This method (from the English behavior - behavior) is to study the behavior of the subjects of political processes - individuals and social groups. However, those who substantiated this method American sociologists P. Lazarsfeld, T. Lasswell and others focused mainly on the external circumstances of people's behavior and, in fact, ignored the motives of their political behavior. This is consistent with the attitudes of behaviorism as one of the directions modern psychology.
Political, legal, economic, moral and other consciousness of people, including subjects political activity, remained out of sight of representatives of, so to speak, political science behaviorism, i.e. behaviorist doctrine of political activity. This gave rise to an underestimation of the role of value orientations, goals, and, ultimately, the entire subjective side of people's political activity.
This is partly true: in both cases, one of the main methods for collecting data on the political behavior of subjects is the researcher's observations, "quantitative methods for analyzing the data obtained are widely used, including statistical methods, modeling, etc.
However, positivism in general and positivist political sociology in particular, in contrast to behaviorism, have never ignored the consciousness of people, including the motives of their activities and value orientations. On the contrary, it is precisely these factors that positivism assigns a decisive role in the behavior of people and in the social processes, including political ones. Therefore they are in this case are the main subject of analysis of all political reality. Regarding the behavioral method of analysis political phenomena and processes, then it does not contribute to obtaining holistic scientific ideas about them - this is its main drawback.
Representatives of the behavioral direction paid the main attention not to political institutions(for example, the state), but the mechanisms for exercising power. The subject of their analysis was political behavior at the individual and socially aggregated levels (in groups, social institutions etc.). Many aspects of the political process related to political behavior, such as voting in elections, participation in other various forms political activity, including in non-conventional forms (demonstrations, strikes, etc.), leadership, activities of interest groups and political parties and even subjects international relations. Studying these various aspects, they tried to answer the question: why people in politics behave in a certain way.
At the same time, behavioralism was not free from some shortcomings and controversial issues. Most often, this methodological direction was criticized for the following typical features that D. Easton highlights:
an attempt to distance oneself from political reality and abstract from "special responsibility" for practical application knowledge, which is imposed by occupations of professional science;
the concept of the scientific nature of the procedure and methods, which led the researcher away from studying the individual himself, the motives and mechanism of his choice ("internal" behavior) to the study of the conditions that affect actions ("external" behavior of people). This could lead to political science will turn into a "subjectless and inhuman" discipline, within which the study of human intentions and goals occupies a rather modest place;
"the naive assumption that behavioral political science alone is free from ideological premises"; Author Meleshkina E. Title Political process Publication year, 2005
In addition, among the shortcomings of this approach, it should be noted the lack of a systematic view of political processes and ignoring the historical and cultural context.
The noted shortcomings of behavioralism, its inability to provide answers to many questions political life, to predict some political events (for example, the events of the 60s) caused a crisis in this direction.
behavioral political process
Behavioral Methods
We have already seen that during the period of initial development scientific psychology she sought to associate herself with the older, respectable, established natural science of physics. Psychology has constantly sought to adopt methods natural sciences and adapt them to your own needs. This trend is most clearly seen in the behaviorist doctrine of thinking.
Watson fought for the psychologist to always limit himself exclusively to the data of the natural sciences, that is, to what is an observable quantity - in other words, behavior. Consequently, only strictly objective research methods were allowed in behavioral laboratories. Watson's methods included the following: observation with or without instruments; testing methods; methods of verbatim notation and methods of conditioned reflexes.
The method of observation is the necessary basis for all other methods. Objective testing methods have been used before, but Watson suggested that when testing, evaluate ns mental qualities person, but his behavior. For Watson, test scores were not a measure of intelligence or personality; they showed the subject's reaction to certain stimuli or stimulus situations created during the test - and nothing else.
The verbatim method is more controversial. Because Watson was so strongly opposed to introspection, the use of verbatim notation in his laboratory seemed highly controversial. Some psychologists saw this as a compromise by which Watson allowed introspection to slip through the back door after being thrown out the front porch. Why did Watson allow literal notation? Despite his hostility towards introspection, he could not completely ignore the work of psychophysicists who made extensive use of introspection. Therefore, he suggested that since speech responses are objectively observable phenomena, they are of the same interest for behaviorism as any other motor responses. Watsop said: “To speak is to do; so this is behavior. Speaking openly or silently (thinking) is as objective a behavior as playing baseball” (Watson, 1930, p. 6).
The method of verbatim writing in behaviorism was a concession that was widely discussed by Watson's critics. They insisted that Watson was merely suggesting a semantic replacement. He allowed that verbatim notation might be inaccurate and not a satisfactory substitute for more objective methods of observation, and therefore limited the use of the verbatim method to only those situations in which they could be confirmed, such as observations and descriptions of differences between tones. (Watson. 1914). Verbatim records that were not subject to verification - including, for example, devoid of images of thought or stories about sensations, were simply excluded.
Most important method research in behaviorism was the method of conditioned reflexes, which was developed in 1915, two years after Watsop formally proclaimed behaviorism. At first, the methods of conditioned reflexes were used in a limited range, and it is Watson who is credited with their wide introduction in psychological research Americans. Watson told psychologist Ernest Hilgard that his interest in conditioned reflexes grew while studying Bekhterev's work, although he later paid tribute to Pavlov as well (Hilgard. 1994).
Watson described conditioned reflexes in terms of stimuli. A conditioned reflex is produced when a response is associated or associated with a stimulus other than the one that originally elicited the response. (A typical conditioned response is salivation in dogs in response to a sound rather than a sight of food.) Watson chose this approach because it provided objective methods for studying and analyzing behavior—namely, reducing behavior to single stimulus-response pairs (S - R). Since all behavior can be reduced to these elementary components, the method of conditioned reflexes made it possible to conduct research on complex human behavior in the laboratory.
Thus, Watson continued the atomistic and mechanistic tradition, founded by the British empiricists and adopted by structural psychologists. He was going to study human behavior just like physicists study the universe - by breaking it down into 414 separate components, atoms or elements.
The exclusive commitment to the use of objective methods and the elimination of introspection meant a change in the role of human beings being tested. For Wundt and Titchener, subjects were both observers and observed. This means that people themselves made observations of the experiences of their consciousness. Thus, their role was much more important than that of the experimenter himself.
In behaviorism, subjects play a much more modest role. They no longer observe anything, on the contrary, they are constantly observed by the experimenter. In this case, the participants in the experiment began to be called subjects, or subjects, and not observers (DanzJgcr. 1988; Scheibe. 1988). The true observers were now the experimenters, the psychologists-researchers who determined the conditions of the experiment and observed how the subjects reacted to them. Thus, the test people were downgraded in status. They were no longer watching, they were only demonstrating their behavior. And behavior is inherent in anyone - an adult, a child, a mentally ill person, a dove, a white rat. This approach strengthened the view of people as simple mechanisms: “stimulation is given at the input, a reaction is observed at the output” (Burt. 1962. P. 232).
From the book How to overcome bad habits [ spiritual path to solve the problem] author Chopra Deepak From the book Illness as a way. The meaning and purpose of diseases the author Dalke Rudiger From the book Serious creative thinking by Bono Edward deTRANSITION METHODS This section describes five systematic transition methods. This does not mean that they exhaust all possibilities. Besides, various methods transitions can intersect and duplicate each other. It doesn't matter, because the only one
From the book History of Psychology. Crib author Anokhin N V64 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism was originally concerned with the study of the direct relationship between stimulus and response, which is necessary for the individual to more quickly adapt to the world around him. Behaviorism arose on the basis of two directions: positivism and
From the book History of Modern Psychology author Schulz DuanPrimary Sources for the History of Behaviorism: From Psychology Through the Eyes of a Behaviorist by John B. Watson No Better starting point for a discussion of Watson's behaviorism than the very first work that started the entire "Psychology Through the Eyes of a Behaviorist" movement
From the book Brainbuilding [or How professionals pump their brains] author Komarov Evgeny IvanovichThe subject of study of behaviorism The primary subject of study and initial data for Watson's behaviorism are the basic elements of behavior: muscle movements or secretion of glands. Psychology, as a science of behavior, must deal only with those acts that can be
From the book Language and Consciousness author Luria Alexander RomanovichThe Popularity and Attractiveness of Behaviorism Why did Watson's bold performances win such a huge number of adherents of his ideas? Of course, the overwhelming majority were completely indifferent to the fact that some psychologists advocated the existence of consciousness, and
From the book Theory of Personality and personal growth author Frager RobertCriticism of Watson's Behaviorism Any program that proposes a radical revision and complete replacement of the existing order - that is, in fact, calls for the rejection of everything previously existing theories, is inherently doomed to criticism. As is known, at that
From the book Stop, who leads? [Biology of human behavior and other animals] author Zhukov. Dmitry Anatolyevich From the book Philosophy of Psychology. New methodology author Kurpatov Andrey VladimirovichThe Fate of Behaviorism Although the cognitive alternative to behaviorism that emerged from within succeeded in modifying the entire behavioral movement inherited from John B. Watson and Skinner, it is important to remember that Albert Bandura, Julian Rotter and
From the book Psychology. People, concepts, experiments author Kleinman PaulMethods Methods are methods, techniques for performing work with information. Within the framework of a particular technique, brainbuilders use various methods of reading, mastering information and self-stimulation. From the point of view of organizing and implementing reading, two methods can be distinguished:
From the author's bookMethods Brain-base analysis mental activity has, as you know, two main methods. The first of these is the comparative evolutionary method, the second is the method of analyzing the features of changes in mental activity during local brain
From the author's book From the author's book From the author's bookMethods In science, apparently due to the unity of the linguistic origin of these words, there has been a strange confusion of the concepts of methodology and methods. In fact, methodology is a way of thinking of a scientist, and a method is a mechanism research practice. Difference
From the author's bookJohn Watson (1878–1958) The founder of behaviorism John Watson was born on January 9, 1878 in Southern California. When the boy was thirteen years old, his father left the family, and later John's childhood passed on the farm - in poverty and loneliness. Watson later recalled that it was bad
Behaviorism is one of the areas social psychology which considers human behavior as a result of the influence of factors environment. Used in modern psychotherapy for the treatment of obsessive fears (phobias).
The study of the reasons that motivate a person to act in one way or another has led to the emergence of a new direction in social psychology - behaviorism. The name of the theory comes from English word behavior, which means behavior.
It is based on the assertion that the mental process is not something abstract, and mental phenomena are reduced to the reactions of the body.
In other words, behaviorism in psychology is the science of behavior.
Personality, according to behaviorists, is a set of behavioral responses. BUT practical value for psychology it has only that which can be measured objectively.
Everything that lies beyond the material: thoughts, feelings, consciousness - perhaps, and exist, but are not subject to study and cannot be used to correct human behavior. Only human reactions to the impact of specific stimuli and situations are real.
The main provisions of the theory of behaviorism are based on the "stimulus-response" formula.
A stimulus is any effect of the environment on an organism or life situation. Reaction - the actions of a person taken in order to avoid or adapt to a particular stimulus. 
The connection between stimulus and response is strengthened if there is reinforcement between them. It can be positive (praise, material reward, getting a result), then the person remembers the strategy for achieving the goal and then repeats it in practice. Or it can be negative (criticism, pain, failure, punishment), then such a strategy of behavior is rejected and a new, more effective one is sought.
Thus, in behaviorism, a person is considered as an individual who is predisposed to a particular response, that is, is sustainable system certain skills.
You can influence his behavior by changing incentives and reinforcements.
History and tasks
Until the beginning of the 20th century, psychology as a science studied and operated only with subjective concepts such as feelings, emotions, which were not amenable to material analysis. As a result, the data that was obtained by different authors, were very different from each other and could not be connected into a single concept. 
On this soil, behaviorism was born, which unambiguously swept aside everything subjective and subjected a person to purely mathematical analysis. The founder of this theory was the American psychologist John Watson.
He proposed a scheme that explains human behavior by the interaction of 2 material components: stimulus and reaction. Since they were objective, they could be easily measured and described.
Watson believed that by studying the human response to various incentives, it is possible to easily predict the expected behavior, and also, with the help of influences and changes in environmental conditions, to form certain qualities, skills, inclinations for the profession in a person.
In Russia, the main provisions of behaviorism found a theoretical justification in the works of the great Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who studied the formation of conditioned reflexes in dogs. In the research of the scientist, it was proved that by changing the stimulus and reinforcement, one can achieve certain behavior animal.
Watson's work was developed in the writings of another American psychologist and educator, Edward Thorndike. He viewed human behavior as the result of "trial, error, and occasional success".
Thorndike under the stimulus understood not just a separate effect of the environment, but a specific problem situation that a person has to decide.
A continuation of classical behaviorism was neobehaviorism, which added a new component to the "stimulus-response" scheme - an intermediate factor. The idea was that human behavior is shaped not directly under the influence of a stimulus, but more difficult way– through goals, intentions, hypotheses. The founder of neobehaviorism was E.T. Tolman.
Approaches
In the 20th century big influence physics had an effect on psychology. Like physicists, psychologists sought to use the methods of the natural sciences in their research.
Representatives of behaviorism used 2 methodological approaches in their research:
- observation in the natural habitat;
- observation in the laboratory.
Most of the experiments were carried out on animals, then the resulting patterns of reactions to various stimuli were transferred to humans.
Experiments with animals were deprived of the main disadvantage of working with people - the presence of emotional and psychological components that interfere with an objective assessment.
In addition, such work was no less limited by ethical frameworks, which made it possible to study response behavior to negative stimuli (pain).
Methods
For its purposes, behaviorism uses several natural science methods of studying behavior. 
Watson, the founder of the theory, uses the following methods in his research:
- observation of the test subject without the use of instruments;
- active surveillance using instruments;
- testing;
- verbatim notation;
- methods of conditioned reflexes.
Observation of the experimental subjects without the use of instruments consisted of visual assessment certain responses that arose in the experimental animal when exposed to certain stimuli.
Active observation with the help of devices was carried out using equipment that recorded changes in body parameters (heart rate, respiratory movements) under the influence of environmental factors or special incentives. Also studied were such indicators as the time to solve the tasks, the speed of reaction. 
During testing, not the mental qualities of a person were analyzed, but his behavior, that is, a certain choice of the way of responding was analyzed.
The essence of the verbatim method was based on introspection, or self-observation. When one person acted as the tester and the subject. At the same time, not feelings and emotions were analyzed, but thoughts that had a speech expression.
The method of conditioned reflexes was based on classical works physiologists. In this case, the desired reaction was developed in an animal or person by positive or negative reinforcement of the stimulus.
Despite its ambiguity, behaviorism has played an important role in the development of psychology as a science. He expanded its area, by including bodily reactions, laid the foundation for the development mathematical methods study of man and became one of the origins of cybernetics.
In modern psychotherapy, there are a number of techniques that, on its basis, allow you to deal with obsessive fears(phobias).
Video: Behaviorism
17. Proponents of behaviorism argue that development:
a) predetermined by congenital features
b) is carried out under the influence of unknown forces
c) it is the result of the convergence of internal inclinations with external conditions
d) there is an acquisition of new experience
18. Identification of development with learning is the leading idea:
a) psychoanalysis
b) behaviorism
c) biogenetic direction
d) the theory of convergence of two factors
19. The behaviorist approach considers personality as the result of ...
a) understanding the consequences of their behavior
b) cognitive interpretation of various situations
c) conflicts between subconscious forces and reality
d) interactions between people.
20. Freud dealt with a problem:
b) psychosexual development of children
c) the development of the child's intellect
d) psychosocial development of the child
21. The subject of the study of psychoanalysis is:
a) deep feelings and experiences
b) consciousness
c) intelligence
d) behavior
22. Libido in the concept 3. Freud is:
a) mental energy underlying sexual desires human
b) a structural part of the human psyche
d) sexual complex
23. According to the definition of 3. Freud, in the structure of the psyche "It" is:
a) the bearer of the ideal, the censor of behavior
b) an intermediary between the "Super-I" and "I"
c) innate part, drives, instincts
d) a product of society's influence
24. From the point of view of 3. Freud, the censor of behavior in the structure human psyche is:
c) "Super-I"
d) all of the above
25. At the center of E. Erickson's analysis are:
a) child's instincts
b) the relationship of the child with close adults
c) the relationship of the child with peers
G) internal conflicts child
26. Challenge infancy according to E. Erickson:
a) the formation of industriousness
b) development of initiative
27. Task to school age according to E. Erickson:
a) the formation of industriousness
b) development of initiative
c) achieving autonomy, independence and independence
d) the formation of basic trust in the world
28. The task of school age from the point of view of E. Erickson:
a) the formation of industriousness
b) development of initiative
c) achieving autonomy, independence and independence
d) the formation of basic trust in the world
29. Challenge adolescence from the point of view of E. Erickson:
a) the formation of industriousness
b) acquisition of ego-identity, awareness of oneself and one's place in the world
c) achieving intimacy, establishing close and friendly ties
d) development of creativity, productivity
30. One of the concepts in the concept of J. Piaget:
a) ego identity
b) action plan
c) neoplasm
d) libido
31. Adapting a new situation to old, already existing structures, J. Piaget defines as:
a) exteriorization
b) internalization
c) accommodation
d) assimilation
32. Assimilation in the theory of J. Piaget is:
a) adapting a new situation to old, already existing structures
b) modification of old schemes in order to adapt to the new situation
c) the way information is processed
d) formation internal structures
33. J. Piaget identified three stages in the development of the intellect. One of them:
a) visual and effective
b) sensorimotor
c) visual-figurative
d) verbal-logical
34. The stage of specific operations in the concept of J. Piaget corresponds to the age:
a) 11-12 years old and older
b) from 6-7 to 11-12 years old
c) from 2 to 11-12 years old
a) L.S. Vygotsky
b) D.B. Elkonin
c) S.L. Rubinshtein
d) L.I. Bozhovich
36. The concept of " social situation development” was introduced into science:
a) L. S. Vygotsky
b) D. B. Elkonin
c) S. L. Rubinshtein
d) A. N. Leontiev
37. The concept of "leading activity" introduced into science:
a) L. S. Vygotsky
b) D. B. Elkonin
c) S. L. Rubinshtein
d) A. N. Leontiev
38. The concept of "new formation" was introduced into science:
a) L. S. Vygotsky
b) D. B. Elkonin
c) S. L. Rubinshtein
d) A. N. Leontiev
39. According to L.S. Vygotsky, mental development is a process of interaction between real and ideal forms. Under ideal forms he understood:
a) the highest level of development of the human psyche
b) the level of development of the psyche specific person and social environment
c) social environment
d) spiritual and cultural wealth of society
a) cognitive
b) epigenetic
c) cultural and historical
d) activity
41. From the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, man is a being:
a) biological
b) social
c) biosocial
d) historical
42. From the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, the source of the development of the psyche:
a) environment
b) heredity
c) training
d) activity of the personality itself
43. As conditions for the development of the psyche, L. S. Vygotsky considered:
b) morphological features brain and communication
c) training
d) deposits
44. As driving forces development of the psyche L. S. Vygotsky considered:
b) morphological features of the brain and communication
c) training
d) deposits
45. The process of development of the psyche, according to L. S. Vygotsky, occurs in the form:
a) adaptation
b) fixtures
c) assimilation
d) learning
a) L. S. Vygotsky
b) A. N. Leontiev
c) J. Piaget
d) M. I. Lisina
47. Leading activity as a selection criterion age stages reviewed in:
a) A. N. Leontieva
b) D. B. Elkonina
c) L. S. Vygotsky
d) B. G. Ananyeva
48. Activity, in the process of which a person is oriented in its main meanings, tasks, motives, norms of relations:
a) direct-emotional communication
b) educational
c) educational and professional
d) object-manipulative
49. Activity in the course of which orientation occurs in the main senses human activity, motives, norms of relations, this ...
a) communication
b) learning activities
c) object-manipulative
50. Activity, in the course of which orientation in socially developed methods of action with objects takes place:
a) Direct-emotional communication
b) learning activities
d) intimate-personal communication
Behaviorism (English behavior - behavior) - a direction in the psychology of humans and animals, literally - the science of behavior. This direction in psychology, which determined the appearance American psychology in the 20th century, which radically transformed the entire system of ideas about the psyche. His credo was expressed by the formula according to which the subject of psychology is behavior, not consciousness. Since then it was customary to put an equal sign between the psyche and consciousness (processes that begin and end in consciousness were considered mental), a version arose that by eliminating consciousness, behaviorism thereby eliminates the psyche. Founder this direction in psychology was the American psychologist John Watson. The most important categories of behaviorism are the stimulus, which is understood as any impact on the body from the environment, including this, the current situation, reaction and reinforcement, which for a person can also be a verbal or emotional reaction of people around. At the same time, subjective experiences are not denied in modern behaviorism, but are placed in a position subordinate to these influences.
The development of behaviorism in the 60s of the 20th century is associated with the name of Skinner. The American researcher can be attributed to the flow of radical behaviorism. Skinner rejected thought mechanisms and believed that the methodology for developing conditioned reflex, which consists in reinforcing or weakening behavior due to the presence or absence of reward or punishment, can explain all forms of human behavior. This approach was used by an American researcher to explain the most diverse forms of behavior, from the learning process to social behavior.
In accordance with Watson's concept of classical behaviorism, Skinner explores the behavior of an organism. Retaining the two-term scheme of behavior analysis, he studies only its motor side. Based on experimental studies and theoretical analysis behavior of animals, Skinner formulates a position on three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex and operant. The latter is the specificity of the teachings of B. Skinner.
Unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex types of behavior are caused by stimuli (S) and are called respondent, responding behavior. This is a type S reaction. They make up a certain part of the behavioral repertoire, but they alone do not provide adaptation to the real environment. In reality, the adaptation process is built on the basis of active tests - the effects of the animal on the world. Some of them may accidentally lead to a useful result, which, by virtue of this, is fixed. Such reactions (R), which are not caused by a stimulus, but are allocated (“emitted”) by the body and some of which turn out to be correct and are reinforced, Skinner called operant. These are R-type reactions. According to Skinner, it is these reactions that are predominant in the adaptive behavior of the animal: they are a form of voluntary behavior.
Based on the analysis of behavior, Skinner formulates his theory of learning. The main means of forming new behavior is reinforcement. The whole procedure of learning in animals is called "successive guidance on the desired response."
Skinner transfers the data obtained from the study of animal behavior to human behavior, which leads to an extremely biological interpretation of man. So, on the basis of the results of learning in animals, a Skinnerian version of programmed learning arose. Its fundamental limitation lies in the reduction of learning to a set of external acts of behavior and reinforcement of the correct ones. This ignores the internal cognitive activity students, and as a consequence, learning as a conscious process disappears. Following the installation of Watsonian behaviorism, Skinner excludes the inner world of a person, his consciousness from behavior and produces a behaviorization of his psyche. Thinking, memory, motives, etc. mental processes he describes in terms of reaction and reinforcement, and of man as a reactive being subjected to the influences of external circumstances. For example, interest corresponds to the likelihood that results from the consequences of the "showing interest" behavior. Behavior associated with friendship with a person changes as that person changes the reinforcements they provide. The biologizing approach to a person, characteristic of behaviorism in general, where there is no fundamental difference between man and animal reaches its limits in Skinner. All culture - literature, painting, stage - turns out to be in his interpretation "cunningly invented reinforcements." Taken to the extreme, the behaviorization of man, culture and society leads to absurdity, which was especially expressively manifested in the sadly sensational book Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). Skinner's transformation of the concepts of freedom, responsibility, dignity actually means their exclusion from the real life of a person.
For permission social problems modern society B. Skinner puts forward the task of creating a technology of behavior designed to control some people over others. Since the intentions, desires, self-consciousness of a person are not taken into account in behaviorism, the means of controlling behavior is not an appeal to people's consciousness. Such a means is the control over the regime of reinforcements, which allows manipulating people.
So called token system reward demonstrates one of the techniques used in behavioral therapy. Under a token reward system, individuals, usually hospitalized adults with severe behavioral disorders, are rewarded with tokens (i.e., token or secondary reinforcers) to reward various desired activities. A token is simply a symbolic substitute that makes available a number of desirable things (items or actions), such as a plastic card or score. Thus, individuals can be rewarded for participating in positive activities such as cleaning their rooms, eating their own meals, completing a work task, or taking the initiative in speaking with other patients and caregivers. The tokens they receive for participating in such activities are then exchanged for a variety of desired incentives (eg sweets, cigarettes, magazines, movie tickets, permission to leave the hospital). In some programs, patients may lose tokens for negative behavior, such as inciting fights, acting eccentrically, or avoiding duty. How effective is the token reward system in eliminating maladaptive behavior and instilling healthy, responsible behavior in people? The study by Athow and Kpacner provides a very encouraging answer. These two clinicians made the first attempt to establish a token reinforcement program in the psychiatric ward of the Veterans Hospital. Its goal was "to change the aberrant behavior of the chronically ill, especially behavior that is considered lethargic, overly dependent, damaging or annoying to others." 60 people were examined average age- 57 years, who spent an average of 22 years in hospitals. Most of them had previously been diagnosed as chronically ill with schizophrenia, the rest had brain damage. The study lasted for 20 months and consisted of three stages. The first six months were the main, or operant period, during which the researchers recorded the frequency of occurrence of the behavior to be sequentially suppressed each day. This was followed by a three-month formation period, when patients were informed of the activities they had to engage in in order to receive a token and "sell" it in the hospital canteen. Finally, over the course of an 11-month experimental period, patients received tokens for behaving in the desired manner—serving themselves, attending classes, socializing with others, or showing responsibility. Everyone received a token immediately after completing the desired activity, social approval from the staff was expressed by the words "great job" or a smile. An analysis of the results showed that patients began to behave in the “right” way more often, they had increased initiative, activity, responsibility, and improved skills social communication. During the operant period, the average weekly participation rate was 5.8 hours per patient. With the introduction of the token reward system, this ratio increased to 8.4 hours in the first month and averaged 8.5 hours during the entire experimental period. In addition, the ratio increased to 9.2 hours in those three months within the experimental period when the reinforcing value of the tokens increased from one to two tokens per hour of participation. Other data reported by Athowe and Krasner concern the number of violations committed by patients. Usually, many patients in the hospital refuse to get up in the morning, wash or leave the bedroom at the set time, thus creating a need for help. additional staff. Right before the token reward system was introduced, there was one violation per week for each of these three items. The result was an average of 75 violations (or just over one per patient) per week. During the experiment, the token was issued daily, if there were no violations on any of these points. The number of violations has decreased since the introduction of the token system. The researchers did not comment on the unexpected increase in violations (up to 39) during the fourth week. pilot program. During the last six months of the experimental period, the frequency of violations averaged nine per week. Despite the impressive results obtained in this clinical trial However, it is not clear whether the behavior was changed precisely from specific reinforcements. For example, it is possible that patients participating in an experiment with a token reward system are simply responding to the enthusiasm, attention, and expectations of hospital staff. Proponents of behavioral therapy insist that this explanation is not valid and that changes in the patient's behavior are a direct result of the application of the probabilistic method. Eilon and Ezrin certainly support this view. They found that the desired behavior was directly related to the presence or absence of token reinforcement. Based on six specific experiments with the token reward system, they concluded that the desired behavior persisted "for high level so long as the reinforcing technique is being applied." Thus, it is plausible to conclude that the token reward system can be used to reinforce normal adaptive behavior in patients. It should be further noted that the token reward system was heavily used in different situations in a class with "normal" children, delinquent teenagers, drug abusers, and the mentally retarded. Finally, the token reward system can be used to eliminate fear, hyperactivity, aggressive behavior in children and reduce marital discord.
22. Psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality in social psychology – personality structure (Z. Freud).
At the end of the 19th century, changes began to take place in the social sciences - the focus was no longer on social groups, but individual person, individual individuals who determined their inclusion in society - became socialized. Thanks to this, at the end of the 19th century, a psychodynamic direction arose, the main task of which was to study the process of including a person in society. Therefore, the appearance of the works of the Viennese neurologist Sigmund Freud predetermined the study inner peace of people. He is the author of psychoanalysis, made an assumption about the existence of two important areas: consciousness and the unconscious. According to Freud, people's behavior, their adaptation in society is determined by the unconscious sphere. This conscious-unconscious structure is the following model:
Iceberg model, where the surface part is the human consciousness, and the underwater part is the unconscious.
According to Freud, thoughts displaced from consciousness, desires that a person had in the previous time fall into the area of \u200b\u200bthe “unconscious”, but most importantly, types of behavior prohibited by society, thoughts, experiences, needs and feelings fall into the area of the unconscious. We can conclude that the behavior of people, in fact, is controlled not by conscious feelings and thoughts, but by unconscious (forbidden) thoughts and experiences.
Sigmund Freud in his theory of psychoanalysis, defining the existence of the unconscious, suggested: because the unconscious determines the life of a person, that there are two vital and necessary for the existence of mental energies:
1) The energy of "libido" - this energy implies a person's desire for development, reproduction, is the energy of life, also carries an erotic social component.
2) Energy "thanatos" (mortidome) - this energy determines a person's desire for destruction, the manifestation of aggression and is responsible for the attraction to death.
According to Freud, these energies must simultaneously exist and flow in the human body. In the event of problems (energy fixation), the necessary difficulties arise in conscious behavior person. He believed that it was necessary to focus on the energy of "libido", because. This energy is responsible for human life and reproduction. Thus, the basic understanding of Freud's theory by contemporaries and his followers was as follows:
Human behavior is controlled by forbidden thoughts and experiences that are directly related to sexual thoughts and experiences.
These experiences were banned in "Victorian" Europe.
90% of people think only about one thing, the remaining 10% do not admit to themselves.
Freud's theory largely predetermined the study of the processes of human socialization in society, he believed that from the moment of birth and throughout life, people's behavior is predetermined by the functioning (flow) of the "libido" energy. In case of fixation of this energy at any age:
In adulthood, there are characteristic changes that are neurotic in nature and interfere with the social adaptation of a person. Therefore, studying the behavior of adults, their disadaptation, Freud paid attention to childhood experiences that led to the fixation of libido energy. Those. All adult problems lie in a person's childhood.
Freud's theory also considered the structure of personality, which included 3 main characteristics:
1) "Id" or "it", which included the unconscious sphere of a person and determined such actions of people that were characterized by a principle - the principle of pleasure, i.e. a person aspired here and now to realize his real desires and needs, however, the “id” structure was forbidden and therefore it had to be controlled. But essential function structure "id" was the energy capacity, i.e. it is this structure that has accumulated vital energy libido and determined mental and physical health person.
2) "Ego" or "I", this structure is directly responsible for conscious life person and determines his existence in society. Those. a person exists according to the principle of “reality”, when the main strategies of approach and avoidance are determined, in the event of a danger, a person chooses the strategy of “avoidance”, in the event of “attractiveness”, a person chooses a different strategy - well, you understand. According to Freud, the main function of this structure is the desire to control the "id", therefore it is the "ego" that creates obstacles and barriers for the unconscious features of human behavior. However, the structure of the "ego" is interested in the flow of energy, therefore, conditions are created when the "id" can manifest itself, implement the "principle of pleasure". This is most clearly manifested in various erroneous actions, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, as well as in a person's dreams, which make it possible to realize the desire of the "id" structure.
3) "Super-ego" or "super-I", a feature of this structure is its dual nature: on the one hand, the "super-ego" performs a controlling role and implies the possibility of controlling the ego, i.e. the functions of morality, morality, conscience are realized, and therefore the main task of the "super-ego" is to control human behavior in accordance with the requirements of society. It is the "super-ego" that determines the existence of social. institutions to control and prohibit people's behavior. On the other hand, the "super-ego" is directly connected with the unconscious sphere, and is responsible for creativity and creativity. Besides, this feature"super-ego" involves the inclusion in human consciousness of moral and moral principles that act on unconscious level. A person ceases to be aware of the basic laws of morality and determine the entire structure of human life. Therefore, this feature of the "super-ego" suggests the possibilities of a person associated with the implementation of creative tasks.
23. Gestalt psychology - the main phenomena and patterns. L. Festinger. Understanding personality in Gestalt psychology.
This is a new direction that arose in social psychology and was an alternative to psychoanalysis. Gestalt in translation from German is an image of a structure that represents the integrity of a given object. Gestalt psychology has made a very interesting point. A person actually exists not due to emotions, experiences, behavior, but thanks to conscious activity, i.e. reasoning ability and mental operations Therefore, a person largely determines and creates his own picture of the world. Gestalt psychologists said: since everyone, thanks to their experience, experiences creates their own picture of the world, their own image of the world, the perception of the world by a person depends on this person, which means that most people live outside of reality. Each person depends on and understands the world in his own way, which means that it is impossible to talk about the existence of a single reality, but it is different for everyone.
Gestalt psychology considered one of the important feature human - perception, which plays a major role in the life of people. In case of distortion of perception, i.e. changes in the image of the world automatically change, so it was suggested that people's behavior is determined by the following phenomenon ("figure-background").
A person distinguishes from the surrounding world the most significant object, phenomenon, which become for him a kind of figure and therefore given object or a phenomenon is completely occupied by the influence of a person, he is fixed on this object, everything else is a kind of background.
A feature of people's behavior is their ability and ability to shift their attention from significant figure on other objects and as a result turns out to be a social and corresponding requirement of society. This process action was called Gestalt, and the movement of attention from one figure to another is an indicator of the completed Gestalt.
The well-known researcher Kord Levin defined the socio-psychological phenomenon of unfinished action. Most people tend to get things done in one way or another.
Unfinished Gestalt.
Cort's research on the incompleteness of the action made it possible to formulate the principles:
1) Selectivity. This principle assumes that most people tend to allocate for themselves the most significant objects. These objects turn out to be significant as a result of past experience, emotional state, as well as the situation in which the choice occurs, so significant objects are individual for each person.
2) The principle of integrity of perception. It consists in the fact that a person seeks to complete any event, phenomenon or object to its whole state, therefore the viability of people is determined by their natural desire to the integrity of the world and therefore the inability to restore the integrity of the image of the world, a person experiences stress and tension.
