purposeful social action. The concept and classification of human actions

Social action is any manifestation of social activity (activity, behavior, reaction, position, etc.), focused on other people. This is the simplest unit (single act) of social activity, which involves (taking into account) certain expectations and reactions of other people.

Some researchers equate social action with social interaction. So, Yu.E. Volkov believes that social action inevitably gives rise to social interaction. Such a statement is incorrect. social action involves social interaction, but it can also be one-sided, i.e., remain without a response. For example, a person who is in trouble and calls for help from other people hopes that he will be heard and they will help him, that is, he is waiting for interaction. But it may not be heard, and its social action will remain a unilateral act.

In classical sociology, researchers distinguish two main approaches, two points of view on the motivation of social action. The first approach is contained in the works of E. Durkheim, the second - M. Weber.

According to E. Durkheim, human activity and behavior are strictly determined by external objective factors (social structure, social relations, culture, etc.). M. Weber, on the contrary, gave a subjective meaning to social action. He believed that in any social conditions a person has a certain opportunity for the manifestation of his individuality.

The concept of "social action" was introduced into sociology by M. Weber to denote the action of an individual (separate isolated individuals) aimed at resolving life problems and consciously focused on other people. The main features of social action (according to Weber) are conscious motivation and orientation to others. Weber identifies four types of social action:

1) purposeful-rational is a conscious action aimed at achieving specific purpose. In this action, the goal is the primary motive;

2) value-rational - this is an action based on the belief that the act being performed has a certain value. Consequently, in this type of social action, the main motive is value (ethical, religious, ideological, cultural, etc.);

3) traditional - this is an action performed by virtue of habit, tradition, as if automatically, for example, we walk down the street and do not think about how to rearrange our legs. Thinking is connected only when there are any difficulties in movement. According to Weber, the traditional action is performed subconsciously, and for this reason it is the subject of study of psychology, ethnology and other sciences, but not sociology;

4) affective - an action determined by emotions and for this reason also not realized, that is, not subject to sociological analysis.

T. Parsons proposed his "general system of human action", which includes the "social system", "system of personality", "system of culture". Each of these subsystems has its own functional significance in the overall system of social action. social system solves the problems of social interaction and integration of society; the cultural system - the preservation and reproduction of images: the personal system - the fulfillment of goal-achieving functions.

The theory of social action was further developed in the works of such sociologists as A. Touraine, F. Znanetsky, J. Habermas, J. Alexander, P.L. Berger and others. In their concepts, modern researchers strive to take into account both objective facts and subjective motives of social action, as well as the latest scientific and technological achievements and real changes that have occurred in recent years in civil society, in world cultures and civilizations. At the same time, priority is given to the motivational-activity component of social action.

17. What is the essence of social interaction?

Social interaction is the process of direct or indirect interaction of social subjects (actors) with each other, the process of exchange of actions between two or more actors. Social interaction is one of the key concepts in sociological theory, since all social phenomena (social relations, processes, changes, social structure, statuses, roles, etc.) arise as a result of social interaction. It is made up of separate, mutually directed social actions. Therefore, social interaction involves the mutual actions of at least two social actors. In this case, the action can be initiated by the actor himself (individual, group) and considered as a "challenge", or it can be a response to the actions of others - "response to the challenge".

The essence of social interaction lies in the fact that only in interaction with other people can a person satisfy the vast majority of his needs, interests, values. And in itself, interaction is the basic vital need of a person.

In the process of interaction, there is an exchange of information, knowledge, experience, material, spiritual and other values; an individual (group) determines his position relative to others, his place (status) in the social structure, his social roles. The role, in turn, prescribes certain patterns of behavior for the individual and makes the interaction predictable. The very social structure, social relations and social institutions are the result of various kinds and forms of social interaction.

The most important component of social interaction is the predictability of mutual expectations or, in other words, mutual understanding between actors. If the actors "speak different languages and pursue mutually exclusive goals and interests, the results of such interaction are unlikely to be positive.

The study of the problems of social interaction has always been in the center of attention of the world's leading sociologists. A significant contribution to the development of the theory of social action and social interaction was made by such sociologists as M. Weber, P. Sorokin, J. Homans, T. Parsons and others.

M. Weber believes that the source of social action and interaction of people (individuals, groups) are their needs, interests and values. In the course of interaction, people strive to rationalize their behavior as much as possible in order to achieve the greatest economic efficiency. Therefore, social actions are characterized by such qualities as awareness, rationality and focus on others.

According to P. Sorokin, social interaction is a mutual exchange of collective experience, knowledge, concepts, the highest result of which is the emergence of "culture". At the societal level, social interaction can be represented as a sociocultural process in which collective experience is passed on from generation to generation. At the same time, "each generation adds its part to the amount of knowledge (experience) received by inheritance, which it acquired during its life, and the amount of collective experience (knowledge) thus constantly grows."

J. Homans considers social interaction within the framework of the theory he created in the early 60s of the XX century. concept of social exchange. He believes that in the process of interaction, each of the parties seeks to obtain the maximum possible rewards for their actions and minimize costs. Among the most important rewards Homans considers social approval. Mutually rewarded interactions tend to become regular and develop into relationships based on a system of mutual expectations. If expectations are not confirmed, then the motivation for interaction and exchange will decrease. But there is no direct proportional relationship between remuneration and costs, since in addition to economic and other benefits, people's actions are determined (conditioned) by many other factors. For example, the desire to receive the highest possible reward without due costs; or vice versa - the desire to do good, not counting on a reward.

The theory of social interaction and interpretation through the concept of social exchange received further development in the works of T. Parsons. In his opinion, social interaction at the level of social systems occurs due to "zones of interpenetration" and is carried out in the process of interchange. Social systems appear as "open", being in a state of constant interchange. In addition, they are differentiated into various subsystems, which are also involved in the processes of interchange.

The concept of "social action (activity)" is peculiar only to man as a social being and occupies one of the most important places in the science of "sociology".

Every human action is a manifestation of his energy, prompted by a certain need (interest), which gives rise to a goal for their satisfaction. In an effort to more effectively achieve the goal, a person analyzes the situation, looking for the most rational ways to ensure success. And what is especially important, he acts with self-interest, that is, he looks at everything through the prism of his own interest. Living in a society similar to himself, respectively, having his own interests, the subject of activity must take them into account, coordinate, comprehend, focus on them: who, what, how, when, how much, etc. In this case, the action acquires the character of a social action, i.e. e. the characteristic features of social action (activity) are comprehension and orientation to the interests of others, their capabilities, options and consequences of disagreements. Otherwise, life in this society will become uncoordinated, the struggle of all against all will begin. In view of the great importance of the issue of social activity for the life of society, it was considered by such well-known sociologists as K. Marx, M. Weber, T. Parsons and others.

From the point of view of K. Marx, the only social substance that creates a person and his essential forces, and thus society as a system of interaction between many individuals and their groups, is active human activity in all its spheres, primarily in production and labor.

In the process of such activity, a specifically human world is created, which is realized as an objective reality culturally and historically given to man, not only contemplated and cognized by man, but also created materially and spiritually, transformed by him. According to Marx, it is in social activity that the development and self-development of a person, his essential forces, abilities and the spiritual world take place.

A very significant contribution to the understanding and interpretation of activity was made by M. Weber with his theory of "social action". According to it, an action becomes social when it:

is meaningful, that is, it is aimed at achieving goals that are clearly realized by the individual himself;

consciously motivated, and a certain semantic unity appears as a motive, which seems to the actor or observer to be a worthy reason for a certain action;

socially meaningful and socially oriented towards interaction with other people.

M. Weber proposed a typology of social actions. In the first case, a person acts according to the principle "the means that help to achieve the goal are good." According to M. Weber, this is a goal-oriented type of action. In the second case, a person tries to determine how good the means at his disposal are, whether they can harm other people, etc. In this case, they speak of a value-rational type of action (this term was also proposed by M. Weber ). Such actions are determined by what the subject must do.

In the third case, a person will be guided by the principle “everyone does it,” and therefore, according to Weber, his action will be traditional, that is, his action will be determined by the social norm.

Finally, a person can act and choose means under the pressure of feelings. Such actions Weber called affective.

The last two types of action, in essence, are not social in the strict sense of the word, since they do not have a conscious meaning underlying the action. Only goal-oriented and value-rational actions in the full sense of the word are social actions that are of decisive importance in the development of society and man. Moreover, the main trend in the development of the historical process, according to M. Weber, is the gradual but steady displacement of value-based rational behavior by goal-oriented, since modern man believes not in values, but in success. The rationalization of all spheres of activity, according to Weber, is the fate of Western civilization, where everything is rationalized: the way of doing business, and the implementation of politics, and the sphere of science, education, culture, and even people's thinking, their way of feeling, interpersonal relationships, their way of life in in general.

The sociological understanding and interpretation of social action has been significantly deepened and enriched by the famous American sociologist T. Parsons, especially in his works “The Structure of Social Action” and “K general theory actions".

According to this concept, real social action includes 4 elements:

subject - an actor who is not necessarily an individual, but can be a group, a community, an organization, etc.;

situational environment, which includes objects, objects and processes with which the actor enters into one or another relationship. An actor is a person who is always in a certain situational environment, his actions are a response to a set of signals that he receives from environment, which includes both natural objects (climate, geographical environment, human biological structure) and social objects;

set of signals and symbols through which the actor enters into a certain relationship with various elements situational environment and ascribes some meaning to them;

a system of rules, norms and values that guide the actions of the actor, giving them purposefulness.

After analyzing the interaction of elements of social action, T. Parsons came to a fundamental conclusion. Its essence is as follows: human actions always have the features of a system, so the focus of sociology should be a system of social action.

Each system of action, according to T. Parsons, has functional premises and operations, without and in addition to which it is not able to act. Any operating system has four functional prerequisites and performs the four main functions corresponding to them. The first of these is adaptation, aimed at establishing a favorable relationship between the system of actions and its environment. With the help of adaptation, the system adapts to the environment and its limitations, adapts it to its needs. The second function is to achieve goals. Goal achievement consists in defining the goals of the system and mobilizing its energy and resources to achieve them. Integration is the third function, which is a stabilizing parameter of the current system. It is aimed at maintaining coordination between parts of the system, its connectivity, and protecting the system from sudden changes and major shocks.

Any system of social action must provide motivation for its actors, which is the fourth function.

The essence of this function is to provide a certain reserve of motivations - the storage and source of the energy necessary for the operation of the system. This function is aimed at ensuring that the actors remain faithful to the norms and values of the system, as well as the orientation of the actors to these norms and values, therefore, to maintain the balance of the entire system. This function is not immediately evident, so T. Parsons called it latent.

Motive is an internal, subjective-personal impulse to act, which pushes a person to action. Having defined the components, we can present the algorithm of social action. Social values, together with the motive, generate a corresponding interest in the subject of activity. To realize the interest, certain goals, tasks are set, in accordance with which the actor (actor) implements social reality, striving to achieve the goal.

As we can see, the motivation of social action includes an individual goal and orientation to others, their possible response. Therefore, the specific content of the motive will be a synthesis of social and personal, objective and subjective, formed and educated potential of the subject of social activity.

The specific content of the motive is determined by how these two sides of a single whole will correlate, diverse objective conditions and a subjective factor: special qualities of the subject of activity, such as temperament, will, emotionality, perseverance, purposefulness, etc.

Social activities are divided into different types:

material-transformative (its results are various products of labor: bread, clothing, machine tools, buildings, structures, etc.);

cognitive (its results are embodied in scientific concepts, theories, discoveries, in the scientific picture of the world, etc.);

value-oriented (its results are expressed in the system of moral, political and other values existing in society, in terms of duty, conscience, honor, responsibility, in historical traditions customs, ideals, etc.);

communicative, expressed in a person's communication with other people, in their relationships, in the dialogue of cultures, worldview, political movements, etc.;

artistic, embodied in the creation and functioning of artistic values (the world of artistic images, styles, forms, etc.);

sports, realized in sports achievements, in physical development and personal development.

social action

social action- "A person's action (regardless of whether it is external or internal, comes down to non-interference or to patient acceptance), which, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, correlates with the action of other people or is oriented towards him" . The concept of social action was first introduced in scientific circulation German sociologist Max Weber. In addition, Max Weber developed the first classification of types of social action, based on the degree of rationality of the behavior of individuals. So, they distinguished: goal-oriented, value-rational, traditional and affective. For T. Parsons, the problems of social action are associated with the identification of the following features: normativity (depends on generally accepted values and norms). voluntariness (i.e. connection with the will of the subject, providing some independence from the environment), the presence of sign mechanisms of regulation. Any social action is a system in which the following elements can be distinguished: the subject of the action, the acting individual or community of people; the object of the action, the individual or community on which the action is directed; means (instruments of action) and methods of action by means of which necessary change; the result of an action is the response of the individual or community on which the action was directed. It is necessary to distinguish between two following concepts: "behavior" and "action". If behavior is the body's response to internal or external stimuli(it can be reflex, unconscious or intentional, conscious), then the action is only some types of behavior. Social actions are always deliberate complexes of actions. They are associated with the choice of means and are aimed at achieving a specific goal - changing the behavior, attitudes or opinions of other individuals or groups that would satisfy certain needs and interests of those who act. That's why ultimate success largely depends on the correct choice of means and method of action. A social action, like any other behavior, can be (according to Weber):

1) goal-oriented if it is based on expectation certain behavior objects of the external world and other people and the use of this expectation as "conditions" or "means" to achieve their rationally set and thought-out goal,

2) value-rational, based on faith in the unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other - self-sufficient value of a certain behavior as such, regardless of what it leads to;

3) affective, primarily emotional, that is, due to affects or emotional state individual;

4) traditional; that is, based on long habit. 1. Purely traditional action, like purely reactive imitation, is on the very frontier, and often even beyond, what can be called "meaningfully" oriented action. Indeed, often this is only an automatic reaction to a habitual irritation in the direction of a once-learned attitude. Most of habitual daily behavior of people is close this type, which occupies a certain place in the systematization of behavior, not only as a borderline case, but also because fidelity to a habit can be realized here in various ways and in varying degrees(more on that below). In a number of cases, this type approaches type No. 2. 2. A purely affective action is also on the border and often beyond what is “meaningfully”, consciously oriented; it can be an unhindered response to a completely unusual stimulus. If the action due to affect finds its expression in the conscious emotional release we are talking about sublimation. In this case, this type is already almost always close to "value rationalization", or to goal-directed behavior, or both. 3. The value-rational orientation of action differs from affective behavior in the conscious determination of its direction and consistently planned orientation towards it. Their common property is that the meaning for them is not to achieve any external purpose, but in the most specific behavior as such. An individual acts under the influence of an affect if he seeks immediately to satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, blissful contemplation, or to relieve the tension of any other affects, however base or subtle they may be. A purely value-rational person acts who, regardless of possible consequences, follows his beliefs about duty, dignity, beauty, religious purpose, piety, or the importance of an "object" of any kind. Value-rational action (in the framework of our terminology) is always subject to "commandments" or "requirements", in obedience to which this individual sees his duty. Only to the extent that human action is oriented towards them - which is quite rare and to a very different, mostly very insignificant degree - can we speak of value-rational action. As will become clear from what follows, the significance of the latter is so serious that it allows us to single it out in special type action, although no attempt is made here to give an exhaustive classification of the types of human action in any sense. 4. An individual acts purposefully rationally, whose behavior is oriented towards the goal, means and side effects of his actions, who rationally considers the relationship of means to the goal and side effects and, finally, the relationship of various possible goals to each other, that is, acts, in any case, not affectively (primarily not emotionally) and not traditionally. The choice between competing and clashing goals and consequences can, in turn, be oriented value-rationally - then behavior is goal-oriented only in its own way. An individual can also include competing and clashing goals - without a value-rational orientation to "commandments" and "requirements" - simply as given subjective needs on a scale according to the degree of their consciously weighted need, and then orient his behavior in such a way that these needs are as possible satisfied in the prescribed manner (the principle of "marginal utility"). The value-rational orientation of action can, therefore, be in various relationships goal-oriented. From the goal-rational point of view, value-based rationality is always irrational, and the more irrational the more it absolutizes the value on which behavior is oriented, because it lesser degree takes into account the consequences of the actions taken, the more unconditional for her the self-sufficient value of behavior as such (purity of conviction, beauty, absolute goodness, absolute fulfillment of one's duty). However, the absolute purposeful rationality of the action is also in essence only a borderline case. 5. Action, especially social action, is very rarely oriented only towards one or another type of rationality, and this classification itself, of course, does not exhaust the types of action orientations; they are designed for sociological research the conceptually pure types to which real behavior approximates to a greater or lesser degree, or—which is much more common—of which it consists. For us, only the result of the study can serve as proof of their expediency.

Notes

Literature

Weber M. Basic sociological concepts // Weber M. Selected works. - M.: Progress, 1990.
Kravchenko E.I. Theory of social action: from Max Weber to phenomenologists // Sociological journal. 2001. No. 3.
Parsons T. On the structure of social action. - M.: Academic project, 2000.
Efendiev "General Sociology"

concept "social action" first introduced M. Weber. It was this researcher who defined the new sociological term and formulated its main features. Weber understood by this term the actions of a person, which, according to the assumption of the actor, the meaning correlates with the actions of other people or is guided by them. Thus, according to Weber, the most important features of social action are the following:

1) the subjective meaning of social action, i.e. personal understanding options behavior;

2) big role in the action of the individual plays a conscious orientation to the response of others, the expectation of this reaction.

Weber identified four types of social action. This typology was made by analogy with his doctrine of ideal types:

1) purposeful action- the behavior of the individual is formed exclusively at the level of the mind;

2) value-rational- the behavior of the individual is determined by faith, the adoption of a certain system of values;

3) affective- the behavior of the individual is determined by feelings and emotions;

4) traditional activities Behavior is based on habit, pattern of behavior.

Significant contribution to the theory of social action was made by T. Parsons . In the concept of Parsons, social action is considered in two manifestations: as a single phenomenon and as a system. He identified the following characteristics:

1) normativity - dependence on generally accepted values and norms;

2) voluntarism - dependence on the will of the subject;

3) the presence of sign mechanisms of regulation.

Social action, according to Parsons, performs in a person's life certain functions, ensuring its existence as biosocial being. Among these functions, four can be distinguished depending on the subsystems of the individual's life in which they are carried out:

1) on biological level the adaptive function of social action is performed;

2) in the subsystem of the assimilation of values and norms, social action performs a personal function;

3) the totality of social roles and statuses is provided by the social function;

4) at the level of assimilation of goals and ideals, a cultural function is carried out.

Thus, social action can be characterized as any behavior of an individual or group that is meaningful to other individuals and groups. social community or society as a whole. Moreover, the action expresses the nature and content of relations between people and social groups, which, being constant carriers of qualitatively different types of activities, differ in social positions(statuses) and roles.

An important part of the sociological theory of social action is the creation of a theoretical model of behavior. One of the main elements of this model is the structure of social action. This structure includes:

1) actor(subject) - a carrier of active action, having a will;

2) object - the goal towards which the action is directed;

3) the need for active behavior, which can be considered as special condition the subject, generated by the need for means of subsistence, objects necessary for his life and development, and thus acting as a source of the subject's activity;

4) method of action - a set of means that is used by an individual to achieve a goal;

5) result - a new state of the elements that have developed in the course of the action, the synthesis of the goal, the properties of the object and the efforts of the subject.

Any social action has its own mechanism of accomplishment. It is never instant. To start the mechanism of social action, a person must have a certain need for this behavior, which is called motivation. The main factors of activity are interest and orientation.

Interest- this is the attitude of the subject to the necessary means and conditions for satisfying his inherent needs. Orientation- this is a way of distinguishing social phenomena according to the degree of their significance for the subject. In the sociological literature, there are various approaches to the analysis of the motivation of social action. So, within one of them, all motives are divided into three large groups:

1) socio-economic. This group includes, first of all, material motives that are associated with the achievement of certain material and social benefits (recognition, honor, respect);

2) implementation of prescribed and learned norms. This group includes motives that are of social significance;

3) optimization life cycle . This group includes motives associated and conditioned by a certain life situation.

After the motivation of the subject arises, the stage of goal formation begins. At this stage, rational choice is the central mechanism.

Rational Choice is an analysis of several goals in terms of their availability and suitability and their gradation in accordance with the data of this analysis. The emergence of the goal can be carried out in two ways. different ways: on the one hand, the goal can be formed as a kind of life plan that has a potential character; on the other hand, the goal can be formulated as an imperative, i.e., have the character of obligation and obligation.

The goal connects the subject with the objects of the external world and acts as a program for their mutual change. Through a system of needs and interests, situational conditions external world takes possession of the subject, and this is reflected in the content of the goals. But through a system of values and motives, in a selective attitude to the world, in the means of goal-fulfillment, the subject seeks to establish himself in the world and change it, that is, to master the world himself.

Social actions act as links in the chain of interactions.

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social actions — it is a certain system of actions, means and methods, using which, an individual or social group seek to change the behavior, attitudes or opinions of other individuals or groups. Contacts are the basis of social action; without them, the desire to evoke certain reactions of an individual or group, to change their behavior, cannot arise.

Max Weber defines social action as a conscious human behavior that has a motive and purpose, in which he correlates his own meanings of this action with the meanings of other people's actions. In this definition, the orientation to the other person is very important, since it constitutes feature not just actions, but actions of the social. Social action, according to Weber, can be focused on the past, present or future behavior of people. It can be revenge for past wrongs, protection from present danger or future danger.

Subject social action is denoted by the term " social actor. Actors influence social reality by developing a strategy for their actions. The strategy is to choose the goals and means to achieve them.

The social actor always acts within specific situation with a limited set of possibilities, and therefore cannot be absolutely free. But his actions, due to the fact that they are a project in their structure, that is, planning the organization of funds in relation to a goal that has not yet been realized, have a probabilistic, free character. The actor can abandon the goal or reorient himself to another, albeit within the framework of his situation. Ultimate success largely depends on the correct choice of means and method of action.

Structure of social action about It must include the following necessary elements:

1) actor;

2) the need of the actor, which is the direct motive of the action;

3) action strategy (a conscious goal and means to achieve it);

4) the individual or social group on which the action is oriented;

5) final result(success or failure).

Max Weber, depending on the degree of participation of conscious, rational elements in social action, singled out goal-rational, value-rational, affective and traditional action. All four types of action are arranged in descending order of rationality.

purposeful rational type of action is an ideal type of action that allows you to clearly define the meaning of the individual's action. A goal-oriented action is characterized by a clear understanding by the influencer of what he wants to achieve and what means are most effective for this.

The criterion of goal-oriented action is the success of the intended action. Possible contradictions between an individual goal and an orientation toward another person are resolved by the acting individual himself.

Value-rational actions are the most massive in real life . Unlike goal-oriented actions, which are based on a rationally understood goal, in value-rational actions, the influencer is strictly focused on fulfilling his beliefs about duty, dignity, or beauty (for example, duty to the Fatherland). Such actions, according to Max Weber, are subject to "commandments" or "requirements", obedience to which is the duty of every person. AT this case the influencer strictly adheres to and fully relies on the values and norms accepted in society, sometimes even to the detriment of their personal goals. A value-rational action does not have a goal, but there is a motive, there is a meaning, an orientation towards others.

affective action — this is an action performed in a state of passion, a relatively short-term, but intensely stormy emotional state that arose in response to a strong stimulus. It is based on the feelings of the individual, and it is characterized by the desire for immediate satisfaction of the thirst for revenge, passion or attraction. In a fit of anger, extreme irritation, fear, a person acts thoughtlessly, although these actions can be directed at other people. Such actions often contradict self-interest individual, bring him negative consequences. Affective actions have no goals at all. The degree of rationality here approaches a minimum.

traditional action — it's traditional habitual action, performed, as a rule, without comprehension, automatically. This action is carried out on the basis of social patterns of behavior and norms deeply assimilated by individuals, which have long passed into the category of habitual and traditional. In these actions, the work of consciousness is extremely reduced. Traditional activities are especially common in the domestic sphere.

The last two types of action take place on the border, and most often outside the conscious or meaningful, i.e. characteristic of them low degree participation of conscious, rational elements. Therefore, according to Max Weber, they are not social in the strict sense of the word.

Real sociological action human behavior includes two or more types of action: both goal-oriented and value-rational, affective or traditional moments of behavior are possible in it.

Depending on the content actions are divided into reproductive actions, social denial and social creativity.

reproductive activities - actions, the main objective which is to preserve and maintain the normal functioning of a particular social institution ( social control). social denial - actions aimed at the abolition of some elements of public life (criticism existing shortcomings). social creativity - actions aimed at creating new forms of social relations and developing social consciousness (inventive and rationalization activities).

Depending on how you want to achieve all actions aimed at changing people's behavior can also be divided into two types: negative coercion and positive belief . negative coercion most often manifested in the form of orders and prohibitions of undesirable behavior. Positive Persuasion is based on the action of such means that cause the desired behavior of an individual or group without the use of threats and repression.

There are other ways of classifying social actions.

social action.

Signs of social action

Social action and social interaction

Introduced the problem of social action Max Weber. First of all, the most important sign of social action is subjective meaning - personal understanding of possible behaviors. Secondly, the conscious orientation of the subject to the response of others, the expectation of this reaction, is important.

At T. Parsons The issue of social action is associated with the identification of the following features:

normativity (depends on generally accepted values and norms).

Voluntary (ᴛ.ᴇ. connection with the will of the subject͵ providing some independence from the environment)

The presence of sign mechanisms of regulation

In Parsons' concept action perceived as a single act and as a system of action. Action analysis as a single act associated with the selection of the actor and the environment, consisting of physical objects, cultural images, etc.
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individuals. Action analysis as systems: perceived as open system(ᴛ.ᴇ. supports exchange with external environment), the existence of which is associated with the formation of the corresponding subsystems that ensure the performance of a number of functions.

You read given text, chapter text study guide. As a type of activity, reading is associated with certain energy costs, the normal functioning of the brain, certain mental operations that allow us to perceive signs on paper as words and sentences. At the same time, these psychophysical processes are not the subject area of sociology, although they are necessary for the process of reading. How should the person reading the test be considered sociologically?

First of all, attention should be drawn to a person's motivation for a certain activity, that which acts as a direct motivating cause of action, its motive. Here we can assume a connection with the desire or obligation to prepare for classes or simple curiosity. In any case, the desire to satisfy some need brings to life a system of incentives and a plan of certain actions, together with an image of the desired result - the goal. Means are chosen according to motives and ends. And if we are talking about curiosity as such, the result will be the very receipt positive ratings, then the very preparation for the lesson, including reading, acts as a means.

In any case, the reading itself was preceded by a choice of possible behaviors: to prepare or not to prepare for classes, to “curiosity” or listen to music... The results of the choice were determined by an assessment of the situation: how important is preparation for this particular lesson? How long will it take? Shouldn't you try to speak at a seminar without preparation, or not attend classes at all? And finally, what are the consequences of this or that choice? At the same time, you, as a person showing purposeful activity, acted as the subject of action, and the book as a source of information - as an object of application of your efforts.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, reading a book is associated with solving some life problems and is consciously oriented towards the response behavior of others, that is, it corresponds to the main features social action . Social action differs from purely reflex activity (rubbing tired eyes) and from those operations into which action is divided (prepare workplace, get a book, etc.).

However, whether you are reading in the library or at home, alone or with someone, the situation indicates that you are a student or someone who is somehow connected with educational process. This is a sign of your inclusion in the scope of the social institution of education, which means that your activity is organized and limited by certain norms. Reading is connected with the process of cognition, in which you implement certain ways of thinking, demonstrate the ability to work with various sign systems as elements of culture. At the same time, the very involvement in the processes of learning and cognition indicates that you share a certain set of values that exist in society.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, your act of reading is possible only within a society with a certain level of cultural development and social structure. On the other hand, its description, the description of a single action, is possible because there is a fairly long tradition of research on social action in sociology and philosophy. In other words, both the action itself and its description become possible only as a result of your inclusion in the life of society.

The fact that individual action is possible only within the framework of society, which social subject is always in the physical or mental environment of other subjects and behaves in accordance with this situation, reflects the concept social interaction . social interaction can be characterized as systematic actions of subjects directed at each other and aimed at eliciting a response of expected behavior, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ implies the resumption of action. The interaction of individual subjects is both the result of the development of society and the condition for its further development.

Sociology, describing, explaining and trying to predict the behavior of people, whether in the educational process, in economic activity or political struggle before referring to empirical research private problems, refers to the creation theoretical model of this behavior . The creation of such a model begins with the development of the concept of social action, clarifying its structure, function and dynamics .

Mandatory components structures actions advocate subject and an object actions. Subject - this is the bearer of purposeful activity, the one who acts with consciousness and will. An object - what the action is directed at. AT functional aspect stand out action steps : firstly, associated with goal setting, development of goals and, secondly, with their operational implementation. At these stages, organizational links are established between the subject and the object of action. Target - perfect image process and result of action. The ability to set goals, ᴛ.ᴇ. to perfect modeling upcoming action is the most important property man as the subject of action. The implementation of goals involves the selection of appropriate funds and organizing efforts to achieve result . In the broadest sense means is an object considered in terms of its ability to serve a purpose, whether it be a thing, a skill, an attitude, or information. Reached result acts as a new state of the elements that have developed in the course of action - a synthesis of the goal, properties of the object and the efforts of the subject. At the same time, the condition for effectiveness is the correspondence of the goal to the needs of the subject and means - the goal and nature of the object. AT dynamic In this aspect, action appears as a moment of self-renewing activity of the subject on the basis of growing needs.

The action implementation mechanism helps to describe the so-called "universal functional formula of action": needs - their reflection in the (collective) consciousness, development of ideal action programs - their operational implementation in the course of activity coordinated by certain means, creating a product capable of satisfying the needs of subjects and prompting new needs.

Like any theoretical model, given representation about social action helps to see common nature infinitely varied actions and thus already acts as a theoretical tool for sociological research. At the same time, in order to turn to the analysis of particular problems, it is extremely important to further divide the elements of this model. And above all, the subject of action needs more detailed characteristics.

Subject action must be considered as individual or collective. Collective various communities (for example, parties) act as subjects. Individual the subject exists within communities, he can identify himself with them or come into conflict with them.

The contact of the subject with the environment of his existence generates needs - a special state of the subject ͵ generated by the need for means of subsistence, objects necessary for his life and development, and thus acting as a source of the subject's activity. Exist various classifications needs. common features all classifications are the statement of the diversity and increase in needs and the phased nature of their satisfaction. So, like every living being, a person needs food and shelter - this refers to physiological needs. But recognition and self-affirmation are just as necessary for him - these are already social needs.

Important characteristics of the subject of action also include the total life resource, the level of claims and value orientations. Total Life Resource includes resources of energy, time, natural and social benefits. People have different life resources depending on their social position. All types of resources are manifested and measured differently for individual or collective actors, for example, human health or group cohesion.

The social position, along with the individual qualities of the subject, determines his level of claims , ᴛ.ᴇ. the complexity of the task and the result on which he is guided in his actions. These orientations of the subject in relation to any sphere of life are also value orientations . Value orientations are a way of distinguishing social phenomena according to the degree of their significance for the subject. Οʜᴎ are associated with the individual reflection in the mind of a person of the values of society. Established value orientations ensure the integrity of the consciousness and behavior of the subject.

To describe the sources social object the concept is also used interest . AT narrow meaning interest implies a selective, emotionally colored attitude towards reality (interest in something, being interested in something or someone). The broad meaning of this concept connects the state of the environment, the needs of the subject, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction. Those. interest should be characterized as the attitude of the subject to the necessary means and conditions for satisfying his inherent needs. This relation is objective and must be realized by the subject. More or less clarity of awareness affects the effectiveness of the action. It is also possible to act contrary to one's own interests, ᴛ.ᴇ. contrary to his real situation. The concept of interest is used in the literature in relation to individual and collective subjects.

Needs, interests and value orientations are factors motivation actions, ᴛ.ᴇ. formation of his motives as direct motives for action. motive - a conscious impulse to action, arising from the awareness of needs. How does an internal motive differ from external motives? incentives . Incentives - additional links between need and motive, these are material and moral incentives for certain actions.

The conscious nature of the action does not exclude the role of emotional and volitional factors. The ratio of rational calculation and emotional impulses allows us to speak about different types of motivation.

Motivation Research widely represented in sociology in connection with the study of labor and learning activities. At the same time, allocate motivation levels according to the level of need.

1. The first group of motives is associated with socio-economic issue of the individual . This includes, first of all, motives for providing life's blessings . If these motives dominate in the actions of a person, then his orientation, first of all, towards material reward can be traced. Accordingly, the opportunities for material incentives increase. This group includes calling motives . Οʜᴎ fix a person's desire for a certain occupation. For a person in this case, the content of his professional activity. Accordingly, incentives will be associated with material rewards in and of themselves. Finally, this group includes prestige motives . Οʜᴎ express a person's desire to know a worthy, in his opinion, position in society.

2. The second group of motives is connected with implementation of the prescribed and acquired by the individual social norms . This group also corresponds wide range motives for action, from civil, patriotic to group solidarity or "honor of uniform".

3. The third group consists of motives associated with life cycle optimization . Here, aspirations for accelerated social mobility and overcoming role conflict can replace each other.

Every occupation, even every action, has not one but many motives. Even in the particular example with which the chapter begins, it can be assumed that the urge to read could not be reduced only to the desire to get an assessment, or only to the desire to avoid trouble, or only to curiosity. It is the multiplicity of motives that provides positive attitude to action.

The motives of action are organized hierarchically, one of them is dominant. At the same time, the researchers recorded for the learning process, for example, an inverse relationship between the strength of utilitarian motives and academic performance and a direct relationship between scientific and educational and professional motives. The motivation system is dynamic. It changes not only when changing occupations, but also within one of their species. For example, the motives for learning change based on the year of study.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the most important characteristics motivation action is plurality and hierarchy motives, as well as their specific strength and stability.

Motivation research uses various methods: surveys, experiments, analysis of statistical data... So, the results of laboratory experiments show a change in reaction time in actions that are different in their motives. Analogues of such experiments, although without strict methods, you probably have in your life experience. The more clearly and strongly it is extremely important for you to do something ( coursework to deadline), the higher the ability to concentrate attention, personal abilities and organizational talents on this matter. If we return to laboratory experiments, then it should be noted that the change in the reaction rate is psychological characteristic. The study of motives, like action in general, is becoming more and more interdisciplinary. To study people's verbal reports of motives own actions the nature of the questions asked is particularly important. For example, it is unlikely that it will be helpful to ask directly: "Are your professional orientations?" More information can be obtained by asking the question: "How do you imagine your occupation in the next five years?" At the same time, finding out the true motives of people's actions is extremely difficult.

Now let's take a closer look goal-setting and goal-fulfilment. Target - this is a motivated, conscious, verbal anticipation of the result of an action. Deciding on the outcome of an action rationally , if, within the framework of the available information, the subject is capable of calculation of goals , means and results of action and strives for their maximum efficiency . Connection between objective conditions, motivation and goals are set in such a way that from two specific states of elements, usually conditions and motives, the subject draws a conclusion about the state of the third, goal. It is assumed that it is distinct and achievable, as well as that the subject has a hierarchy of goals, arranged in order of preference. Rational Choice object is a choice in terms of its availability and suitability for achieving the goal. The means of action are chosen on the basis of an assessment of their effectiveness in achieving the goal. Οʜᴎ are instrumentally subordinate to it, but are more connected with the situation.

Actions of this type purposeful actions, most easily predicted and managed. The effectiveness of such actions, however, has its downside. First of all, purposeful rationality deprives many periods of a person's life of meaning. Everything that is perceived as a means loses its independent meaning, exists only as an appendix to the main goal. It turns out that the more purposeful a person is, the narrower the scope of the meaning of his life. However, huge role means in achieving the goal and the technical attitude towards them, their evaluation only in terms of efficiency, and not in terms of content, makes it possible to replace goals with means, the loss of original goals, and then the values of life in general.

Wherein this species goal setting is neither universal nor unique. There are goal-setting mechanisms that are not related to the calculation of efficiency, do not imply a hierarchy of goals and the division of goals, means and results. Let's consider some of them.

As a result of the work of self-knowledge, the constant dominance of certain motives, in which the emotional component predominates, and also in connection with a clear internal position regarding the way of life, goal may arise as some idea, project, life plan - holistic, collapsed and potential. In appropriate situations, it provides instant decision making. Such a mechanism of purposefulness ensures the formation and production of an integral, unique personality.

Target can speak as an obligation as a law of action, deduced by a person from his ideas about what is due and associated with the highest values for him. Duty acts as an end in itself. It is irrespective of the consequences and regardless of the situation. Such a mechanism of purposefulness presupposes volitional self-regulation of actions. It can orient a person in situations of maximum uncertainty, create behavioral strategies that go far beyond the framework of the current, rationally comprehended situation.

Purposefulness must be defined system of norms as external guidelines that set the boundaries of what is permitted. Such a mechanism optimizes behavior with the help of stereotyped decisions. This saves intellectual and other resources. At the same time, in all cases, goal setting is associated with a strategic choice for the subject and always retains the value of a system-forming element of action.

The goal connects the subject with the objects of the external world and acts as a program for their mutual change. Through a system of needs and interests, situational conditions, the outside world takes possession of the subject, and this is reflected in the content of the goals. But through the system of values and motives, in a selective attitude towards the world, in the means of achieving goals, the subject seeks to establish himself in the world and change it, ᴛ.ᴇ. take over the world.

Time can also become a tool for such mastery, if a person skillfully manages this limited resource. A person always correlates his actions with time. At critical moments, the whole situation is divided into hours, minutes, seconds. But time can be used. This implies an active attitude towards it, a rejection of the perception of time as an independent force that forcibly resolves problems. The main property of time - to be a sequence of events - a person uses, arranging his actions in some arbitrarily undisturbed order, diluting "first - then" in his actions and experiences. The basic structure of time is also used: "past - present - future". So, the present, "now" for the subject is not a moment, but a period when the choice has not yet been made. Orientation to the past, future or present changes the key link in this structure.

So, we have considered social action as a particular example and as a theoretical model. Moreover, in this model, both the maximum distance from all "particulars" and the gradual approach to them were possible. Such model will be "working" in the study of various activities, whether industrial production or scientific creativity; in solving management problems, whether they relate to stimulating employees or organizing the working time of a manager ... This is possible because individual, unique actions consist of repetitive standard elements that we have considered in this chapter. Their set constitutes a kind of formula. Given the dependence of the meanings that its elements take on, peculiar variables, and an infinite variety of social actions must be described.

social action. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Social action." 2017, 2018.

Portal for the student. Self-training

purposeful social action. The concept and classification of human actions

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See what "Social Action" is in other dictionaries:

Portal for the student. Self-training

Notes

Literature

See also

See what "Social Action" is in other dictionaries:

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