, cap, etc. Improving objective activity contributes to the intensive development of the child's speech. Since his activity is carried out jointly with an adult, the baby’s speech is situational, contains questions and answers to an adult, and has the character of a dialogue. The child's vocabulary increases. He begins to show great activity in the pronunciation of words. The words that the baby uses in his speech become the designation of similar objects.

By the end of the second year, the child begins to use two-word sentences in his speech. The fact of intensive assimilation of speech by him is explained by the fact that babies like to pronounce the same word repeatedly. They kind of play with it. As a result, the child learns to correctly understand and pronounce words, as well as build sentences. This is the period of his increased susceptibility to the speech of others. Therefore, this period is called sensitive (favorable for the development of a child's speech). The formation of speech at this age is the basis of all mental development. If for some reason (illness, lack of communication) the baby’s speech capabilities are not used sufficiently, then his further general development starts to linger. At the end of the first and beginning of the second year of life, some rudiments of play activity are observed. Children perform with objects the actions of adults they observe (imitate adults). At this age, they prefer a real object to a toy: a bowl, a cup, a spoon, etc., since it is still difficult for them to use substitute objects due to insufficient development of their imagination.

The child of the second year is very emotional. But throughout early childhood, children's emotions are unstable. Laughter is replaced by bitter weeping. After tears comes joyful revival. However, the baby is easily distracted from unpleasant feeling by showing him an attractive object. The rudiments begin to form at an early age. moral feelings. This happens if adults teach the baby to reckon with other people. “Don’t make noise, dad is tired, he is sleeping”, “Give grandfather shoes”, etc. In the second year of life, the child has positive feelings for the comrades with whom he plays. Forms of expression of sympathy are becoming more diverse. This is a smile and sweet Nothing, and sympathy, and showing attention to other people, and, finally, the desire to share joy with another person. If in the first year the feeling of sympathy is still involuntary, unconscious, unstable, then in the second year it becomes more conscious. In the process of communicating with adults in the second year of life, a child develops an emotional reaction to praise (R.Kh. Shakurov). The emergence of an emotional reaction to praise creates internal conditions for the development of self-esteem, self-love, for the formation of a stable positive-emotional attitude of the baby to himself and to his qualities.

Chapter 16

§ 16.1. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN INFANTITY AND EARLY AGE

As a result of research carried out in last quarter XX century, it was proved that babies in a special way perceive, distinguish from other objects of the external world and prefer manifestations of a person, from the first days of life they are able to imitate some of the actions of their adult communication partner. A newborn baby has been found to open its mouth or stick out its tongue if a person facing it performs these actions. The ability of babies to expand their lips to imitate the expression of happiness on the face of an adult, exposing outward lower lip- an expression of sadness, opening the eyes and mouth - a surprised face. If these expressions are rare immediately after birth, then they are obvious by the age of 2-4 months. An infant's facial expressions can be easily recognized and classified using the same categories used for adults. According to one of the founders of this line of research, American pediatrician Berry Brazelton, when evaluating the behavior of newborn babies, one can observe interest, joy, surprise, disgust, anger. For example, interest can be observed in the sound of a rattle, disgust - when a child sucks a soapy finger, anger - when assessing the reflex that brings maximum discomfort. Infants are also capable of distinguishing adult emotional facial expressions, which are considered to be universal. It has been found that newborns are able to distinguish expressions of happiness, sadness and surprise, and at a later age distinguish slides with expressions of joy, anger and neutral expressions. It has been determined that infants distinguish positive facial expressions better than negative or neutral ones, show positive expressions more often than negative ones.

The first two weeks of life are the most pleasant for parents positive expression the child's face in the form of a smile can be observed during the so-called period of paradoxical sleep, accompanied by movements of the eyeballs, which is a reflection of the cyclical change electrical potentials brain. Smiling is rarely observed when the infant is awake with open eyes. Although newborns smile, this reaction is reflexive, often triggered by stroking the cheeks or lips. Due to the internal neurophysiological nature and unrelated to the change in the external world, it was called the endogenous smile.

Between the ages of six weeks and three months, the baby begins to smile at various sounds and visual cues. The smile becomes exogenous, caused by external events. However, of all external stimuli, the human face, gaze, high pitched voice, and being tickled are the most likely to cause a smile. During the first month and a half, the mother's voice is most effective, and after six weeks the face is more effective than the voice. The face of a person moving and talking in front of a six month old baby is the best way to bring a smile. Thus, having become exogenous, the smile becomes predominantly social. The morphology of the smile does not change yet, it looks the same, although the cause that causes it changes. At three months, another change occurs with a smile and it becomes what is called instrumental behavior. In other words, the baby is now smiling in order to get a response from someone, such as a return smile or a word from the mother.

Another age change occurs around four months of age when smiling becomes part of a smooth and coordinated action and may appear simultaneously with other facial expressions. More complex, often ambiguous expressions arise, such as a smile with furrowed brows. These stages of smile development would not be possible without parallel changes in the infant's cognitive abilities, which allow the same morphologically unchanged smile to appear under different conditions, in response to different stimuli, performing different functions.

At the age of 4-5 months, the infant begins to laugh, especially in response to social interaction, unexpected changes in visual stimulation, and tickling. During the first year, the child laughs in response to the actions that are performed on him, for example, when his mother plays peek-a-boo with him or tickles him. At 7–9 months, he begins to laugh more in anticipation of the appearance of the mother's face during the game of peek-a-boo than in response to the completion of the entire game sequence. However, after the first birthday, children smile and laugh at the events that they themselves caused. At 18 months they put on an animal costume and laugh, or play pranks and laugh.

Why do infant researchers believe that these changes are due to the unfolding of innate tendencies? According to well-known psychoanalyst and specialist in early childhood development Daniel Stern, some weight to this point of view is given by data on the significant similarity in the direction and timing of change in infants who grew up in a wide variety of social conditions and conditions. environment. Even more compelling is the observational data from blind children who did not have the opportunity to see or simulate smiles, or to receive visual reinforcement and feedback on their smiles. Until the age of 4–6 months, the smiles of blind infants were comparable to the smiles of sighted ones and went through the same stages and time periods of development. However, after this age, blind children began to experience oppression and muffled facial expression in general, their smiles were less dazzling and attractive. It can be assumed that after an initial period of unfolding of innate tendencies, some visual feedback or reinforcement seems to be required to maintain and further develop an emotionally positive manifestation in the form of a smile.

If we summarize the history of the development of a smile during the first year of life, it should be noted that it passes from an innately triggered reflex activity to an externally induced, primarily on the part of a person, stimulation of a social response, to instrumental behavior aimed at obtaining social responses from others, and further to a fully coordinated behavior in combination with other facial expressions. Although this direction of development is the main and most probable for all facial expressions, it is still not the same for all types of expressive behavior. So, unlike a smile, laughter is not observed from birth and, apparently, does not pass through an endogenous phase. It first appears in response to an external stimulus sometime between the fourth and eighth months. From four to six months, it is most easily triggered by tactile stimulation such as being tickled. Between the ages of seven and nine months, sound events become more effective, and between ten and twelve months, laughter is most readily elicited. visual cues. Like a smile, its shape changes little from the time of appearance during life. It is present in the blind as well as in children who have grown up with animals. Laughter also becomes a type of instrumental behavior already at an early age.

Different degrees of expression of discontent, up to crying, are observed, like a smile, from birth, go through a similar course of development and morphologically change little throughout life. They become exogenous extrinsic behaviors before smiling, and some researchers believe that the instrumental use of crying can be seen as early as three weeks of age. One way or another, already by the third month of life, each of these expressions and the entire sequence to which they refer are formed and act as social and instrumental behavior in order to help the infant conduct and regulate his part of the interaction with the mother.

§ 16.2. INTERACTION AND ATTACHMENT OF MOTHER AND CHILD

A newborn baby is surrounded by a large and diverse world social stimulation from the closest people in relations with whom it develops. There is considerable evidence that many sensory and cognitive abilities infants focus on the perception of social cues. Infants have been found to be less interested in non-social stimuli. According to the indications of changes in heart rate, they are significantly more attentive to social stimuli. Apparently, even brain structures are more attuned to social than to non-social events.

From the first days of life, the child imitates the social manifestations of an adult, is able to combine information coming through various sensory channels. It has a wide range of signals necessary to start social interaction with loved ones, maintain and terminate interaction. In other words, the infant is born with significant sensory-perceptual and motor abilities to establish social connections with other people. Immediately after birth, he can actively participate in the formation of his first and main relationship with the closest person - his mother. The development of his abilities, the tools with which he establishes social and emotional connections, occurs through relationships with her. No less important in the social competence of children is control over their biological functions through social interaction. Important processes of state organization, including the regulation of sleep and wake cycles, are most likely the result of social interaction between the infant and the closest caregiver.

According to the theory of attachment, developed by psychologists and psychoanalysts J. Bowlby and M. Ainsworth, which received a significant number of experimental and clinical facts confirming the experimental and clinical facts, in infants there is observed that is not related to the satisfaction of physiological needs and focuses on the most close person attachment behavior, to which such congenital species interaction behaviors like sucking, clinging, stalking, crying, smiling. The authors point out that this behavior guarantees the protection and survival of the species, emphasizes the readiness of the newborn for social exchange and the establishment of an affective bond with the mother, and believe that attachment does not indicate regression, but rather fulfills a natural, healthy function even in the life of an adult.

Attachment behavior matures relatively independently during the first year, focusing on the mother figure during the second six months of a child's life. It is assumed that by the age of 12–18 months, based on the experience of social and emotional interaction, children develop some working model of self-image and their relationship with the closest person. Generalized representations of the emotional relationship with the mother allow them to feel safe even in situations where the mother is not actually present.

The first empirical studies of attachment relationships, conducted by M. Ainsworth, were aimed at studying individual differences the quality of mother-infant interaction and attachment, and the mother's sensitivity to the baby's cues.

It has been found that mother's responsiveness in the first three months leads to a more harmonious mother-infant relationship in the last three months of the first year of life. The author attributed this fact to the child's internalization of the experience of interacting with a sensitive and protective mother. From her point of view, an infant whose mother's responsiveness helps him achieve his goal develops confidence in his ability to control what happens to him.

Experimental studies have revealed that an indicator of attachment to the mother can be the infant's reaction to strangers or an unfamiliar situation, behavior under stress, pain and the need for reassurance, a reaction to a short-term separation from the mother. When a stranger approaches, the child's face changes, turns towards the mother and again towards the stranger, and after a few seconds begins to cry. The likelihood of fear is less if the stranger approaches slowly, speaks softly, and starts playing with the child; the appearance of fear is most likely if he approaches the child quickly, very quietly or loudly and tries to pick him up. Almost all children, in one situation or another, show fear of a stranger between 7 and 12 months of age.

The fear reaction to temporary separation from the mother is most evident when the infant is left in an unfamiliar room or in the presence of a stranger. If a mother tells her one-year-old happily playing child that she is leaving, but will return very soon, and then leaves the room, then the child looks at the door where he saw her in last time and starts crying after a few seconds. This is least likely to happen if the child is left at home with a relative or caregiver he or she knows. Blind one-year-olds cry when they hear their mother has left the room. Fear of temporary separation from the mother usually occurs between 7 and 12 months of age, peaks between 15 and 18 months of age, and then gradually decreases.

Summarizing the results of his observations, J. Bowlby singled out three phases of a child's response to separation from his mother: a protest associated with separation anxiety; despair, grief and grief over the departure of the mother; and associated with inclusion defense mechanisms abandonment or separation from the mother. According to attachment theory, a child experiences grief whenever attachment behavior is activated but the attachment figure continues to be unavailable. The beloved child will protest the separation from his parents, but later he will be able to rely on himself. Low anxiety at separation from the mother gives an erroneous impression of maturity.

The traditional explanation for separation anxiety is that the baby cries after the mother leaves, because it anticipates pain or danger as a consequence of the mother's absence. However, this point of view does not explain why the fear reaction at a similar age of 8-12 months occurs in children brought up in the most different cultures and conditions under varying degrees and types of contact with the mother. In addition, children who are left in the nursery do not show separation reactions earlier or with less intensity than those who are constantly near their mothers. These data, as well as studies emotional reactions in baby monkeys show that the emergence of fear during this period is partly related to the stages of maturation of the central nervous system. The intensity and type of reaction of the child during temporary separation may depend on the quality of the experience acquired by the child in the process of psychological interaction with the closest person.

To determine the attachment of the infant and mother, M. Ainsworth and her colleagues developed a laboratory procedure known as the "strange situation". This procedure is based on the assumption that the characteristics of an infant's exploration of an unfamiliar environment, such as a laboratory playroom, at the age of about one year, his behavior when meeting a stranger, and also when separated and reunited with his mother, provide an opportunity to determine the quality of attachment. "Strange Situation" is a short, about 20-minute drama that consists of eight episodes, including the separation and reunion of a child and mother. A mother and baby are led into a laboratory playroom, where they are later joined by an unfamiliar woman. While the stranger is playing with the child, the mother leaves the room for a short time and then returns. At the second separation, the child is left alone in the room. In the last episodes, instead of the expected mother, a stranger returns, and then the mother returns.

An analysis of the behavior of infants in the laboratory procedure "unfamiliar situation" made it possible to distinguish three types of attachment between the infant and the mother: secure attachment (secure attachment), designated as group "B", insecure attachment of the avoidant type (avoidant attachment, "A"), insecure attachment of ambivalent resistant type (resistant - ambivalent attachment, "C"). Later, another, fourth type of attachment was singled out - an insecure attachment of a disorganized type (disorganized attachment, "D").

Group B infants, who accounted for 66% of the entire sample (we studied middle-income families, representatives of the middle strata of the US population), felt safe enough in the presence of their mother to actively explore the room and play with toys, and did not show anxiety about the absence of the mother. In the episode of separation, they were predictably upset, their exploratory activity decreased. These infants, assessed as securely attached, welcomed the mother's return, approached and sought close contact with her, and showed interest in continuing the interaction. Infants in group A, an avoidant type of insecure attachment (about 20% of the entire sample), are characterized by the absence or slight manifestation of grief when the mother leaves the room. They pay attention to the environment, avoiding contact and interaction upon the return of the mother, some ignore the mother. Infants assigned to group "C" - an insecure attachment of an ambivalent-resisting type (about 12%), even in the first episodes in the presence of their mother, show anxiety and some ambivalence in interaction and are significantly upset when the mother leaves the room. In the reunion situation, they act as if they want close contact with their mother, but in reality they resist contact and interaction. Finally, group D, the disorganized type of insecure attachment, included infants who showed abnormal, conflicting responses or showed fear of their mother.

Attachment type in to a large extent depends on previous experience mother-infant interactions. When a mother is sensitive to her child, attachment can most often be safe type. In a stressful situation, the infant, in order to reduce the unpleasant feeling of danger, focuses on the mother or moves in her direction. However, in some cases, if there is negative experience previous relationship, child stressful situations may show ambivalent attitude, resist or avoid interaction with the mother.

Research carried out over the past fifteen years has shown a connection between the child's characteristic attitude of attachment to the mother and its subsequent development. It was found that differences in attachment are reflected in the manifestation of emotions, inhibition of behavior and timidity, in knowledge about oneself and mother, in perseverance and enthusiasm when a child completes a task, as a game, in solving problems. In a short-term separation from their mother, thirteen-month-old infants with insecure attachment and resistance showed the same duration of anger, but less interest and more sadness, compared to securely attached ones. Children with a secure attachment to their mother at the age of two are more persistent in solving problems, accept the mother's help, show fewer reactions distress and more positive affect, more exploration of animate and inanimate objects, use of tools, more cooperation and compliance. Safely attached to their mothers in infancy, children are more prepared for the weak demands, restrictions, and roles imposed on them by their parents during their second year of life. At the age of three, they are more sociable with their peers, and at the age of five, they show greater self-esteem, positive affects, empathy, and competence in communicating with peers.

Over the past years, many researchers have been studying the issue of interaction between mother and infant in cases of risk of developmental delay. A significant amount of experimental data has been accumulated, indicating the impact on the interaction and social emotional development child factors such as prematurity, genetic disorder, "difficult" temperament. shown bad influence on mother-infant relationship mental illness mothers, especially depression, child abuse, teenage motherhood, socioeconomic disadvantage.

Despite the fact that in each case the causes and qualitative features of changes in the interaction and development of the child are different, as a result of a review of experimental studies, it is possible to identify the most common problems for mother-infant couples. These include fewer and weaker cues observed on the part of infants (decrease in the number of eye-to-eye contacts, imitations, vocalizations, smiles), less responsiveness to initiation and behavior of the mother, weakening of the initiation of interaction. The behavior of mothers in the first months of a child's life is characterized by a violation of adjustment, avoidance, or, conversely, excessive involvement in interaction. They are less sensitive to the needs of the infant, appear more dominant and controlling, and show a lack of support for independent or infant-initiated play. Over-stimulating, over-controlling and over-dominating behavior of the mother leads to subtle or strong signs of denial of the interaction on the part of the infant, the manifestation of protective mechanisms by him. The process of acquiring the optimal primary experience necessary for mental health and development of the baby. Frequent negative affects in infants of risk groups indicate the experience of stress in the process of interaction. Their protective behavior is often similar to the behavior of children in conditions of deprivation, separation from their mother.

In general, the process of interaction between a mother and an infant of risk groups can be characterized by asynchrony, a lack of mutual regulation of the level of excitation and stimulation, and a violation of the "dance" of interaction. If the mother does not adapt to the characteristics of the infant, is unable to establish a sensitive, mutually directed style, and meet the basic socio-emotional needs of the child, then there is a high probability of disruption of interaction and the formation of an insecure attachment.

Infants at risk are not a homogeneous group, however, from the literature data, it can be concluded that the risk of a change in the developmental line associated with the special needs of the infant may be exacerbated by a deficiency of primary object relations, violation of systemic relations with the mother. The picture becomes even more tragic when you consider the change in the condition and depression of the mother associated with the birth of a child from genetic or medical risk groups, which in itself is strong factor interaction disorders.

Research data suggest that the nature and quality of interactions vary significantly from one dyad to another and depend both on the abilities of the infants and on the individual characteristics of the parents. Each pair must be considered separately as complex and open system with many influencing factors, regulatory mechanisms, potential for self-healing and change. Despite special needs, at-risk infants and mothers can establish optimal interactions and form secure attachment relationships. Positive changes in the socio-emotional interaction in the couple and the development of the infant are facilitated by programs of early interdisciplinary family-centered care.

§ 16.3. EARLY AID PROGRAMS

Programs early help or early intervention (from the English "early intervention") took shape and became widespread in the countries of Scandinavia, Western Europe and the USA as a result of a change in society's attitude towards children with special needs and their parents, the development of psychology, social work, medicine and the adoption of the necessary legal and legislative acts regulating the state policy in relation to children with disabilities. Even 30–40 years ago, institutions where parents were recommended to send the child were the main place of residence of children with developmental disabilities, since it was believed that such institutions relieve parents from the heavy burden of caring for and raising “uneducated” children. Arguments were made that the institution is useful for children: there the child gets the experience of being together with peers, as well as necessary treatment and care. Care for children in closed institutions was characterized by an exclusively medical focus, ignoring the needs of development. public attention and professional organizations to a system of segregation was the beginning of deinstitutionalization, the process of closing large institutions for children with special needs, which was accompanied by the development alternative system segregation of child and parent care programs. Experimental evidence has been obtained that shows the greatest effectiveness of the timely initiation of care - immediately after the identification of a problem or diagnosis of a child with a developmental delay.

In modern Russian society, the creation of early intervention programs began in 1992, when the Early Intervention Service was opened in St. preschool education. When organizing the Service, the experience of similar programs abroad was used, in particular, the model of lecotheques and habilitation centers in Sweden and early intervention programs in the United States, and in the future - our own experience. theoretical generalization daily work with children and their parents in the Service for many years. Expanding into educational and health care settings, early intervention programs can and have begun to expand into the children's homes where a large number of infants and young children with special needs.

The Early Intervention Program brings together interdisciplinary therapeutic, educational and socio-psychological services that are aimed not only at the development of children, but also at organizing the interaction of parents with professionals and public organizations, dissemination of information about children with special needs in society. Early intervention services and programs are created for children from birth to three years of age with special needs due to medical, biological and social factors in order to promote the optimal development and adaptation of children in society. Medical factors include established congenital or acquired disorders that lead to a certain limitation in the functioning of the child and developmental delay. Biological factors include conditions that lead or may lead to some (temporary or permanent) limitation of the child's functioning and developmental delay. Social factors include economic, social, emotional, psychological and (or) other environmental factors that adversely affect the mental development and health of the child. Early intervention programs serve children: a) who are found to be critically retarded in one of the following areas: cognitive development, movement development, language and speech development, self-care, social and emotional development; b) who live in physical or mental conditions with a high probability of developmental delay. In the latter case, children under three years of age may be singled out, living in segregated conditions in orphanages, adopted or taken under guardianship by a family from orphanages. Until recently, this group of children did not receive the necessary psychological and pedagogical assistance. Recognizing the critical influence of mother, father, and other loved ones on a child's development, early intervention services focus on working with the family. Thus, instead of working one-on-one with the child, the staff of the early intervention program tends to move to work not only with the child, but also with people from his immediate environment.

R. Zh. Mukhamedrakhimov identifies two areas of early intervention: socio-pedagogical and psychotherapeutic. The focus of the socio-pedagogical programs of early intervention is the educational needs of the child, the development of cognitive, speech, motor abilities. The priority of psychotherapeutic early intervention is the focus on the social and emotional development of the child and the quality of interaction with the child of the closest adults. The early intervention program created in St. Petersburg in a preschool educational institution differs from foreign programs and early intervention programs created in recent years in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other regions of Russia by combining the socio-pedagogical and psychotherapeutic areas, when mental health and personality development become the focus of work a child with special needs in interaction with the closest person.

The work of socio-pedagogical and psychotherapeutic early intervention programs is based on the following principles: 1) family-centeredness - the professional focus of the program staff on interaction both with the child and with parents and other family members, people from his immediate environment; 2) interdisciplinarity - the activities of the program are carried out by specialists from different areas of knowledge about the child and the family, who make up a single team and act in accordance with the technologies of interprofessional interaction;

3) partnership - establishing partnership relations with the child, members of his family or people from his immediate environment;

4) voluntariness - the decision to apply to the program or the Early Intervention Service and the desire to include the child and family in the service program comes from the parents or persons replacing them; 5) openness - the early intervention program responds to the request of any family or persons representing the interests of the child, concerned about his condition or development; 6) confidentiality - information about the child and family, available to employees of the early intervention program, is not subject to disclosure and transfer without the consent of the family; 7) respect for the individual - employees of the early intervention program respect the child and parents or people replacing them, accept the child as a full-fledged person with individual development needs; respecting the personality of the parent, the program staff accept his opinion about the child, his personal experience, expectations and decisions.

The objectives of the interdisciplinary family-centered early intervention program are: 1) informational and socio-psychological support for parents and families, namely: early support and support for parents and family members at the birth of a child with special needs; counseling parents on issues related to individual features the child and the conditions for his optimal development; providing information about legislative acts protecting the rights of the child and the family, on social guarantees, on public and government organizations providing the necessary assistance and services; 2) determination of the strengths and weaknesses of the child and the family, namely: an interdisciplinary assessment of the main areas of the child's development (cognitive, socio-emotional, motor, speech, self-service areas); determination of the state of mental health of the child, the qualitative features of his relationship with parents and other family members; identifying the basic needs of the child and family; 3) early assistance to the child and family: creation of an individual support program for the child and family; interdisciplinary care for the child and family in accordance with the developed program; tracking the effectiveness of early assistance and, if necessary, making additions and changes to the developed program; 4) transfer of the child and family to other structures: planning, preparing for the transition and transfer of the child and family from the early intervention program to other structures; 5) informing parent, public and professional organizations about the work of the early intervention program, its goals and objectives.

Each of these tasks is solved differently depending on the priorities and resources of the Early Intervention Service. Yes, in various programs the stages of care for the child and family may vary. In the St. Petersburg Early Assistance Service in the system of preschool education, the following stages of work with a child and family have been identified.

1. Direction and reception of direction. The family of an infant with special needs may receive information about the program and a referral from the city association of parents of children with special needs; from an organization or individual professional; Finally, parents have the opportunity to contact the service directly. The program staff accepts the referral, puts the child and parents on the waiting list, and initiates contact with the family.

2. First meeting with parents. One of the employees, a neonatologist, meets with the parents (most often the mother) and finds out the reason for contacting the service, the living conditions of the child and the family, family relations, collects primary data on the history of pregnancy and childbirth, the development of the child until the moment of contact, determines the nearest social child and family environment. As a result of the conversation, an individual card of the child and family is filled out. At the end of the meeting, a date is set for video testing (a method for assessing early relationships) and a date for a meeting with a group of professionals; explains the order in which they are carried out.

3. Determining the needs of the child and family. The methods used to assess the quality of interactions and relationships between mother and child of infancy and early childhood are based on the results of observation of social behavior mother and child or are associated with the use of author's structured methods. By using psychological methods individual psychological features mother, first of all, her condition, which, according to the literature, largely influences and determines the condition of the child.

4. Interdisciplinary assessment of the child and family. Before conducting an interdisciplinary assessment of the basic needs, strengths and weaknesses of the child, the neonatologist informs the program staff about the results of the first meeting with the family. In accordance with the information about the developmental age of the child, the teacher and other specialists prepare the necessary toys and materials for formal testing. Specialists and parents with the child sit on the carpet in a circle to be on the same level with the child. Group consultation is conducted by one of the employees who keeps the conversation going in the circle, monitors the time and the course of the group process. One of the employees can be sent to establish contact (play interaction) with the child, consistently providing pre-prepared toys and materials necessary to determine the level functional development child. The process of a group meeting with the family goes through several stages: the formation of a therapeutic alliance with the parents and the child; collection of additional data about the child and family; informal observation of the behavior of the child and parents; conducting formal testing; formulating the strengths and weaknesses of the child and the family; provision by employees feedback parents and discuss possible areas of service.

5. Interdisciplinary discussion of the direction and duration of early intervention. After completing the work "in a circle" with the family, specialists discuss and record the results of their observations, make a general conclusion about the features of the child's development. Then the most significant areas of work with the child and family, the frequency of meetings, the duration of the program are determined, and a professional is selected who will lead this family. When discussing the duration of the program, options are considered for a one-time meeting, short-term or long-term early intervention. In the first case, one meeting with a team of program staff is enough for parents and the child, since the interdisciplinary assessment procedure can be considered, among other things, as a method of group therapeutic intervention. In the short-term program (2 to 5 meetings) and in the phases of the long-term program, psychotherapeutic early intervention models can be used, in some cases in combination with special programs for the development of the child in the main areas. A long-term early intervention program is needed for severely retarded infants and needs to be developed individual plan child and family services. It can last several years and ends with the organization of the transfer of the child and family to other preschool educational institutions and programs, in particular to integration groups, where a child with special needs is brought up in an environment of usually developing peers.

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Introduction

Early childhood (the period from one to three years) is a special period in a child's life. At this time, rapid mental and physical development takes place, the foundation is laid for the further formation and development of the child as a person. The main achievements of early childhood, which determine the development of the child's psyche, are: mastery of the body, mastery of speech, development of objective activity. The qualitative transformations that a child undergoes in the first three years are very significant.

The relevance of the study of the psychology of a child of an early age is due to the importance of the childhood period for the formation of the personality and abilities of an adult. Modern changes in the economic and cultural life, as well as changes in society, require psychologists and educators to develop new concepts for educating the personality and developing the mental abilities of the child from a very early age. Currently, such developments, at a high scientific level, are clearly not enough.

Object: psychological development of a young child.

Subject: factors of child development in early childhood.

The purpose of the study: based on the study of special monographic literature, articles in periodicals, the use of their own practical experience raising a child, to form scientifically based ideas about the psychology of a child of an early age.

Tasks for studying the characteristics of a child's development in early childhood:

Explore Features psychological development young child;

To identify problems in the upbringing of "it is impossible and necessary" in a child, and the importance of educating the volitional component;

Show the importance of developing thinking in young children;

Analyze the special significance of speech and its formation in development

Young child

The hypothesis of the study consisted of the following assumptions: the period of early childhood is important in the development of mental abilities and personality of the child, the development of the speech abilities of an early age child contributes to the development of the emotional-volitional sphere, mental and physical development of the child. Thus, the question of the normal speech development of children and the prevention of speech disorders is of great social significance.

Features and problems of early childhood development (from 1 to 3 years)

Features of the psychological development of a young child

Early age is the most crucial period of a person's life, when the most fundamental abilities are formed that determine the further development of a person. During this period, such key qualities as cognitive activity, trust in the world, self-confidence, a benevolent attitude towards people, creative possibilities, total vitality and much more. However, these qualities and abilities do not arise automatically as a result of physiological maturation.

Their formation requires adequate influence from adults, certain forms communication and collaboration with the child. The origins of many problems that parents and teachers face (reduced cognitive activity, communication disorders, isolation and increased shyness, or vice versa, aggressiveness and hyperactivity of children, etc.) lie precisely in early childhood.

Correction and compensation of these deformities at preschool and school age presents significant difficulties and requires much more effort and expense than their prevention.

Developing, the child not only masters a variety of actions, not only learns to see the world, to think. He also learns what is good and what is bad, gets used to subordinate his desires to necessity, absorbs the rules of behavior, human... The personality of the child, his inner world begins to take shape.

Toddlers 2-3 years old are largely characterized by spontaneity, impulsive behavior, that they act under the influence of their feelings and desires, and they are not aware of them, they do not highlight the main thing - what matters to them is what worries them at the moment.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, an adult person does this and not otherwise, because as a result of a long and purposeful upbringing, he has developed a completely definite, social norms system of behavioral motives. He considers some motives more important, others less. And when two motives collide, he acts at the behest of the more important one. In everyday life, we see this at every step. I would like to have fun on the day off, but a friend asked me to help in urgent work. Pulling to go to the gym, but you need to prepare for the exam. They offer to go on an exciting journey, but you can’t leave home for a long time: your parents are sick. Actually, we judge the level of development of a person’s personality precisely by how much he knows how to balance his desires and aspirations with the motives of necessity, duty, which are more important in the eyes of society, whether he is able to sacrifice his own interests for the benefit of others.

The child just has to master all this. In the first years of life, one cannot expect that he is aware of the motives of his behavior and will build them in order of importance. Only gradually does such a socio-moral frame of the personality acquire the necessary form and sufficient stability.

But the child lives already now, today. And even today we demand from him "moral behavior." In general, this is the right requirement - it is only important to find the right way to make it understandable and accessible to the baby. And here, precisely those psychological characteristics of the child that, it would seem, should interfere with you, will come to your aid - the immediacy and impulsiveness of behavior. Since we know that the behavior of the baby is influenced by his feelings and desires, we will try to pay special attention to the development of such feelings in him that would encourage him to act in accordance with the requirements of adults, take into account the interests of other people - relatives, peers. A two-year-old is more likely to share his toys with another child if you evoke feelings of sympathy for this child than if you simply demand and order to do so. It will be easier for him to obey his mother and grandmother if he has learned to love them and sees that his obedience brings them joy, and disobedience brings grief.

That is why it is so important to ensure that the baby is dominated positive emotions- joy, sympathy, gullibility, and manifestations negative emotions, such as resentment, fear, displeasure, anger, were noticed and extinguished in time.