Today, various forms of communication and communication are taught in many Russian universities. And not only because for a number of specialties the study of norms, rules and styles of communication is mandatory in accordance with the State Educational Standard. First of all, the acquisition of knowledge and communication skills is dictated by the practical needs of real life. The processes of globalization, democratization of public life, openness and accessibility of the latest achievements of world culture allow a huge number of people to learn a lot about the behavior and lifestyle of other peoples. New knowledge is acquired on tourist trips, at scientific conferences, symposiums, from media reports, personal meetings, i.e. through various forms of human communication.
Interest in communication with other peoples and their cultures in our country is great, and the choice of necessary teaching aids domestic authors on communication issues is extremely scarce. This makes the appearance of this tutorial very relevant and
Timely.
The study guide is one of the first attempts to develop a curriculum for intercultural communication(MKK) for Russian universities. It is the result of cooperation between the teachers of the department of the Kaluga State Pedagogical University. K.E. Tsiolkovsky and teachers of the Department of Intercultural Communication of the Institute of German and Comparative Ethnology of the University of Munich, which became possible thanks to the financial, organizational and technical support of the Volkswagen Foundation (Germany). During the implementation of the joint project, its Russian participants received their first practical skills in intercultural communication and were partially able to reflect the experience gained in this work. The main scientific and methodological basis of the manual was the most famous and widespread American and German, as well as domestic scientific and educational publications on intercultural communication, which are listed in the bibliographic list. In the proposed book, based on the achievements of American and German science in the field of intercultural communication,
6 Foreword I
Tsii, the authors tried to systematically and intelligibly present modern ideas about intercultural communication and the possibilities of mastering its skills. Of course, not all sections in equally realize the set goal. The advantage of the book is its saturation with theoretical provisions and practical materials on all the issues and topics presented. Readers will find in it answers to questions about the features of intercultural communication, ways to overcome communication barriers, forms of behavior in certain situations of intercultural communication. However, the authors express their regret that a huge part of the material devoted to specific intercultural situations, practically useful for the interested reader, turned out to be unclaimed in this publication due to its limited volume.
The authors express their heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Juliana Roth, thanks to whose initiative and active participation this project was made possible and successfully implemented. a joint project. The words of gratitude are addressed to Professor Alois Moosmüller of the University of Munich and assistant Galina Kopteltseva for their help and practical contribution in the implementation of the project. The authors also express special gratitude to the Volkswagen Foundation for the financial and technical support of the project.
Cand. philosophy Sci., Associate Professor, Department of Cultural Studies, Kaluga State Pedagogical University named after V.I. K.E. Tsiolkovsky T.G. Grushevitska- Ch. Section 4 I; ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sec. II; ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sec. V; ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sec. VI.
Cand. social in Philosophy and Sociology, Senior Lecturer, Department of Philosophy and Sociology, Kaluga State Pedagogical University. K.E. Tsiolkovsky V.D. Popkov - ch. 5, 6 sec. VI).
Section IV co-written ^ A.P. Sadokhin and V.D. Popkov. The general edition of the textbook has been implemented A.I Sado-chin.
Introduction
Rationale for the course. At the turn of the second and third millennia, it becomes more and more obvious that humanity is developing along the path of expanding the interconnection and interdependence of various countries, peoples and their cultures. This process covered various spheres of public life in all countries of the world. Can't be found today ethnic communities, which would not be affected by both the cultures of other peoples and the wider social environment that exists in individual regions and in the world as a whole. This was expressed in the rapid growth of cultural exchanges and direct contacts between government institutions, social groups, social movements and individuals from different countries and cultures. The expansion of the interaction of cultures and peoples makes especially topical issue about cultural identity and cultural differences. cultural diversity modern humanity increases, and the peoples composing it find all more funds to preserve and develop its integrity and cultural identity. This trend towards the preservation of cultural identity confirms the general pattern, which consists in the fact that humanity, becoming more interconnected and united, does not lose its cultural diversity. In the context of these trends community development it becomes extremely important to be able to determine the cultural characteristics of peoples in order to understand each other and achieve mutual recognition.
The process of interaction of cultures, leading to their unification, arouses in some nations the desire for cultural self-affirmation and the desire to preserve their own cultural values. Whole line states and cultures demonstrates its categorical rejection of the ongoing cultural changes. To the process of opening cultural borders they oppose the impenetrability of their own and the exaggerated sense of pride in their national identity. Different societies react to outside influences in different ways. The range of resistance to the process of merging cultures is quite wide: from passive rejection of the values of other cultures to active opposition to their spread and approval. Therefore, we are
8 Introduction
We are witnesses and contemporaries of numerous ethno-religious conflicts, the growth of nationalist sentiments, and regional fundamentalist movements.
The mentioned processes, to one degree or another, have found their manifestation in Russia as well. The reforms of the society led to serious changes in the cultural image of Russia. Over the past few years, completely new social groups have appeared: entrepreneurs, bankers, political leaders different movements, Russian employees of foreign firms, etc. A completely new type of business culture is emerging, a new idea of the social responsibility of the business world to the client and society is being formed, the life of society as a whole is changing. The process is developing extremely difficult and painful, as it encounters a huge number of obstacles and restrictions on the part of the state, with distrust of the authorities, with incompetence and voluntarism. One of the ways to overcome the existing difficulties is to establish an effective system of communication between various social groups and the authorities. This system should be based on the principles of equal access to the necessary information, direct communication among themselves, collective acceptance decisions and effective work of employees. To this it should be added that diverse international contacts of leaders and entrepreneurs of all levels have shown that success in any kind of international activity largely depends on the degree of training of Russian representatives in the field of intercultural communication.
And, finally, the end of the "cold war" between East and West significantly expanded trade and economic relations between them. In every country, the number of people who have economic contacts outside of their culture is growing year by year. Currently, there are more than 37 thousand transnational corporations in the world with 207 thousand branches, which employ several tens of millions of people. For their effective activity, they must take into account the peculiarities of the culture of their partners and host countries. Crisis situations of recent years in Russia (1998), Mexico and Brazil (1999), which violated the existing economic order and led to a new alignment of forces on the world stage, have become convincing evidence of the interconnection of the world economy.
New economic relations there was a wide availability of direct contacts with cultures that previously
^=^~^
Foxes are mysterious and strange. In direct contact with such cultures, differences are recognized not only at the level kitchen utensils, clothes, food ration, but also in a different attitude towards women, children and the elderly, in the ways and means of doing business.
Becoming participants in any kind of intercultural contacts, people interact with representatives of other cultures, often significantly different from each other. Differences in languages, national cuisine, clothing, norms of social conduct, and attitudes towards the work performed often make these contacts difficult and even impossible. But these are only particular problems of intercultural contacts. The underlying reasons for their failures lie beyond the obvious differences. They are in differences in attitude, that is, a different attitude to the world and to other people. The main obstacle to the successful solution of this problem is that we perceive other cultures through the prism of our own culture, so our observations and conclusions are limited to its framework. FROM with great difficulty we understand the meanings of words, deeds, actions that are not characteristic of ourselves. Our ethnocentrism not only interferes with intercultural communication, but it is also difficult to recognize, as it is an unconscious process. This leads to the conclusion that effective intercultural communication cannot arise on its own, it needs to be purposefully studied.
^ Formation and development of the ICC in the USA and Europe. The formation of intercultural communication as an academic discipline was originally due to the purely practical interests of American politicians and businessmen. After World War II, the sphere of influence of American politics, economics and culture was actively expanding. Government officials and businessmen who worked abroad often found themselves helpless and unable to understand situations of misunderstanding that arose when working with representatives of other cultures. Often this led to conflicts, mutual hostility, and resentment. Even a perfect knowledge of the relevant languages could not prepare them for the difficult work abroad. Gradually, there was an awareness of the need to study not only languages, but also the cultures of other peoples, their customs, traditions, and norms of behavior.
At the same time, the United States developed a program of assistance to developing countries. Within the framework of individual projects of this program
10 Introduction
A large number of Peace Corps experts and activists have visited various countries. Often they encountered misunderstandings and conflicts there, which ultimately led to the failure of their mission. Managerial staff and rank-and-file employees found themselves ill-prepared to deal with practical issues with representatives of other cultures. It became clear that the preparation they had received before their departure was insufficient. The numerous failures of the Peace Corps activists raised the question of special training, in which the main attention had to be paid to the development practical skills and intercultural communication skills, rather than simply informing about the cultural characteristics of a particular country.
In response to this situation, the US government passed the Foreign Service Act in 1946 and created the Foreign Service Institute, headed by the linguist Edward Hall. Scientists of various specialties were involved to work at the institute: anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, linguists, etc. However, all their attempts to understand and explain the behavior of representatives of other cultures were then based more on intuition than on knowledge and experience. Therefore, at first the effectiveness of their work turned out to be low. The main conclusion that was made by the specialists of the institute was that each culture forms unique system values, priorities, behavior patterns, and therefore its description, interpretation and evaluation should be carried out from the standpoint of cultural relativism.
In the course of their work, the staff of the institute was surprised to find that government officials did not show interest in studying theoretical issues of culture and communication, but expressed a desire to receive specific advice, recommendations and instructions on practical behavior in another country. Since Hall invited people from different languages and cultures to work at the institute, this circumstance allowed him to observe and study cultural differences in practice. So, for example, he noticed that Italians often stand close to each other when they talk, or that the Greeks gesticulate a lot during communication. Conversely, the Chinese use few gestures when communicating. Hall confirmed his observations by consulting with representatives of various cultural groups and gradually included in the educational programs of the Institute. To this day, most American textbooks on intercultural communication emphasize
Focuses on practical guidelines and recommendations when communicating with representatives of other cultures.
Probably, the date of birth of intercultural communication as an academic discipline should be considered 1954, when the book by E. Hall and D. Trager “Culture as Communication” (“Culture as Communication”) was published, in which the authors first proposed the term "intercultural communication", reflecting, in their opinion, a special area of human relations. Later, the main provisions and ideas of intercultural communication were developed in more detail in the famous work of E. Hall "The Silent Language" ("Silent Language", 1959), where the author showed a close relationship between culture and communication. Developing his ideas about the relationship between culture and communication, Hall came to the conclusion about the need for teaching culture (“if culture is studied, then this means that it can also be taught”). Thus, Hall was the first to propose to make the problem of intercultural communication not only the subject of scientific research, but also an independent academic discipline.
The process of establishing intercultural communication as an academic discipline began in the 1960s, when this subject began to be taught at a number of US universities. This circumstance significantly changed the content training course intercultural communication. In the 1970s, the purely practical nature of the course was supplemented by the necessary theoretical generalizations and took the form of a classic university course, combining both theoretical provisions and practical aspects of intercultural communication.
On the European continent, the formation of intercultural communication as an academic discipline took place somewhat later than in the USA and was caused by other reasons. The creation of the European Union opened the borders for the free movement of people, capital and goods. European capitals and large cities began to intensively change their appearance due to the appearance in them of representatives of different cultures and their active involvement in the life of these cities. Practice has raised the problem of mutual communication of carriers of different cultures. Against this background, the interest of scientists in the problems of intercultural communication gradually formed. Following the example of the United States, at the turn of the 70-80s of the last century, departments of intercultural communication (university) were opened in some Western European universities.
12 Introduction
Sites of Munich, Jena). In 1989 in University of Munich a new specialization was opened - "intercultural communications". Based on the American experience of teaching intercultural communication, their own curricula were developed there, based on the materials of folklore, ethnology and linguistics.
^ Formation of the IWC in Russia. AT domestic science and the education system, the initiators of the study of intercultural communication were teachers foreign languages who were the first to realize that for effective communication with representatives of other cultures, it is not enough just to know a foreign language. The practice of communicating with foreigners has proved that even deep knowledge of a foreign language does not exclude misunderstanding and conflicts with native speakers of this language. Therefore, the teaching of foreign languages in many universities has been supplemented by the subject "Country-Knowledge", which introduces students to the history, customs, traditions, and social organization of the country of the language being studied. However, as practice has shown, only classroom (theoretical) acquaintance with the relevant culture is not enough for conflict-free communication with its representatives. Today it has become obvious that successful and effective contacts with representatives of other cultures are impossible without practical skills in intercultural communication. In a number of Russian universities, a new discipline is included in the curricula - "Intercultural Communication". The introduction of this discipline is primarily due to the need to prepare students for effective intercultural contacts at the level of everyday interpersonal communication. For this, knowledge about the nature of intercultural misunderstanding is not enough; here it is necessary to form practical skills and abilities that would allow one to freely understand representatives of other cultures.
At present, intercultural communication is just beginning to establish itself in Russian universities as an academic discipline. The initiator and undisputed leader in this process is the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Moscow State University, where intercultural communication has been taught for several years and where a number of lecture courses and programs have already been developed on various aspects of this area. The faculty's initiative found support in a number of other Moscow universities: Peoples' Friendship University, State Linguistic University, Russian
skom state humanitarian university. The experience of teaching intercultural communication in these universities shows that the most effective is the combination of lecture and practical forms of study. Particularly effective were practical exercises, during which students get the opportunity to experience the feelings and emotions that arise in real situations of intercultural communication, discuss and analyze their own behavior and the behavior of their partners. Practical classes, as a rule, cause lively discussions, significantly increase the motivation and interest of students in the subject, and eliminate the psychological barrier in the interaction between students and the teacher.
^ Intercultural communication as an academic discipline. From the beginning of its inception, intercultural communication has been formed as an interdisciplinary discipline. When creating the Institute of Service Abroad, Edward Hall attracted anthropologists, linguists, psychologists, and sociologists to work. The first curricula and methods of teaching intercultural communication were borrowed from various sciences. This initially gave intercultural communication an eclectic character. However, this eclecticism had the most positive impact on the content of the course of intercultural communication, since its interdisciplinary nature made it possible to rethink many traditional ideas and methods, opened up new aspects of research into the problem of intercultural contacts. The employees of the institute were specialists in various sciences, and in their work they relied primarily on the achievements of their sciences. It is natural that all the useful achievements of various fields scientific knowledge gradually integrated into an independent discipline with its own subject and method.
Based on the American experience in teaching intercultural communication, learning programs and in a number of Western European universities. These programs are also interdisciplinary in nature, as they are based on the achievements of folklore, ethnology, linguistics and other related sciences.
Of all the sciences of culture, the largest amount of theoretical and methodological knowledge and practical experience in the field of research, the ICC has been accumulated by folklore and ethnology. Therefore, two areas of research on intercultural
14 Introduction
Communications. The first of them, based on folkloris-. tick, is descriptive. Its tasks are to identify, describe and interpret the everyday behavior of people in order to explain the underlying causes and determining factors of their culture.
The second direction, which has a cultural and anthropological character, is the subject of its research. different kinds cultural activities of social groups and communities, their norms, rules and values. The social differentiation of society (family, school, church, industry, etc.) generates in each group its own norms and rules of conduct. Knowing them allows you to quickly and effectively resolve situations of intercultural misunderstanding, organize the work process normally in multinational teams, etc.
The methodological approaches of other disciplines (psychology, pedagogy, sociology, communication theory, etc.) are always more limited in terms of subject matter. They, as a rule, are aimed at considering specific aspects of intercultural communication and in their initial premises are often based on the theoretical and methodological provisions of ethnology. However, despite the differences in methodological approaches and aspects of intercultural communication research in various sciences, most scientists are of the opinion that the main goals of research in the field of ICC are:
a systematic presentation of the main problems and themes of inter-
cultural communication, mastering the basic concepts
mi and terminology;
development of cultural susceptibility, ability to right
correct interpretation of specific manifestations of communication
active behavior in different cultures;
the formation of practical skills and abilities in communication
with representatives of other cultures.
Many years of teaching experience and numerous research works in this area make it possible today to highlight the scientific and methodological features and organizational problems of teaching this course.
The founder of intercultural communication, E. Hall, meant by her teaching intercultural learning, based on the practical use of the facts of intercultural communication of people arising from direct contacts with carriers of other cultures. He understood the educational process as a process of analysis concrete examples intercultural communication, as a result of which the intercultural competence of students expands and difficulties in everyday communication with people from another culture are overcome. A number of Western scientists (G. Collier, V. Gudikunst and R. Hammer, M. Page and J. Martin, M. Hoops, M. Bennett, etc.) described their own experience in teaching intercultural communication and proposed models for organizing intercultural communication. learning, among which the most famous are the models of Hoops and Bennett.
Acquaintance with the works of Western scientists allows us to conclude that intercultural learning differs from other educational areas in several ways. The main difference is that necessary knowledge and skills are acquired predominantly through direct cultural contacts. This often requires a complete or partial abstraction from the usual system of interpretation of various cultural phenomena and entails significant cognitive and affective changes. These changes can be demonstrated by the example of the culture of taste perceptions: at the cognitive level, it is believed that the proposed unusual dish should be tried before another national cuisine. On an emotional level, this proposal can cause a violent emotional reaction and unbalance the participants in communication. Obstacles of this kind in most cases arise unexpectedly, most often when faced with elements of a foreign culture.
According to some Western scientists, teaching intercultural communication can give rise to contradictions with one's own cultural identity: there is a fear of losing orientation in the usual socio-cultural space, losing one's identity and losing the support of one's group. The process of intercul-
16 Introduction
A tour of learning should take into account the possibility of such contradictions. A natural device against the occurrence of such situations is the principle of openness and controversy in the organization of the learning process. The latter should be perceived by students as a search process, in which both cognitive and emotional levels of consciousness should be involved.
Taking into account these features and contradictions, the experience of teaching intercultural communication at the University of Munich, as well as on the basis of the study of special American and German educational literature, a training course on ICC was created at the Kaluga State Pedagogical University them. K.E. Tsi-olkovsky. According to the intention of its authors, this program was initially given a cultural and anthropological character. Two pilot training courses at KSPU and a visit training sessions on the ICC at the University of Munich made it possible to develop the structure of the training course presented here, to determine its content in general terms, to specify the topics and to test the methodology for conducting practical classes.
In the proposed version, the ICC course is designed for two semesters (72 hours of classroom studies) with equal ratio lectures and practical classes (36 hours for each type). The authors tried to cover a variety of aspects of intercultural communication and thereby form a general and systematized idea of the ICC. The program allows for the possibility of changes in accordance with the curricula of universities and use in educational process regional characteristics of a particular culture.
ChapterI
Cultural and anthropological foundations of intercultural
COMMUNICATIONS
Man is made for society. He is not capableand does not have the courage to live alone.
W. Blackstone
Chapter1 ^ WHAT IS CULTURE?
Ordinary and scientific understanding of culture. local cultures. Its-cultural diversity and originality. Culture and communication. Not-necessity and conditions for effective interaction of cultures. Kul-tour and behaviour. Determinants of behavior in the process of communicationtions. Empathy and its role in intercultural communication. Meaningcultural property and norms in the IWC. Main types of cultural norms(mores, customs, traditions, rituals)
^ 1L. From ordinary understanding of culture to scientific
In modern humanities the concept of "culture" refers to the number of fundamental. It is natural that it is central in intercultural communication as well. Among the huge number scientific categories and terms, it is difficult to find another concept that would have such a variety of semantic shades and would be used in such different contexts. For us, such phrases as “culture of behavior”, “culture of communication”, “culture of feelings”, etc. sound quite familiar to us. call it culture, not culture. In science, one usually speaks of "cultural systems", "cultural dynamics", "typology of cultures", etc.
Modern studies on the definitions of culture have shown a huge, ever-increasing interest in this concept. So, according to the calculations of the American cultural anthropologists A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhona, from 1871 to 1919. various sciences gave seven definitions of culture, from 1920 to 1950 their number increased to 150. At present, there are more than 500 different definitions of culture. All these definitions Kre-ber and Klakhon divided into 6 classes (types).
1. Descriptive definitions that interpret culture as the sum of all human activities, customs, beliefs.
Gm'a 1. 4 tois culture? 19
2. Historical definitions that link culture to
traditions and social heritage of society.
3. Normative definitions that consider culture
ru as a set of norms and rules that organize human
behavior.
4. Psychological definitions, according to which
culture is a set of forms of acquired
behavior resulting from adaptation and cultural
adaptation of a person to the surrounding conditions of life.
5. Structural definitions that represent culture
in various models or unified system interconnection
known phenomena.
6. Genetic definitions based on understanding
culture as a result of the adaptation of human groups to the environment
of their habitat.
This variety of definitions, interpretations and interpretations does not confuse scientists. It is due to the fact that culture is
I am an extremely complex and multifaceted phenomenon that expresses all aspects of human existence. It includes everything that is created by the human mind and hands. Therefore, culture is studied by a number of sciences: semiotics, sociology, history, anthropology, axiology, linguistics, ethnology, etc. Each of the sciences singles out one of its sides or one of its parts as the subject of its study, approaches its study with its own methods and methods, while formulating their understanding and definition of culture.
AT Everyday life The concept of "culture" is used in at least three senses. Firstly, culture means a separate sphere of social life, which exists in the form of a system of institutions and organizations involved in the production and dissemination of spiritual values (societies, clubs, theaters, museums, etc.). Secondly, culture is understood as a set of values and norms inherent in a large social group, community, people or nation (elite culture, Russian culture, youth culture, etc.). Thirdly, culture is interpreted as an expression of a high level of human achievement in any activity (life culture, man of culture in the meaning of "educated and educated", etc.). Ordinary ideas about culture often come down to its identification with artistic culture (art) or with society.
human development and upbringing. However, the most common everyday meaning of the concept of "culture" is its understanding as a set material items, objects, ideas, images created by man throughout his history. In this interpretation, culture appears as the sum of all the achievements of mankind, as a "second nature", created by man himself, forming the actual human world, in contrast to wildlife.
It was this understanding of culture that was formulated by Kroeber and Kluckhohn, who believed that “culture consists of expressed and hidden patterns of thinking and behavior, which are specific, isolating the achievement of human communities, embodied in symbols, with the help of which they are perceived and transmitted from person to person and from generation to generation. It is also necessary to include here those achievements that are manifested in the material goods created by a cultural society. Ideas are at the core of any culture... and especially values transmitted through tradition. Cultural systems can be considered, on the one hand, as the result of actions taken, on the other hand, as one of the foundations of action in the future” (Kroeber A., Kluckhon C; 161). According to this definition, culture is a complex phenomenon that includes both material and social phenomena, as well as various forms individual behavior and organized activity. Culture as a special sphere of human life cannot be seen, heard, felt or tasted. In reality, we can observe its various manifestations in the form of differences in human behavior and certain types of activities, rituals, traditions. We see only individual manifestations of culture, but we never see it as a whole. Observing differences in behavior, we begin to understand that they are based on cultural differences, and this is where the study of culture begins. In this sense, culture is only an abstract concept that helps us understand why we do what we do and explain differences in the behavior of people from different cultures.
With this methodological approach, culture as a subject of study of cultural anthropology appears as a set of results of the activity of human society in all spheres of its life, which make up and determine the way of life.
nation, ethnicity, social group in any particular historical period of time. Cultural anthropology studies the development of culture in all its aspects: way of life, perception of the world, mentality, national character, daily behavior, etc. On this basis, cultural anthropology also studies the human ability to develop culture through communication, through communication, considers the whole diversity of human cultures, their interaction and contacts.
Cultural anthropology considers culture as a product of the joint life of people, a system of coordinated ways of their collective existence, ordered norms and rules for satisfying group and individual needs, etc. The fact is that the joint long-term residence of groups of people in the same territory, their collective economic activity, defense against attacks form their common worldview, a single way of life, manner of communication, style of clothing, the specifics of cooking, etc. . As a result, an independent cultural system is formed, which is usually called ethnicwhich culture of this people. But it is not a mechanical sum of all acts of human life. Its core is a set of "rules of the game" adopted in the process of their collective existence. Unlike biological properties they are not inherited genetically, but are assimilated only by the method of training. For this reason, the existence of a single universal culture that unites all people on Earth. Thus, despite its obvious reality, culture appears in a certain sense as an abstract concept, because in reality it exists only in the form of many cultures of different eras and regions, and within these eras - in the form of cultures of individual countries and peoples, which are also commonly called lo-rock and ethnic cultures.
The presence of local cultures is a natural form of existence of all human culture as a whole. Thanks to the interaction of local and ethnic cultures, a system of communication arises, various styles and types of behavior, value orientations are supported, their ethnic identity is preserved. This communication proceeds both through mutual clarification of relations, strife, conflicts, and through mutual adaptation and understanding of the cultural identity of neighbors. As a rule, the nature of intercultural contacts is determined by the degree of proximity
Tee and kinship of interacting cultures. The fact is that some of the local cultures are similar to each other due to their genetic relationship and the similarity of the conditions for their emergence. Other cultures differ from each other as much as the living conditions of the peoples that gave birth to these cultures differ. In all the diversity of local cultures, there is not a single "no man's" culture. Each culture embodies the specific experience of the social practice of a particular historical community. And this experience gives every culture unique features defines its originality.
Cultural identity can manifest itself in the most different sides human life: in the satisfaction of biological needs, natural habits of behavior, types of clothing and dwellings, types of tools, methods of labor operations, etc. So, for example, ethnographers have long noticed that peoples living in similar conditions and next door to each other build houses in different ways. Russian northerners traditionally place their houses facing the street, while Russian southerners place them along the street. Balkars, Ossetians, Karachays live in the Caucasus in close proximity to each other. But the first build stone one-story houses, the second - two-story, and the third - wooden houses. Previously, among the Uzbeks, it was possible to determine from which locality a person comes from only by a skullcap, and by the clothes of a Russian peasant woman of the 19th century. it was possible to establish exactly in which locality she was born.
Thus, human culture is made up of various local cultures, the carriers of which are peoples. Each people is an independent form of ethnic communities, or, as it is commonly called in ethnology, a separate ethnic group. Ethnic groups exist as stable intergenerational communities of people. People naturally united in et-noses according to the most different reasons, including on the basis of a common historical destiny, common traditions, features of life, etc. However, the most important unifying factors are the common territory and the common language.
The originality of any culture is completed in the cultural picture of the world, which is gradually formed in the process of the emergence and existence of the culture itself. The cultural picture of the world is the result of the fact that in different cultures people perceive, feel and experience the world in their own way and in that way.
They themselves create their own unique image of the world, an idea of the world, called "pictures of the world". The cultural picture of the world is a set of rational knowledge and ideas about values, norms, mores, mentality of one's own culture and cultures of other peoples. This knowledge and ideas give the culture of each nation its identity, making it possible to distinguish one culture from another.
The cultural picture of the world finds its expression in a different attitude to certain cultural phenomena. So, for example, in Madagascar, funerals reflect an assessment of the status achieved by a person during his lifetime and respect for the deceased. Therefore, thousands of people flock to say goodbye to some, and only a few come to others. In some nations, farewell to the dead is stretched for whole weeks. And, on the contrary, in modern Russia or the USA, funerals take only a few hours. different attitude to the same event among different peoples can only be explained by the differences in their cultural pictures of the world, in which this event has different value and meaning.
1.1.1. Culture and communication
No culture exists in isolation. In the course of her life, she is forced to constantly turn either to her past or to the experience of other cultures. This appeal to other cultures was called "interaction of cultures". In this interaction, an obvious fact is the communication of cultures in different "languages". The fact is that each culture in the process of its development creates various systems of signs, which are its original carriers. Creation of signs - purely human feature. The signs and signals that exist in animals are associated only with the behavior and life characteristics of a particular species. These signs were not created by animals on purpose, they developed during the evolution of the species and are transmitted genetically. Only a person consciously creates his signs, they are not innate for him, since they represent a form of existence of human culture. However, this human ability simultaneously creates the problem of understanding and perception of foreign cultures.
Throughout its history, mankind has created a huge number of signs of behavior, without which it is impossible to
any kind of his activity is possible. For a person, the possession of these signs and sign systems means his inclusion in relations with other people and in culture.
Depending on the purpose, several types of signs have been created and are used.
Copy signs that reproduce various phenomena
reality, but they themselves are not this reality.
(Photo).
Signs-signs that carry some information about pre-
mete (patient's temperature).
Signs-signals containing information under the contract
wariness about the subjects they inform about (school
call).
Signs-symbols that carry information about the subject based on
allocating from it some properties or features (state
national coat of arms).
language signs.
All the many signs and sign systems that exist in human society, constitute the culture of this or that time, this or that society. Each sign contains some meaning that was expressed and fixed in this sign by previous generations. This implies that any sign has its own form and content. The content of the signs is a complex, multifaceted, concentrated information for those who are able to read it. At the same time, the culture of each society can exist only thanks to the continuity of generations. However, cultural memory cannot be transmitted genetically. All knowledge, skills, habits, forms of behavior, traditions and customs live only in the system of culture. Therefore, the preservation of culture is associated with the need to preserve and transmit cultural information to each generation. Its transmission is carried out through the transfer of signs from one generation to another, as well as from one culture to another. Interaction of cultures is vital important role for the existence and development of the culture of any nation.
Numerous studies of issues of interaction between cultures indicate that the content and results of diverse intercultural contacts largely depend on the ability of their participants to understand each other and reach agreement, which is mainly determined by the ethnic culture of each of the interacting parties. , the psychology of peoples, the values prevailing in a particular culture. In cultural anthropology, these relationships between different cultures are called "intercultural communication", which means the exchange between two or more cultures and the products of their activities, carried out in various forms. This exchange can take place both in politics and in interpersonal communication of people in everyday life, family, informal contacts.
Contacts and relationships between cultures arise as a result of various reasons, which can be listed for quite a long time. In modern conditions rapid development intercultural communication takes place in various spheres of human life: tourism, sports, military cooperation, personal contacts, etc. The social, political and economic changes on a global scale led to an unprecedented migration of peoples, their resettlement, mixing and clash. As a result of these processes, more and more people are crossing the cultural barriers that used to separate them. New cultural phenomena are being formed, the boundaries between one's own and another's are being erased. The resulting changes cover almost all forms of life and receive ambiguous assessment in different cultures. These estimates are most often determined by the characteristics of the interacting cultures.
There are significant differences between cultures in how and what means of communication are used when communicating with representatives of other cultures. So, representatives of individualist Western cultures more attention is paid to the content of the message, to what is said, and not to how it is said. Therefore, their communication low degree depends on the context. Such cultures are characterized cognitive style information exchange, in which significant demands are placed on fluency of speech, accuracy in the use of concepts and logic of statements. Representatives of such cultures tend to develop their speech skills. This type of communication is typical of American culture. Most Americans in
26 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the IBC
Everyday communication uses small talk (short conversation): they ask each other questions that they do not expect to receive answers (“How are you?”, “Beautiful day, isn't it?” Etc.). The individualism of American culture forces them to speak clearly and clearly, to put forward their arguments at once in order to provoke a response from the opponent.
Conversely, in collectivist cultures oriental type when transmitting information, people tend to more pay attention to the context of the message, to who and in what situation communication takes place. This feature is manifested in giving special significance to the form of the message, to how it is said, and not to what is said. On this basis, communication in the conditions of Eastern cultures is characterized by vagueness and vagueness of speech, an abundance of approximate forms of utterance (such as “probably”, “maybe”, etc.). That is why the Japanese in business relationships usually talk "around the bush", talking for a long time about everything, but not about the main subject of communication. This strategy allows them to better understand the intentions of partners in order to tune in to main topic, or resist, without dropping the dignity of their partners. A large number of observations and studies in the field of intercultural communication allows us to conclude that its content and results also largely depend on the values, norms of behavior, attitudes, etc. prevailing in any culture. In the interrelation of culture and communication, their mutual influence on each other occurs. For example, each culture has its own ideas about politeness. In many Arab countries it is considered extremely impolite to ask a partner in a transaction about something if you are not sure that he can give an accurate answer. If the Americans say what they think directly, then it is important for the Japanese or the Arabs not to let their partner blush because he was asked something that he could not answer. Therefore, in Japan, as well as throughout the Arab world, it is considered extremely impolite to say “no” to someone unequivocally. If a person does not want to accept the invitation, then he replies that he does not know, because he has a lot to do. In the West, they also try to avoid specific answers in this way, but there, more often than not, specific answers are given and expected. In Asian-; In some cultures, such direct behavior can cause a relationship to end. But in straight American
Chapter 1. What is culture? 27
There is a cultural taboo against naming another person's physical imperfections. This is probably due to the constant desire of Americans to always be in great shape and look young.
Voluntarily or involuntarily, throughout their lives, people are part of certain socio-cultural groups. Each such group has its own microculture (subculture) as part of the mother culture and has both similarities and differences with it. Differences can be caused by social sentiments, education, traditions and other reasons. Subcultures are based on the mutual self-perception of their members, determined by racial, religious, geographical, linguistic, age, gender, labor, family affiliation of their members. And depending on this kind of belonging, they adhere to one or another model of behavior. The determining factor in communicative behavior can be belonging to any public organization, which has its own norms, rules, principles and models of communication. Each organization has its own set of traditions and rules that directly or indirectly prescribe to the members of this organization forms of communication with each other and with representatives of other organizations. For example, an organization that puts its reputation in the first place will experience some discomfort when dealing with an organization for which other characteristics are more important. In this case, organizational norms have a great influence on the style of communication of members of the organization, their conceit, the effectiveness of interaction with representatives of other organizations.
Culture not only influences communication, but is itself influenced by it. Most often this happens in the process of inculturation, when a person in one form or another of communication learns the norms and values of culture. We study our culture in various ways, using various sources for this. For example, an American kid whose grandfather explains that if you are introduced to someone, you need to shake hands, forms his own culture. An Indian child growing up in a home where women eat after men also shapes their culture. The Jewish teenager who serves as a guide in the Jewish Passover ceremony assimilates the culture of his people and at the same time Participates in its development and preservation. French boy who
28 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of MKSCH
Roma is given cider at dinner, also learns the traditions of his cult-! ry. Little Egyptian who is being explained that behavior! his uncle brought shame to the family, shapes the values and norms! of his behaviour. Thus, by reading, listening, watching, exchanging opinions and news with acquaintances or strangers, we influence our culture, and this influence becomes i - | possible through some form of communication. I
L2. Culture and behavior
Human behavior is the product of millions of years of evolution, it is both genetic and conditioned by our nature. belonging to any group, gender, age, personal life experience, level of education, and many other factors. Despite these differences, people in all cultures enter 1 among themselves into the most different relationships in the context of which they I meet, exchange opinions, perform some actions, etc. The meaning of each specific act often needs to be understood, because it does not always lie on the surface, but most often | hidden in traditional ideas about what is normal, which are also different in different cultures and sociocultural groups. 1 This difference can be traced on the example of a common in | | many cultures have a tradition of exchanging gifts.
Many German entrepreneurs recall that during their first 3 contacts with partners from Asian countries, they were given various gifts, which were noted in the protocols as souvenirs. Nira. German businessmen, as a rule, are not ready to accept | gifts, especially at the first contact, and even from completely 1 strangers. Most often, these gifts served as the basis | | for conclusions about the selfish motives of the behavior of partners. The question of the role of gifts for representatives of Asian culture had a completely different meaning. According to their ideas, business separation should be based primarily on interpersonal \ relationships. Therefore, a long-term relationship in the future! Start by building strong personal relationships. For this first the partner is thoroughly checked for reliability and correspondence of value ideas. As soon as it becomes clear that the partners are suitable for each other and have long-term interests, the initially established relationship is maintained.
Glava 1 . What is culture? 29
Via through a continuous exchange of signals and a kind of "investment" (gifts, souvenirs). According to the Asian model of behavior, the establishment of personal relationships in business contacts is seen as a necessary condition for them. For the success of business contacts in the Asian model, along with personal relationships, it is necessary to form a system of mutual obligations (you - to me, I - to you). It is important as a prerequisite for each subsequent stage of communication. Such a system of relations should be created at the very beginning of business relations. Therefore, it cannot be the last link of communication, as in the West. In the West, they try to avoid any action that may look like a bribe. Invitations and gifts are considered unwanted influence or even an attempt to bribe. The Western model of business behavior is based on a strict and categorical ethics that does not allow any exceptions.
In the above example, two opposing value systems confront each other: the Western desire for autonomy and the Asian system of mutual dependence. While in the Western culture of entrepreneurship, the behavior of participants is determined by the requirements of economic rationality, in Asia, on the contrary, relationships of mutual dependence are of decisive importance. This example shows that there is no universal "normal behavior". The rules of the culture to which we belong are also relative and have no universal validity. To understand the behavior of a representative of another culture, you need to find out what behavior is traditional for this culture. In case of incompatibility of the rules of conduct of another person and your own, it is necessary to start developing general rules of conduct.
History knows a huge number of facts when attempts by different cultures to establish mutual contacts and relationships ended unsuccessfully. Most often, failures were due to personal reasons, the shortcomings of the other side, or simply a linguistic misunderstanding. Cultural differences were rarely cited as a reason for communication failure. This is explained by the fact that causes of this kind most often remain hidden from the interacting parties.
The fact is that the behavior of people in the process of communication is determined by a number of factors. varying degrees significance and influence. Firstly, this is due to the peculiarity of the mechanism
30 Chapter I . MKfj
Enculturation, according to which the development of the human code! of one's native culture is carried out simultaneously on both the conscious and unconscious levels. In the first case, etD occurs through socialization through education and howl! food, and in the second - the process of mastering by a person his cul! Tours happen spontaneously, under the influence of various everyday life! situations and circumstances. Moreover, this part of human culture,! as show special studies, is no less significant and important in his life and behavior than conscious! part. In this respect, culture can be compared to a drifting iceberg, which has only! a small part, and the main part of the iceberg is hidden under water. This invisible part of our culture is located mainly in the subconscious and manifests itself only when extraordinary, unusual situations arise during contacts with other cultures or their representatives. The subconscious perception of culture is of great importance for communication, because if! the behavior of communicants is based on it, then it becomes especially difficult to force the participants in communication to create other frames of perception. They are not able to consciously determine the process of perception of another culture.
The image of the iceberg allows us to visually understand that most J models of our behavior, which are products of culture, I apply automatically, just as we automatically perceive the phenomena of other cultures, without thinking about the mechanisms of this perception. For example, in American cul-1. women smile more often than men; this type of behavior was learned unconsciously and became a habit. To this day, 1 Jews, while reading the Torah, lean back, imitating the posture of a camel rider. This manner arose many centuries ago, its meaning has long been lost, but the movement itself remains and is transmitted from generation to generation as an element of culture. Many of these patterns of behavior are unconscious in both origin and expression.
Second, no less an important factor that determines the communicative behavior of people is the situation that Hall I defined as "cultural points". It consists in the fact that pain- | Most people regard their own culture as the center and measure of all things. A normal person usually does not realize that his patterns of behavior and ways of perceiving are colored by his own
Glawa 1. What is culture? 31
Svennoy culture and that people of other cultures have different points of view, value systems and norms.
The everyday behavior of most people is characterized by naive realism. They proceed from the fact that the world is the way they imagine it, and consists of countless things, objects, people, events that are taken for granted, which are perceived as natural and normal. As a rule, people are not aware of the relativity of their worldview. Often this gives rise to the belief that one's own culture is superior to others. Then other cultures are underestimated compared to their own. Everything that deviates from one's own norms, habits, types of behavior is considered base, ugly, immoral. Such a consciousness of the superiority of "one's own" forms a corresponding model of arrogant behavior with a dismissive attitude towards other cultures.
Thirdly, the behavior of people in the process of communication is also determined by the environment and circumstances of communication. Our actions are not the same in different situations. The location of a person (audience, restaurant, office) imposes a certain line of behavior. Consciously or unconsciously, we adhere to the appropriate rules of conduct adopted in a given culture. For example, forms of behavior in religious temples in different cultures differ quite significantly. So, in Mexico, men and women go to church together and stand silently during the service. In Iran, on the contrary, men and women do not walk together and sing psalms during the service. The circumstances of communication also dictate their requirements for the behavior of the participants. Contacts between people can occur for a variety of reasons: awards, production meetings, sports games, dances, memorial services. In each case, circumstances oblige to behave differently. For example, for one culture, silence and solitude are the norm at a wedding, while in Jewish, Russian and many other cultures this event is accompanied by loud music, dancing and fun.
Fourth, communicative behavior is determined by the amount of time and part of the day in which communication takes place. When there is not enough time, people tend to end the conversation and end the contact in order to do something more important and necessary. In American culture, the time factor is of particular importance. All actions and deeds are strictly scheduled there.
32 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the IWC]
In terms of time and for each of them, its corresponding quantity is allocated. As Hall observed, "For Americans, time management is a measure of how people relate to each other, how important things are to them, and an indication of their position in society." Each case of communication occurs at some time of the day, which also affects its character. In order to understand this, try to answer the question for yourself: will you react the same way to a phone call at 2 o'clock in the afternoon and at 2 o'clock in the morning?
Practical intercultural communication on individual level represents a collision different views to a world in which the partners are not aware of differences in views, consider j their vision of the world to be “normal”, see the world from their own point of view. The behavior of communicants is characterized by a situation where something taken for granted on one side meets something taken for granted on the other. At first, as it often happens, an open misunderstanding is revealed, that is, the realization that “something is wrong here,” that opinion and understanding do not coincide. At the same time, one’s “something for granted” is not questioned, but an ethnocentric position is taken and stupidity, ignorance or malicious intent is attributed to the partner.
And at the same time, each person can probably remember situations from his life when there was communication with other people! clear, understandable and easy. This is communication with loved ones, with close friends, when everything happened by itself, without tension and thought. In such situations, there is a natural desire to understand the other person, not to offend him, not to do something wrong, etc. This type of communication and understanding of a person is called empathy. Empathy is based on the ability to put oneself in the place of another, look at everything through his eyes, feel his condition and take all this into account in his behavior and actions. She assumes greater sensitivity, sensitivity to the state of the partner. Each type of communication is characterized by a special relationship of partners, their focus on each other. In this regard, the specificity of intercultural communication lies in the desire to understand what the partner is thinking about, the reasons for his feelings, his point of view and way of thinking. Therefore, in intercultural communication, in order to understand the communicative behavior of representatives of another culture, it is necessary to consider his within the framework of their culture, and not their own, that is, there should be more empathy than sympathy.
IfMBA 1- What is culture? 33
Sympathy has become widespread in a variety of forms.
communication, and it implies that a person mentally becomes
puts himself in the place of another. But with sympathy, they use their own
own ways of interpreting the behavior of others.
According to Bennett's theory, if we follow the "golden rule
morality" ("do with people as you would like them to
acted with you") when communicating with carriers of other cultures,
we thereby show sympathy, because we consider
acceptability of their behavior from their point of view.
The specificity of intercultural communication lies in the fact that the empathic approach becomes decisive in it, i.e. mental, intellectual and emotional penetration into inner world another person, in his feelings, thoughts, expectations and aspirations. Empathy is based on the assumption that in the same circumstances all people experience the same feelings and sensations and this allows them to understand other points of view, ideas and various cultural phenomena. On this basis, a person’s ability to imagine himself in the place of another person arises, to accept his worldview, to understand his feelings, desires, actions. Here everything is based on the experience of another person, and not our own. In this regard, Bennett offers an alternative to the "golden rule of morality" - the "platinum rule", which expresses the essence of the empathic approach is: “do to others as they would do to themselves.” There is no need to prove that the use of sympathy in interaction with representatives of other cultures inevitably leads to misunderstanding.
I desire to understand the problem cultural differences from within and find the necessary ways and means for mutual understanding dramatically increases the likelihood that understanding will arise between partners. To do this, you only need to remember and adhere to the main characteristics of empathy:
listen carefully to what is being said to you;
seek to understand how other people feel;
have a sincere interest in what should
tell others;
show empathy for the needs of others;
have the ability to understand the point of view of another.
ui hu intercultural communication
34^_ Chapter I . 1
Yam each other. One of these is the tuning method that many people often intuitively use when trying to understand the state of another person. It lies in the fact that you need to try to get as close as possible to your partner through 1-by-1! imitation of him outward behavior: take a similar pose to him; I adopt his characteristic in this moment rate of speech, etc!| If it is possible to do this, then his experiences are revealed and a feeling of understanding of the partner arises.
1.3. Cultural norms and cultural values
1.3.1. The essence of cultural values and their place in intercultural communication
From early childhood, every child masters his native language! and assimilates the culture to which he belongs. This happens in the first process of communication with loved ones and strangers, in the home environment, with the help of verbal and non-verbal ways about-| scheniya. In everyday life practice, a person himself determines usefulness or harmfulness for himself. various items and I phenomena of the surrounding world in terms of good and evil, truth and | error, just and unjust. Category valuable-Schsti formed in human mind by comparing different! phenomena. Making sense of the world, a person decides for himself what is for him! seems important in life and what is not, what is essential and what is not essential, what he can do without and what he cannot do without. As a result of this, his value attitude to the world is formed, in accordance with which all objects and phenomena are considered! them according to the criterion of importance and suitability for his life. Each! the object receives its assessment and represents a certain value! ness, on the basis of which the corresponding to it is formed! relation. As a result, a common value attitude of a person to the world is formed, in which certain phenomena of life! people have for them certain meaning and significance.
The role of values in the life of both an individual and society as a whole is extremely great. According to them pro-! comes the selection of information in the process of communication, are established! social relations, affects are formed (emotions and feelings
ChAva L What is culture? 35
Sva), interaction skills, etc. Thus, value is not a thing, but a relation to a thing, phenomenon, event, process, etc. Values have great value in any culture, insofar as they determine the relationship of a person with nature, society, the immediate environment and himself. Based on this understanding, K. Klakhon and F. Strodbeck defined values as “complex, grouped principles in a certain way, giving harmony and direction to various motives of human thinking and activity in the course of solving common human problems” ( Kluckhon C, Strodbeck F.; 157).
In the human mind, there are many values at the same time, so it is quite justified to talk about a system of values, since values do not exist chaotically, they are ordered in a certain way in relation to each other. Mastering the values of the surrounding world, a person relies on the traditions, norms, and customs that have been established in his culture and gradually forms a system of fundamental and generally accepted values that serve as his guide in life. On this basis, each culture develops its own system of values, reflecting its specific position in the world. The value system is usually a hierarchy in which values are arranged in ascending order of importance. Thanks to this system, the integrity of this culture, its unique appearance, the necessary degree of order and predictability are ensured.
If we consider value as the significance of something for a person and society, then this concept is filled with subjective content, since there are no phenomena in the world that are equally significant for all people without exception. There are values of a personal nature, values inherent in a certain gender or age, values of any large and small groups of people, different eras and states, and so on, up to universal human values. For this reason, it is customary in science to systematize all cultural values into two main groups. Firstly, it is a collection of outstanding works of intellectual, artistic and religious creativity. This group also includes outstanding architectural structures, unique handicrafts, archaeological and ethnographic rarities. Secondly, the principles of coexistence of people that justified themselves and proved their effectiveness in practice were classified as cultural values: mores, customs,
36 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundationsMKl|
Stereotypes of behavior and consciousness, assessments, opinions, interpretation | tions, etc., which lead to the integration of society, to the growth of mutual! understanding between people, their complimentary, solidarity! tee, mutual aid, etc. Both groups of cultural values in practice constitute the "core" of any culture and do not determine it! repeatable character.
In the process of intercultural contacts, a huge difference is found between how the same values are perceived! with people of different cultures. Among the vast number of diverse perceptions, however, one can single out a group of such! which coincide both in the nature of assessments and in content. Ta| what kind of values are called universal, or ob! human. Their universal character is determined by the fact! that the main features of such values are based on biological what nature of man and on the universal properties of the social mutual! mode of action. For example, there is not a single culture in the world where | murder, lying and theft would be positively evaluated. In every! Every culture has its own limits of tolerance etsh | phenomena, but their overall negative assessment is unambiguous.
Considering culture as a system of values is logical! the question of the forms of their existence and spheres of distribution arises! niya. In cultural anthropology, it is customary to distinguish four foundations! other spheres of cultural values: way of life, ideology, religion and xyl pre-ancient culture. In the context of intercultural communication! From these spheres, the most important is the sphere of life, which is historically the first sphere of the emergence and existence of cultural values.
Despite the existence of ideology, religion and art, culture was still in existence today and remains fundamental for the formation! personality, since this formation begins in childhood! state, when a person is not capable of mastering the cultural values of ideology, religion and art. The specificity of everyday culture lies in the fact that it develops those values that are of fundamental importance for intercultural communication. Life is the guardian historical memory culture, because it is much more stable than ideology and pel-league and changes much more slowly than them. Therefore, it is the everyday culture to a greater extent contains the values of "eternal", universal and ethnic. In addition, it is precisely everyday values that are the basis for the existence of ideology.
ChAva 1 . What is culture? 37
Religions and arts. The norms and values of everyday culture are self-sufficient. This means that, using only the values of everyday culture, a person can have stable guidelines for life in the conditions of the corresponding culture. An additional value to everyday culture in intercultural communication is given by its spontaneous character. The values of everyday culture are born in the process of everyday practice and have a utilitarian orientation. Therefore, they do not need substantiation and proof, the carriers of this culture perceive them as natural and self-evident. They turn out to be quite enough to introduce a person to culture.
Cultural values, as already noted, in the life of every person have different meaning. Therefore, some people are adherents of the values of the collective, while others are the values of individualism. Thus, a person in the United States first of all considers himself an individual, and only then a member of society, while in many other countries, such as Japan, people first of all consider themselves a member of society and only then an individual. When people with such different orientations enter into communication, especially business communication, situations of misunderstanding always arise. For example, when conducting business negotiations with the Japanese, the Americans appoint an employee responsible for their preparation and conduct, and if the negotiations are successful, this employee will be rewarded. In a Japanese company, this is impossible; collective responsibility for the results of any business reigns there. Therefore, in Japan, no one is ever singled out from the general mass.
What values are important to people and have great influence, and what are not taken into account depends on the culture. Their structure and significance determine the originality and characteristics of culture. Most of features of one's own culture, as a rule, are not recognized and taken for granted. Awareness of the values of one's culture comes only when meeting with representatives of other cultures, when different cultures interact and differences in their value orientations are revealed. It is in these cases that situations of misunderstanding, confusion, impotence and irritation arise, evocative resentment, anger, alienation, insults.
It is possible to eliminate situations of misunderstanding and achieve positive results in intercultural contacts only with the help of
38 ChapterI. Cultural and anthropological foundations of the MKK
cr^ ■
Schue knowledge of the characteristics of the value orientations of the partner. This knowledge helps to predict his behavior, goals, aspirations,! desires; it ensures success in communication even with strangers*. For example, an American student boy met* an Arab girl who came with her brother to study in the USA. Suppose a young man knows the values of Arab society, then he knows that an Arab man considers it his duty to protect the virtue of his sister. In a relationship with a girl, there should not be a hint of possible sexual contact in his behavior. If an American youth does not know the values of Arab society, he will not hide the fact that he likes a girl, and by his frank hints in the presence of his brother will inadvertently offend him.
1.3.2. Cultural norms and their role in culture
The life of a person in a society of his own kind is always subordinate certain rules which constitute an essential part of his way of life. In accordance with these rules, any culture has its own idea of "bad" and "good" behavior. In each culture, a system of obligations of the Self and prohibitions is formed, which prescribe how a person is obliged to act in the Self of a given situation, or indicate in no case something not to do. All this means that communication between people is clothed in various forms, subject to certain conventions and laws. Various ways human communication are also dictated by cultural norms that prescribe how about<оШ to communicate or address each other younger and older in age or rank, men and women, law-abiding citizens and criminals, natives and foreigners, etc. At the same time, official laws often play a lesser social role than rules and prohibitions, which have developed largely spontaneously.
Almost from the very beginning of human cultural activity, there is a need to regulate his behavior and communication with other people. The need for this is due to the fact that I am the material products of culture that are created by people JB only show the limits of their capabilities, but they do not determine how people should act in various relationships with each other. Therefore, along with the creation of cultural values, requirements for the behavior of human beings began to form at the same time.
ChAva 1. What is culture? __ 39
Lovek, which regulated both the distribution of these values and various relationships between people. Initially, they were rules governing human behavior, later in science they were called norms. Initially, norms served as pointers to where, how, when and what people were supposed to do in everyday life. Various norms. had varying degrees of influence and significance in people's behavior, and those that gained the most influence became generally accepted.
Throughout the history of mankind, various cultures have created a huge number of the most diverse norms of behavior and communication. Depending on the method, nature, purpose, scope, boundaries of distribution, severity of execution, the entire variety of behavioral norms was divided into the following types: traditions, customs, rituals, laws, mores.
One of the first regulators of human behavior was manners, which were intended to regulate the daily behavior of people, ways of realizing values, evaluate the various forms of their relationships, etc. Of all cultural norms, mores are the most mobile and dynamic, since they are called upon to regulate current events and actions. Morals are moral assessments of the admissibility of certain forms of both one's own behavior and the behavior of other people. Under the influence of this type of cultural norms are such forms of behavior that exist in a given society and can be subjected to moral assessment. Due to this nature, morals do not imply their immediate practical implementation, and the responsibility for their violation is generally much less than in all other norms. This responsibility is relative, since the punishment for violation of morals can be different - from disapproving glances to the death penalty, but the most common punishment in this case is verbal reprimand. For example, if you slurp loudly during dinner in society, then perhaps only disapproving glances of people who hear you will be directed in your direction. But in some cultures, on the contrary, it is considered the norm to “sip” your soup, and this manner does not cause any reactions from others.
Among other types of cultural norms, the most widespread and influential are customs- generally accepted patterns of action, prescribing rules of conduct for pre-
40_ Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the IWC !
The rulers of one culture. The influence of customs mainly extends to the area of private life of people. According to their purpose, they are designed to regulate relationships and communications of an external nature, that is, relations with loved ones and distant relatives, with acquaintances and neighbors, public behavior a person outside his own home, household etiquette with acquaintances and strangers, etc.
The regulatory role of customs lies in the fact that they prescribe strictly established behavior in certain situations. Customs arose in ancient times as traditional forms of behavior, thanks to which cultural stability was ensured. The whole society was interested in such a role, and it sought to preserve and cultivate them. Therefore, many customs have remained unchanged for centuries.
Each culture has its own system of customs, which extends to all aspects of everyday relationships. One or another custom is always associated with the corresponding specific situation. Therefore, the nature and main features of customs correspond to the way of life of society and its social class. \ structure. For this reason, the same, at first glance, common ■ teas in different cultures acquire completely different content. Examples here are cultural differences 1 in relation to wedding ceremonies and sexual intercourse.
The wedding ceremony involves many forms of manifestation. I Today in North America it is quite natural for a young man to meet a young girl, they fall in love and get married. Undoubtedly, such a wedding is not unusual; many states require a marriage certificate, and a simple marriage ceremony is inevitable, but even compared to other cultures, this is the bare minimum of control. It is customary among many nations for the heads of families to conclude a marriage contract. Both among the ancient Greeks and until recently in China, the bride and groom did not have the right to see each other before the wedding. In Western society, with its ideal of romantic love, a girl would be horrified at one thoughts of being sold to a future husband, not having the right to take a personal part in this decision. In other cultures, on the other hand, sale bride is considered the norm: relatives set a price for bride which the other party is willing to pay. According to the customs of some peoples of Africa, a girl cannot go out on the street with her future husband before he buys her out.
Gmba 1 . What is culture? 41
The customs and norms of sexual relations are very diverse. Young people in Samoa enjoy freedom and engage in numerous sexual relationships, of which only one leads to marriage. The majority of the male population of India, as well as in some Western countries, adhere to a double morality: girls and women must remain "clean", while boys and men have the right to cheat on them. This extends to the inhabitants of Samoa, for whom sex is more of an art, and to Christians, who, until recently, considered unworthy not only sex, but also marriage.
During World War II, it was widely believed among American soldiers that English girls were extremely accessible. Ironically, for their part, the English girls claimed that the American soldiers were too passionate. Margaret Mead's research led to an interesting explanation for this controversy. It turned out that the relationship between couples - from dating to sexual relations - both in England and America go through about 30 different degrees of development, but the sequence of these steps in each culture is different. So, for example, in America, kissing occurs quite early, somewhere in the 5th step, while in the English it happens much later, somewhere in the 25th step. The Englishwoman, whom the soldier kissed, did not feel deceived; she intuitively considered such a relationship right for herself, but she had to decide whether to break off the relationship at that moment or to give herself to her partner. If she decided on the latter, then the American, for whom such a sequence of relationships is familiar, regarded the girl's behavior as accessibility. The solution of such a conflict in relations by the partners themselves is impossible in practice, since such culturally conditioned forms of behavior are largely unconscious. A feeling is born in the mind: the partner is behaving incorrectly.
The formation of various regulators of human behavior went simultaneously with the development and complication of his relationship with the outside world. With the accumulation of cultural and social experience, stable forms of behavior began to emerge that prescribed the most rational actions in the relationship of various groups of people in appropriate situations. Having a rational character and repeatedly
42 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the IWC ,
Faithful in practice, they began to be passed on from generation to | | generation, which gave them a traditional character and gave rise to new kind of cultural norms - tradition. Initially, this word meant "tradition", emphasizing the hereditary nature of the relevant cultural phenomena. Currently appointment traditions is reduced to the regulation of interpersonal and inter-group relations, as well as the transfer of social experience from generation to generation. In fact, tradition is a kind of 1 oral "cultural texts", accumulating a set of patterns of social behavior, established forms of social organization, regulation and communication.
Traditions take place in various areas of human life. Taken together, they represent a stable system of human behavior in various spheres of life and in different situations, while fulfilling their special role. The main feature of the traditions is the emphasis on the use of such patterns and behaviors, following which is a necessary condition for the social life of every person. This type of social regulation excludes the element of behavior motivation: the norms that make up the tradition must be carried out automatically.
The problem of tolerant consciousness and tolerance is, first of all, the problem of interethnic relations, as well as the relationship between representatives of different cultures. Therefore, the factor plays a special role here. intercultural understanding in all the depth of its content and at the same time in those special aspects that are characteristic of representatives of cultures of different ethnic groups. In this situation, the study of the role and significance of the factors of intercultural understanding assumes an orientation both to the general principles and components of the foundations of intercultural understanding in general, and to its ethnic specificity.
The term "intercultural understanding" has not yet received a stable and generally accepted meaning. Nevertheless, the initial interpretation of this phenomenon as the interaction of interpersonal relations with different traditions, different orientations covers both the established global cultural and historical forms of relations between different societies, and small features of the behavior of individual individuals.
Intercultural understanding as an element of intercultural interaction assumes different levels of its manifestation, for example, at the level of understanding by one people of the culture of another, i.e. at the level of society, when historically established relations allow contact not only on the basis of strict necessity, but also on the basis of cultural closeness or understanding. However, although cultural understanding involves a cultural group or society, it is based on inter-individual understanding. In this regard, it is important to take into account a number of main features of cultural understanding. It is in this plan that we will consider some important characteristics of behavior and its structural features.
A person's perception of the surrounding world and the interpretation of incoming information occur selectively and are carried out on the basis of previous experience. The cultural and life experience of each person is individual and unique, and for this reason people are simply not able to understand the same events in the same way and give them the same assessment. Receiving information from the environment, a person automatically systematizes and arranges it in a form convenient for himself, subdividing it into appropriate categories: groups, classes, types. Such categorization helps to simplify reality, make it more backward and accessible. In addition, with the help of categorization, it becomes possible to structure knowledge about people and the world around them, describing figurative behaviors and characterizing them.
When perceiving and evaluating the surrounding world, a person is guided by his own ideas about beauty, friendship, freedom, justice, etc. These ideas depend on his previous life experience, personal interests, upbringing, etc. Depending on the strength of the influence of these factors The world opens up to a person from different sides: from the most favorable for his life to those that threaten his existence. Of the huge number of factors of this kind, scientists identify four main ones, which mainly determine a benevolent or wary (tolerant or intolerant) attitude of a person to reality:
1) the first impression factor,
2) superiority factor,
3) attraction factor,
4) factor of attitude towards a partner
To develop tolerance first impression factor is of great importance, since the image of a partner, which begins to form immediately upon meeting, becomes the regulator of all subsequent attitudes towards him. Communication with a stranger is based on the installation to understand him as accurately as possible, which requires the use of certain knowledge and skills. In the process of communication, one's own cultural norms are usually taken as criteria for understanding. Relying on subjective ideas about "how it should be", appropriate conclusions are drawn, assessments of the results and consequences of communication are given. This raises the question of the degree of adequacy of these conclusions and assessments of reality.
In this context, the first impression is necessary in order to form the right attitude towards the interaction partner in order to initially make communication effective. In each case, communication is built differently depending on the category of partner, which ultimately determines the practical side of communication. The choice of communication technique is dictated by the characteristics of the partner, which allow him to be attributed to some category, type or group. At the beginning of communication, the focus of perception is those signs of another person that make it possible to determine his belonging to a particular category in accordance with the characteristics of the communication situation.
Note that the first impression creates only the basis for the formation of one or another type of attitude towards another person, which, however, turns out to be insufficient for its final and stable assessment. In constant communication, a deeper and more objective perception of a partner becomes important. In this situation, it starts superiority factor, according to which the status of the communication partner is determined. Special studies by foreign psychologists show that two sources of information are needed to determine this status:
A person's clothing, including all the attributes of his appearance, including insignia, glasses, hairstyle, jewelry, etc .;
Manner of behavior (how a person sits, walks, talks and looks during communication).
In one way or another, a person’s clothes and behavior contain information that indicates his belonging to a particular social group or his orientation towards some group. Various elements of clothing and behavior serve as signs of belonging to a particular group both for the wearer of clothing and the author of the behavior, and for the people around him. The correct understanding of signs of this kind largely determines the nature of the attitude towards their carrier.
In former times, this factor was so important that people of a certain professional status or social position not only could, but had to wear certain clothes. In many cultures, there were both unwritten norms and strict regulations about what and who can or cannot wear. In China, for example, until the 20th century, the most common clothing was a robe. There, the social position of the owner was coded by style and color. So, only the emperor could wear a yellow robe, elderly dignitaries could wear brown or white, heroes could wear red and blue. The students wore blue robes, the peasants wore white, the poor wore black.
At present, when such strict prescriptions and restrictions have disappeared in almost all cultures, the role of clothing in coding the social position of a person still remains significant. One can probably talk about the existence of an unofficial symbolic system of clothing and external attributes, the elements of which are at the same time signs that determine the formation of the first impression of a person's status. Three indicators are the most important here: price, silhouette and color. All these features are unconsciously fixed by the human mind and affect the assessment of the status, and consequently, the type of relationship in the form of superiority or equality.
Relations of superiority or equality are also determined by the behavior of partners. Each person, by the manner of behavior, can determine his equality or inequality in communication with another person. The fact is that in the process of communication, interest in a partner, reactions to information and Actions, mood, state, etc. are manifested to one degree or another. From the outside, these signs look like arrogance, impudence. Self-confidence, etc. Such behavior can be perceived in different ways, but almost always indicates a certain superiority. This is also evidenced by a number of different small details of communication: a relaxed posture, the way the partner looks out the window or examines his nails, etc.
Especially often, the factor of superiority can be observed when a person finds himself in a situation that he does not understand, in which he is poorly oriented, and therefore falls into a certain dependence on his communication partners. In this case, a person who easily navigates the situation, the “master” of the situation, will necessarily behave more confidently, independently and, therefore, demonstrate elements of superiority in his behavior.
Various psychological studies have reliably established that there are real grounds for the perception and understanding of a person by his appearance. They prove that almost all the details of a person's external appearance can carry information about his emotional state, attitude towards people around him, about his attitude towards himself, about the state of his feelings. All these signs show the action attraction factor.
In its essence, the attractiveness factor has the same social nature as the superiority factor, and hence, a mechanism of action similar to it. Therefore, signs of attractiveness should be sought not in the shape of the eyes or hair color, but in the social meaning of this or that feature, which serves as a sign of attractiveness. Each nation has its own canons of beauty that differ from each other and types of appearance approved or disapproved by society. In this regard, attractiveness is nothing more than the degree of approximation to the corresponding type of appearance, which is most approved by the sociocultural group to which the person belongs.
The most influential feature of the attractiveness factor is the physique of a person. In anthropology, it is customary to distinguish three main body types:
1) endomorphic(picnic) - overweight people;
2) mesomorphic - slim, strong, muscular physique;
3) ectomorphic(asthenic) - tall, thin, fragile figures.
Numerous experiments and observations have established that body type is associated with certain psychological traits. Gak, "picnics" are usually more sociable, prone to comfort, changeable in mood. "Athletes" are characterized by high vitality, love of adventure, and "asthenics" are mostly more restrained, silent, calm.
In the context of the issue of a tolerant or intolerant attitude towards a person, all these types are not of decisive importance. Their influence lies only in what type of physique is socially approved, and which does not receive a positive assessment. Attractiveness is determined by the socially approved type and the effort expended to obtain it. At first glance, a statement of this kind seems somewhat absurd, since the body type is set by nature and does not change. However, it is estimated differently, for example, a fat man who does not hide this, and a fat man who strives to look fit. Here, the sign of attractiveness is the effort expended on approaching the social ideal. The attractiveness factor is the person's efforts to look socially approved and the desire to be assigned to a group with socially approved characteristics.
Consideration of the issue of intercultural understanding and its role in a tolerant or intolerant attitude towards other people could be limited to considering only the factors described. However, this would not give an objective picture, since it is quite obvious that the importance of the attitude of the communication partner towards us is also important here. Attitude Factor to us is manifested in the form of agreement or disagreement with us in the process of communication.
In the practice of communication, there are a large number of indirect signs of consent. This is a certain behavior of nodding, approving and encouraging, smiles and many other signs expressing the corresponding positions of a person. The main thing in their content is that they express an understanding of our position. The basis of this factor is the idea of the so-called subjective groups that do not exist in nature and are not determined by society, they exist only in our minds. For example, a person considers himself a smart, knowledgeable engineer, well versed in politics and football, happy in family life, etc. This is the same as referring to groups of smart people, knowledgeable engineers, experts in politics, football, etc.
In the formation of a tolerant or intolerant attitude towards another person, the action of the listed factors occurs constantly, but the role and significance of each of them in a particular situation is different. Hence, the perception of the same phenomena occurs each time in a special way. For this reason, the perception of the Self by a person and the surrounding world, and other people is selective. People and situations are perceived by individuals not absolutely adequately and not as they are described and evaluated by other observers, but most often as they are expected to be seen by these individuals. The most important factor governing this process is the degree of significance of the object for the perceiver.
As already noted, the perception and understanding of other people are formed through the influence of the cultural environment. The cultural social environment in which the formation and life of a person takes place plays a significant role in the way he perceives and understands the surrounding reality. The influence of the cultural determinant can be seen especially clearly in the process of communication belonging to different cultures. A significant number of gestures, sounds, types of behavior are interpreted by the carriers of different cultures not unambiguously: a person's cultural affiliation determines his interpretation of this or that fact. That is, with the perception of any element of culture, the process of understanding becomes more complicated. This is because our own culture gives us a certain direction in the perception of the world and thereby affects how information is interpreted and evaluated. For example, it is not difficult to notice differences within one's cultural group, while members of other cultures are often perceived as similar to each other. The result of this perception was the widespread expression "the face of Caucasian nationality." It can be said with certainty that by exposing large groups of people to the same influence, culture generalizes the same signs and forms of behavior of its bearers, making them similar to each other.
Intercultural German-Russian understanding
All of the above leads to the conclusion that a communication partner should be constantly perceived taking into account the culture in which he lives and which he is the bearer of. This requires a certain competence in tolerant behavior towards this partner. For example, the manner of greeting, for all its versatility, has different cultural connotations. In all cultures, greeting carries an important emotional and communicative load. It is through the form and nature of the greeting of his partner that the greeter determines the entire process of communication between carriers of different cultures.
In Germany, it is quite common to greet strangers with no intention of further communication. For example, a greeting can be heard in an elevator, although people there may not be familiar with each other. It is often customary to greet watchmen, neighbors, shop assistants, etc. Such greetings in Germany, usually accompanied by a smile, do not oblige the participants to further conversation. These greetings also do not imply farewell and, like a smile, serve only to demonstrate goodwill and lack of aggression to others. For Russians, a greeting, as a rule, involves further communication. Moreover, it obliges both partners to start a conversation. This is probably why it is not customary for Russians to greet each other "just like that." However, if this happens, then at the end of the conversation, a farewell is an obligatory element.
Saying goodbye is also an important and well-defined procedure in both cultures. Through the form and nature of parting, the parties determine the prospect of their future relationship. The very process of the "Russian" parting is noticeably longer than the "German" one. After the words of farewell, Russians may have an “afterword”, which, depending on the social distance between the interlocutors, contains almost everything - from greetings to friends and wishes of health to meaningful remarks for all occasions. The German farewell is accompanied by appropriate verbal expression and departure. At the same time, in both cultures, the choice of final words at the end of communication will be determined by the degree of trust and tolerance that exists between partners at the moment.
The form of representation of partners in both German and Russian cultures is determined by the specific situation of communication. Two main options are possible here: the first option provides that the interlocutors introduce themselves in the process of communication. The second option is practiced in a more formal setting. In this case, the submission is made by a third party. For example, in the Russian case of a meeting of official delegations, it is common to present participants according to their official position, regardless of gender and age. In the German case, this option is also possible, but it is more common for women to be presented first. In informal communication, both among Germans and Russians, the performance takes place imperceptibly, as if by the way. However, here there is one nuance to which attention should be paid. The process of communication between Russians creates a kind of “closed space” around the interlocutors. In order to get into it, a beginner who wants to take part in the conversation needs to make some efforts to enter into the communication process. In the German case, it is more practiced to involve the newcomer in the conversation by the participants in the conversation themselves. For example, a specific question may be asked to him, allowing him to introduce himself and “show himself”. Unlike the Russian version, in the German version, entering into the communication process is not entirely a problem for a beginner, but is considered as a kind of duty of other participants in communication.
In every culture, there are different types of invitations, which can be roughly divided into two categories: formal and informal. Despite the similarity in the wording of invitations in German and Russian cultures, their perception by Russians and Germans will differ significantly. Thus, Russians are inclined to take any invitation quite seriously and, having thanked for the invitation, they can really “drop in for a cup of tea” with their German partner after some time. It usually doesn't occur to Russians that such invitations are just a polite form of rapprochement.
In German culture, the actual meeting is discussed more specifically, with the date and time of the meeting, since unexpected visits from Germans are usually excluded. In contrast to the direct reaction of the Russians to the invitation, the German case is more complex. Most often, the Germans are rather skeptical about such invitations and prefer] it is better to wait a while, believing that the invitation, if it was made seriously, should follow a second time, in a more specific form. The specificity of the invitation is usually manifested in the discussion of the date and time of the meeting, acceptable to both partners. Therefore, the probability that a German colleague will come to visit you without calling first is practically zero.
Apologies in German and Russian cultures have approximately the same context. The main difference is that Russians are less likely to apologize for doing things. From the Russian point of view, the Germans ask for an apology even when it is quite possible to do without it. In German culture, an apology may be due to an involuntary touching of a neighbor, for example, on public transport or in a store. In this case, the first verbal reaction of the German will be an apology, while the Russian may simply not feel that he violated someone's personal space. In general, formal apologies are much more common in German culture than in Russian. This explains the misunderstanding of many Russians, who consider such politeness excessive. The Russian apology implies a more "serious" offense that needs to be made up for, and is much less often seen as a simple form of politeness.
Along with the noted differences, the formation of tolerant relations with representatives of other cultures is hindered by some misunderstandings caused by a mismatch in the interpretation of facial expressions, gestures, body movements, etc. The reason for misunderstanding these elements of behavior is the belief in a certain universality of non-verbal signals in each culture. This is a widespread mistake, since almost no body position, facial expressions or gestures carry exactly the same information in different cultures. German and Russian cultures are no exception to this fact. In the process of forming tolerant relations, some differences in non-verbal communication between Russians and Germans must be taken into account.
In this aspect, personal distance is the most visible parameter that makes it possible to trace the difference in the behavior of Germans and Russians, who perceive the surrounding space in completely different ways. For example, the intimate zone of the Germans extends to arm's length. If someone invades the intimate zone without consent, then this is automatically interpreted as disrespect. In Russia, the intimate zone is noticeably smaller. Most Russians can be in close proximity to each other without experiencing any discomfort. Therefore, many Russians note that the Germans have a fear of physical touch, when at close contact, for example, in public transport, the Germans begin to look around restlessly, which is caused by a violation of their intimate zone.
With a tolerant type of relationship, a smile plays perhaps the most prominent role among all kinds of signs of disposition towards an interlocutor in almost all European cultures. In Germany, the American habit of smiling on almost all occasions has become widely accepted. But a smile among Americans does not always express the actual state of a person, but only shows his disposition towards the interlocutor. The Germans are not typical American smiles. Smiling among the Germans is a rule of politeness, which emphasizes goodwill and lack of aggressiveness. It is not surprising that Russians, in whose culture it is generally not customary to smile “just like that,” are often perceived by Germans as gloomy and unfriendly people. Note that in Russian culture a smile has a completely different meaning, different from both European and American. A Russian smile is usually a natural reaction to some positive events in an individual's life. A person who smiles for no apparent reason is perceived by others as frivolous at best. At its worst, a smile can be seen as a defiant behavior (for men) or as an inviting sign (for women), so it can cause aggression or other inappropriate behavior. In fact, the lack of a smile in Russians is just as neutral as its presence in Germans.
Another source of misunderstanding can be the handshake, which seems to be the same in German and Russian cultures. Indeed, at first glance, the German handshake has much in common with the Russian handshake and does not contain noticeable differences. However, there are some peculiarities here, which should be noted. So, shaking hands among Russians is the prerogative of men, and women, as a rule, are not included in the circle of people with whom it is customary to shake hands. There are only minor exceptions, such as shaking hands on first meeting. In German culture, such behavior can be perceived as disrespectful in a woman. A handshake is regarded as a normal thing there and is accepted among women. Therefore, many Russian men are often perplexed when German women reach out to them. And German women can be outraged by the habit of Russian men to ignore them.
And finally, it is widely known that Germans and Russians build their relationships in different ways in the personal and work spheres. Unlike Germans, Russians are more inclined to combine personal and work interests. Personal connections can play an almost decisive role, for example, in choosing a business partner. Therefore, it is often almost impossible to draw a clear dividing line between personal and work relationships. Friendly relations in Russia presuppose a certain loyalty, concessions and sacrifice of one's own interests.
The principles of building personal and working relationships in Germany contrast sharply with Russians. German culture is dominated by a clear distinction between business, work and personal relationships. That is why it is difficult for many Russians to understand how, for example, former spouses can conduct a joint business and maintain a trusting business relationship immediately after a divorce. The consequence of such a high importance of personal relationships in Russia is the formation of a double morality: for close friends and for all other people.
Differences between cultures do not allow us to give the only correct assessment of the points of divergence and contact between German and Russian cultures, to describe the ideal nature of the relationship between their representatives. What is interpreted as "bad" from the perspective of the Germans may be "good" from the perspective of Russian culture and vice versa. However, despite these discrepancies, knowledge of another culture is necessary to establish tolerant relations, prevent conflict situations and optimally organize the communication process.
Intercultural Anglo-Russian Understanding
Tolerant consciousness proceeds from the recognition that ethnic culture does not determine everything in human behavior. Much of it is universal for all peoples: obtaining food, raising children, building dwellings, etc. It is for this reason that communication with representatives of other cultures often turns out to be quite successful. The practice of intercultural relations convincingly shows that not every contact with a representative of a different culture ends in a conflict, mutual misunderstanding or some kind of misunderstanding.
Specific ethnic norms of people's behavior are formed in childhood, when children copy the actions of their elders. As a person grows up, this experience is generalized, becoming a stable model of behavior. In the end, the behavior of individuals becomes instinctively unconscious, and people often act one way or another, completely without thinking about why they do it. So, the basis of the relationship of the British with the world around them is the idea of the inviolability of personal space, protecting them from adverse external influences and maintaining comfortable conditions for their full existence.
For people of other cultures, the British desire to keep their distance often comes across as an impenetrable armor that does not allow them to know what lies behind the mask of unshakable calm and outward goodwill. The British do not seek to establish close contacts with unfamiliar people and therefore tend to distance themselves when communicating so as not to inadvertently offend the interlocutor with an awkward word or offend with an immodest question.
The fact is that for the British, such an ability to bypass sharp corners, to remain silent, not to call a spade a spade has long been considered a sign of good breeding, good manners, while direct questions “on the forehead” were regarded as excessive curiosity bordering on tactlessness, as well as the conciseness of monosyllabic answers perceived as a sign of bad taste.
The British usually smooth out sharp questions in a conversation in various ways. So, for example, at the verbal level, this is achieved with the help of distancing i.e. some speculative distance from the interlocutor, providing the necessary comfort in communication. In addition, according to the traditions of English nutrition, distancing does not allow the direct expression of one's point of view (especially critical or negative), as this can lead to disagreements and end in conflict. To be properly understood by an Englishman, a foreigner must show maximum attention and tact and not ask questions of a personal nature. Generally accepted prohibitions for the British are talking about personal income, the cost of purchases, age and marital status. Hence, the verbal communication of the English is a verbal game, according to the rules of which it is not customary to touch on serious problems, as well as to go into discussions about their political preferences, family troubles and health status.
On the contrary, it is natural for Russians to talk about issues that are important to them - otherwise the conversation turns into a waste of time. It is common for Russian communication to get straight to the point. Therefore, it is often difficult for Russians to adhere to the norms of communication familiar to the British, and it is just as difficult to catch something important in a trivial, at first glance, conversation.
In the context of this feature of English culture, one should not be surprised that a person brought up in the Russian cultural tradition, where poverty has never been considered a vice, and heart-to-heart conversation is a natural norm of communication, so easily falls into a difficult situation of a cold attitude towards oneself. In his desire to establish trust and friendship by talking about how difficult it is for him, he comes across, instead of lively inquiries, a primitive exchange of insignificant phrases. And the point here is not in the absolute indifference of the English interlocutor, but in different cultural traditions of communication.
The flip side of this feature of the English character is the need to learn how to correctly perceive what the interlocutor delicately hints at. Russians, willy-nilly, have to learn to "read between the lines", to constantly guess what is really meant when they say less than they mean.
Paying tribute to the national traditions of education, the Englishman adheres to ingrained habits not to withdraw from the range of topics prescribed by etiquette, which allows him to stay at a convenient distance from the interlocutor (intimate, personal, social) depending on the situation. This inimitable ability to conduct an easy, relaxed conversation resembles a kind of game. The art of maintaining a conversation is based on the knowledge of certain "rules of the game" that allow you to constantly direct the thread of the conversation in the right direction, without going beyond the bounds of politeness. ":)these rules are based on very specific techniques that involve the use of a certain set of colloquial constructions and clichés that soften the harshness of the statement and make the conversation less straightforward. The main requirement that should be followed when communicating with the English is to build phrases in such a way that they ensured the continuation of the conversation.
When taking part in such a conversation, it is also recommended to be attentive to the possible occurrence of pauses, since a long awkward silence can nullify the results of the entire previous conversation. Long unfilled pauses when communicating with the British are unacceptable. Even when answering seemingly simple and obvious questions, it is considered impolite to confine oneself to a brief monosyllabic “yes” or “no”, and therefore it is desirable to continue the conversation in every possible way - otherwise a tense silence may follow. A person brought up in the traditions of Russian culture will not see anything reprehensible in this: silence for the Russian tradition of communication is a sign of attention and respect for the speaker. Representatives of English culture, on the contrary, experience a sense of awkwardness in such situations and try to avoid pauses by any means, using a special arsenal of speech techniques and means for this.
You can “fight” with pauses by responding to each remark of the interlocutor with a corresponding question, exclamation or an interjection that is appropriate in meaning. In the context of a conversation, these speech means act as “signs of attention” showing the interlocutor that he is not going to waste, that she is being listened to. These "signs of attention" are an immutable rule of polite communication: you must constantly monitor the progress of the conversation, from time to time emphatically expressing your approval, smiling at the same time.
Thus, a tolerant attitude towards the bearers of English culture requires mandatory knowledge from a person of culture of the noted features and traditions of communication. Ignorance or underestimation of the role of the listed forms of polite speech behavior excludes the emergence of a tolerant attitude on the part of the British towards their partners and interlocutors.
Concepts of modern natural science. Sadokhin A.P.
2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2006. - 447 p.
The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education in the discipline "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", which is included in the curricula of all humanitarian specialties of universities. The paper presents a wide panorama of concepts that illuminate various processes and phenomena in animate and inanimate nature, describes modern scientific methods of understanding the world. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the concepts of modern natural science, which have an important philosophical and methodological significance.
For students, graduate students and teachers of humanitarian faculties and universities, as well as all those interested in the philosophical issues of natural science.
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Table of contents
From author 3
Chapter 1. Science as part of culture 5
1.1. Science among other areas of culture 5
1.2. Natural science and humanitarian culture 7
1.3. Criteria of scientific knowledge 11
1.4. Structure of scientific knowledge 15
1.5. Scientific picture of the world 17
Chapter 2. Structure and methods of scientific knowledge 20
2.1. Levels and forms of scientific knowledge 20
2.2. Methods of scientific knowledge 23
2.3. Special empirical methods of scientific knowledge 25
2.4. Special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge 27
2.5. Special universal methods of scientific knowledge 29
2.6. General scientific approaches 32
2.7. Systems approach 33
2.8. Global evolutionism 38
Chapter 3. Fundamentals of natural science 49
3.1. The subject and structure of natural science 49
3.2. History of natural science 53
3.3. The Beginning of Science 54
3.4. Global scientific revolution of the late XIX - early XX century. 69
3.5. The main features of modern natural science as a science 71
Chapter 4. Physical picture of the world 75
4.1. The concept of the physical picture of the world 75
4.2. Mechanical picture of the world 78
4.3. Electromagnetic picture of the world 81
4.4. Quantum-field picture of the world 85
4.5. Correlation of dynamic and statistical laws 88
4.6. Principles of modern physics 91
Chapter 5. Modern concepts of physics 96
5.1. Structural levels of matter organization 96
5.2. Movement and physical interaction 106
5.3. Concepts of space and time in modern natural science 116
Chapter 6 Modern Cosmological Concepts 126
6.1. Cosmology and cosmogony 126
6.2. Cosmological models of the Universe 128
6.3. Origin of the Universe - Big Bang Concept 134
6.4. Structural self-organization of the Universe 138
6.5. Further complication of matter in the Universe 144
6.6. The problem of the existence and search for extraterrestrial civilizations 151
Chapter 7. Earth as a subject of natural science 157
7.1. The shape and dimensions of the Earth 157
7.2. Earth among other planets of the solar system 159
7.3. Earth formation 163
7.4. Geospheres of the Earth 170
7.5. Geodynamic processes 179
Chapter 8 Modern Concepts of Chemistry 184
8.1. Specificity of chemistry as a science 184
8.2. The first level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the composition of matter 186
8.3. The second level of chemical knowledge. Structural chemistry 193
8.4. The third level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the chemical process 197
8.5. The fourth level of chemical knowledge. Evolutionary Chemistry 205
Chapter 9. Structural levels of life 212
9.1. Structure of biological knowledge 212
9.2. Structural levels of life organization 218
Chapter 10. The Origin and Essence of Life 243
10.1. Essence of Life 243
10.2. Basic concepts of the origin of life 249
10.3. The current state of the problem of the origin of life 257
10.4. The emergence of life on Earth 260
10.5. Formation and development of the Earth's biosphere 267
10.6. Emergence of the plant and animal kingdoms 271
Chapter 11. Theory of evolution of the organic world 278
11.1. Formation of the idea of development in biology 278
11.2. Ch. Darwin's theory of evolution 284
11.3. Further development of evolutionary theory. Anti-Darwinism 289
11.4. Fundamentals of Genetics 295
11.5. Synthetic theory of evolution 301
Chapter 12. Man as a subject of natural science 308
12.1. Concepts of the origin of man 308
12.2. Similarities and differences between humans and animals 321
12.3. The essence of man. Biological and social in man 332
12.4. Ethology about human behavior 336
Chapter 13. The Phenomenon of Man in Modern Science 340
13.1. The Essence and Origins of Human Consciousness 340
13.2. Human emotions 350
13.3. Health, working capacity and human creativity 353
13.4. Bioethics 365
Chapter 14. Man and the Biosphere 372
14.1. The concept and essence of the biosphere 372
14.2. Biosphere and space 376
14.3. Man and Space 378
14.4. Man and Nature 383
14.5. The concept of the noosphere V.I. Vernadsky 393
14.6. Environmental protection 397
14.7. Rational nature management 401
14.8. Anthropic principle in modern science 407
Conclusion 413
References 414
Questions for the exam (test) on the course
"Concepts of modern natural science" 415
Glossary 416
transcript
1 A.P. Sadokhin ETHNOLOGY
2 A.P. Sadokhin ETHNOLOGY Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the humanities and areas of training MOSCOW Gardariki 2008 UDC 39 (075.8) BBK63.5 SI Reviewers: Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor N. G . Skvortsov; doctor of historical sciences, professor \V. F. Ageev\; doctor of psychological sciences, professor E. N. Bogdanov Sadokhin, A. P. C14 Ethnology: textbook / a. P. Sadokhin. 2nd ed., revised. and additional Moscow: Gardariki, p. ISBN (in translation) Schools and trends, methodological approaches and theories of ethnological science are considered, the content of the main categories and concepts is revealed. The author pays special attention to the role of ethnology in modern social and political processes. Theoretical provisions and descriptions are illustrated with specific examples from the life of different peoples. For students, teachers of the humanities profile, specialists in the field of cultural studies, sociology, political science, cultural and social anthropology. UDC 39(075.8) BBK 63.5 A fragment of the Chinese folk painting "Gardariki" was used in the design of the binding, 2005, 2008 ISBN A.P. Sadokhin, 2005, 2008 INTRODUCTION 2
3 In the era of global changes in politics, economy, culture, in the era of simultaneous rapprochement and separation of cultures and peoples, ethnic problems have acquired special significance. These changes, which in a short time transformed the entire social life, gave rise to complex problems, seriously influenced the nature of interethnic relations, revealing a huge interethnic conflict potential. In such conditions of interethnic tension, it is very important to understand what kind of society people live in and what are their opportunities to change the existing situation. The solution to these problems should be sought only based on new knowledge, ideas, theories, academic disciplines that can answer the burning questions of our time, help comprehend the social situation, form a new worldview adequate to reality. It was with these goals that new academic disciplines were included in the State Educational Standard: cultural studies, political science, the history of civilizations, which violated the monopoly position of traditional social science courses in philosophy, political economy, etc. Among the new training courses, a never-before-studied course ethnology. This discipline is designed to give students systemic knowledge about the processes of anthropogenesis and ethnogenesis, about the historical diversity of cultures, about the role of the ethnic factor in the evolution of world culture, about the features of ethnic self-awareness, about the essence of ethnic identity, about the forms and methods of interethnic communication, about the causes of ethnic conflicts and principles their regulation and authorization. The study of these problems is due to purely practical requirements for the quality of training of highly professional specialists. The fact is that modern humanity is a huge variety of different historically established communities. Among them, a special place is occupied by formations that are usually called ethnic in science: nations, nationalities, tribes, ethnic groups, etc. There are several thousand such communities in the world today. Due to the heterogeneity of socio-economic, ethnic and demographic processes, they differ sharply in terms of numbers, level of development and living conditions. In this regard, inter-ethnic clashes, wars, tensions, etc. arise. In addition, many of them are the result of massive social ignorance. That is why scientific and practical knowledge of ethnology has become socially necessary. In order for them to become widespread in society, conditions are required for their transmission through the education system, appropriate teaching aids are needed. The purpose of this textbook is precisely to give students the necessary ethnological knowledge that can be useful in their professional activities and practical life. Based on this, priority attention in its content is given to those sections of ethnology that relate to the problems of the formation of ethnic groups and 3
4 races, ethnic stereotypes of consciousness and ethnic psychology, forms and methods of interaction between ethnic communities, the causes of interethnic conflicts and methods of managing them, explaining the processes of people's adaptation to a changing socio-cultural environment. The knowledge of interethnic and ethnocultural processes is a rather difficult task due to the inconsistency and ambiguity of the latter. For our education system, this circumstance is aggravated by the fact that most of the main sections of ethnology in Russian science still remain debatable. Therefore, as it seems to the author, here one should follow the traditional and repeatedly justified path: to begin the study of ethnology with the formation of ethnological science, the characteristics of its subject and research methods, as well as a brief analytical review of the main scientific areas 1. These areas are presented in chronological order, according to their appearance in the course of the historical development of ethnology. Moreover, the main attention is paid only to those initial foundations and main ideas that are directly related to the study of ethnic societies and their cultures; their instrumental working elements and the limits of application of the developed theories are especially emphasized. All subsequent topics of the textbook are devoted to theoretical issues: the main theories of ethnicity and the classification of ethnic groups, thanks to which the entire process of sociocultural development acquires a systemic and orderly character; the processes of anthropogenesis and ethnogenesis, which explain the fact of the anthropological diversity of mankind and the presence of its own distinctive features in each race; mechanisms for the formation of the psychology of an ethnos and a person's awareness of his belonging to his native ethnos. The formation of ethnology as an independent science began with the study by Europeans of the cultures of "foreign" peoples. The study of ethnic groups through the diversity of their cultures remains one of the main sections of ethnology at the present time. And here the most important questions are the functional purpose of ethnic culture, its levels, and the relationship with other types of cultures. At the same time, the problem of coexistence of cultures with different levels of development has long been under the scrutiny of scientists. The qualitative differences between traditional and modernized cultures, their structural features, the significance of rituals, customs and rituals in the ethno-cultural process help to better understand the uniqueness of each of them. Finally, the existence and development of any ethnic group largely depends on its relationship with other ethnic groups. Knowledge of various types of interethnic and ethnocultural contacts is called upon to explain the mechanism. 1 This approach is also evidenced by the experience of building foreign textbooks on ethnology, in particular in Germany, where this science has been taught at universities for more than half a century. four
5 development and functioning of modern ethnic processes, forms of translation of cultural experience and ways of assimilation by a person of a different ethnic socio-cultural environment. As representatives of various sciences note, the entire modern world is under the influence of opposite trends: integration and differentiation. Therefore, interethnic communications lead both to the progressive convergence of ethnic groups, and to no less serious processes of alienation and hostility. The question of the nature and determinants of interethnic conflicts remains the most acute and relevant in modern ethnology. The task of this textbook did not include an absolutely complete and systematic exposition of the entire content of ethnological science. Taking into account the needs of the educational process, the author initially deliberately limited his work only to educational goals and objectives, refusing to analyze numerous particular manifestations of ethnic processes, from theories and concepts that did not justify themselves. All attention was focused, first of all, on those issues and problems, the knowledge of which is required by the State Educational Standard. In conclusion, I would like to express my gratitude to the teachers of higher education and fellow scientists, whose comments and advice greatly helped in the work on this textbook. The author expresses special gratitude to the Konrad Adenauer Foundation for the opportunity of scientific work in the libraries of the universities of Munich, Cologne, Freiburg and German educational literature on ethnology, acquired by the Foundation for the author. 5
6 Chapter 1. ETHNOLOGY AS A SCIENCE, ITS SUBJECT, METHODS AND INTERRELATION WITH RELATED DISCIPLINES 1.1. Formation of ethnology as a science Subject of ethnology Methods of ethnology Connection of ethnology with other sciences 1.1. Formation of ethnology as a science Prehistory of ethnology. The history of any field of scientific knowledge more or less clearly shows that its emergence has always been dictated by practical needs. The emergence of ethnology as an independent science is no exception in this respect. Numerous historical studies of ethnologists from different countries convince us that throughout the history of mankind (from the primitive state to the present day), people have had and still have a need for knowledge about the culture, traditions and customs of not only “their” people, but also the inhabitants neighboring countries. Such knowledge made it easier to navigate in the world around us, to feel safer and more confident in it. We find ethnographic information about close and distant peoples in myths, fairy tales, legends, in inscriptions that have survived to this day, graphic images and other written monuments of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and other ancient states. By the era of antiquity, quite a lot of information of this kind had been accumulated, they were accurate and detailed. Therefore, already in ancient Greece and Rome, attempts were made to bring them into a system. They became the basis for the first ethnographic descriptions. Their characteristic feature was ethnocentrism, i.e. the division of peoples according to the level of their cultural development into civilized and wild, and their own culture served as the standard. Demographic, ecological and social changes of the early Middle Ages led to the fact that interest in ethnographic knowledge is falling in Western Europe. Byzantium, China and the Arab East become the leading centers of their accumulation and storage. The revival of interest in knowledge about other peoples and countries in Western Europe was due to the Catholic Church and state colonial policy. The Crusades, the travels of missionaries and merchants, the great geographical discoveries allowed Europeans to collect extensive information about the peoples of Africa, America, Southeast Asia, and later Oceania and Australia. From the Age of Enlightenment (XVIII century) begins the immediate prehistory of ethnology as a special science of peoples. At that time, the theory of geographical determinism dominated, according to which man, peoples and cultures were considered as products of the natural environment. The idea of the “noble wild 6
7 row”, living according to the laws of nature. Thanks to evolution, he has become a modern civilized person living according to the laws of society. Extensive ethnographic material thus became the basis for constructing a theory of the progressive development of individual peoples and their cultures. The emergence of an independent science of peoples occurred in the middle of the 19th century. and was associated with the urgent need for a theoretical explanation of differences in the cultural development of peoples, understanding the mechanisms of formation and characteristics of ethnic psychology, elucidating the causes of racial differences, establishing the relationship between ethnic characteristics and social structure, determining the causes of the flourishing and decline of culture and the historical role of this or that people. In response to these problems, theories and concepts began to appear, scientific directions and schools were formed, which gradually transformed into a single science of peoples, called ethnology. The term "ethnology" itself is taken from the Greek language and consists of two words etnos (people) and logos (word, science). In ancient times, the ancient Greeks called ethnos other peoples (non-Greeks), which differed from them in language, customs, beliefs, lifestyle, values, etc. In this sense, it entered the Roman culture and the Latin language. In connection with its Latinization, the adjective "ethnic" (ethnicos) appears, which is used in biblical texts in the sense of "pagan, non-Christian". Up until the 19th century. the concept of "ethnology" was used only sporadically in describing various kinds of ethnographic processes, but not as a designation of a special science. It was proposed to use it as the name of the emerging science of peoples and cultures by the French scientist Jean-Jacques Ampère, who in 1830 developed a general classification of the "anthropological" (i.e., humanities) sciences, among which he singled out ethnology. This name quickly became widespread in the largest European countries, and from the middle of the 19th century. entered the Russian language. The official fact of the establishment of ethnology as an independent science was the foundation in 1839 of the Parisian Society of Ethnology. However, this event was immediately marked by the beginning of sharp scientific-theoretical disputes between various areas and schools about the subject, goals and place of this science, which to a certain extent have not stopped today. One of the longest and most controversial was the question of the content and meaning of the very name of science. As a result of many years of discussions, a rather diverse and variegated picture of the meanings and interpretations of the concept of "ethnology" has developed. Mid 19th century turned out to be very favorable for the rapid development of ethnology in the leading Western European countries. This process was stimulated by the global territorial expansion of the Europeans, during which they encountered peoples and cultures quite different from the 7
8 their own. Colonial politics required a wide variety of knowledge about the conquered peoples. Only ethnology could provide the bulk of the necessary information, and therefore the new science enjoyed the support of the state. Initially, it developed as a science about the "backward", i.e. peoples who did not create their own statehood. But in the first decades of the 20th century, ideas about "ethnic groups" appeared as a kind of communities of people that do not depend on the level of socio-economic development. This methodological approach dominates in ethnological science even today. At the same time, in accordance with the political and economic interests in England, Germany, France, Austria, and the USA, the formation of ethnology in each of these countries had its own characteristics. Development of ethnology in Germany. The science of peoples has the deepest traditions in Germany, where as early as 1789 the scientific direction Völkerkunde was formed, which aimed at studying non-European peoples and cultures. In the 1830s for the general name of the descriptions of all other peoples made by German travelers and scientists, the term "ethnology" was introduced. Around the middle of the 19th century the concepts of "Völkerkunde" and "ethnology" began to be considered (and are currently considered) as synonyms. Both of them denoted a monographic and comparative science of human cultures. At the same time, in the German science of peoples, another direction has developed, called "Völkskunde" (ethnology), which studied mainly German-speaking peoples and their cultures. This direction is also preserved today in German science. Development of ethnology in Great Britain. In English-speaking countries, the science of peoples developed as an integral part of anthropology. Scientists associate the emergence of anthropology as a biological science of human nature with the publication in 1596 of a book by O. Gasmann with the same title. In the XVIII century. thanks to colonization, increased attention to demographic and racial processes, it is experiencing rapid development. At the beginning of the XIX century. in the leading European countries, anthropological societies arise, the purpose of which was to study the remains of primitive people. And already in the middle of the century, on the basis of studies of the skulls and skeletons of Neanderthals, the task of reconstructing the history of mankind and culture was set. Thus, in the composition of anthropology, a new scientific direction appeared, called social anthropology. It was introduced into scientific circulation by one of the founders of English ethnology, James Fraser. In 1906, he defined his direction of ethnological research with this term, thus emphasizing the difference from the cultural anthropology studied by Edward Tylor. The concept of "social anthropology" quickly became widespread and became the English version of the term "ethnology". Currently, representatives of English social anthropology focus their scientific interests on the study of various ethnic groups as carriers of diverse cultural traditions. eight
9 Formation of ethnology in the USA. In the United States, ethnology arose later than in Europe. Due to the ethnic identity of the country and the acute problem of race relations, American anthropology was initially focused on research in the field of physical anthropology, on racial and cultural differences. This direction of development was set by the founder of American ethnology, Lewis Henry Morgan, a multifaceted and talented scientist. His studies of kinship systems in primitive cultures, the classification of types of family and marriage relations, the periodization of human history for decades predetermined the topics of research by American ethnologists. However, in the mid-1950s thanks to Franz Boas, the scientific guidelines of US ethnology are significantly narrowed, limited to the problems of the cultural characteristics of peoples. This direction, called "cultural anthropology" by Boas, later began to include any ethnocultural studies and thus became an American synonym for the concept of "ethnology". Development of ethnology in France. In France, in connection with the active policy of colonization, the leaders of the state constantly felt the need for thorough and detailed information about the peculiarities of the way of life, culture and traditions of dependent peoples. Therefore, the science of peoples was called ethnography there (from the Greek ethnos people and graphien description). And this name remained until the end of the 19th century, when the scientific inferiority of ethnographic materials was realized due to the lack of historical data and theoretical generalizations in them. The addition of ethnographic descriptions with historical and theoretical materials allowed ethnography at the beginning of the 20th century. to be transformed into ethnology, which still retains this name. Development of ethnology in Russia. Interest in ethnic problems appeared in Russia in the second half of the 18th century, when, for the first time in Russian public thought, questions were raised about the place and role of one's fatherland among other peoples, about the historical roots of the Russian people, about the peculiarities of Russian culture, etc. But the theoretical understanding of these problems in Russian culture is connected with Slavophilism, one of the directions of Russian social thought in the 1990s. Proceeding from the idea of Russia's messianic role in the world, the Slavophiles considered it their duty to develop the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, to preserve its national identity. As an independent science, ethnology in Russia developed at the same time as in the West, i.e. in the middle of the XIX century. The establishment in 1845 of the Russian Geographical Society is considered to be the beginning of Russian ethnology. In the same year, the chairman of the department of ethnography K.M. Baer made a keynote speech "On ethnographic research in general, and in Russia in particular." According to his ideas, the main work of the department of ethnography should focus on a comprehensive study of Russia: its geography, natural resources and peoples. State interests require 9
10 Vali also information about the peoples of Siberia, the Far East, Central Asia, the Caucasus. To do this, an ethnographic department was created in the Geographical Society, which was tasked with studying the “mental abilities of the Russian people”, their ways of life, customs, religions, prejudices, languages, fairy tales, etc. At the same time, the program "On the ethnographic study of the Russian people" was adopted, in accordance with which all ethnographic studies were carried out. Ideas K.M. Baer was developed, concretized and actively implemented by N.I. Nadezhdin. He was the ideological leader of a group of young scientists who set as their goal the ethnographic study of the Russian people. At one of the meetings of the Geographical Society in 1846, Nadezhdin presented the program “On the Ethnographic Study of the Russian Nationality”, which included a description of 1) material life, 2) everyday life, 3) moral life, 4) language. Moral life included all the phenomena of spiritual culture and among them "folk characteristics". This also included a description of mental and moral abilities, family relationships and features of raising children. A special place in the history of Russian science of peoples is occupied by the scientific activity of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay. He sought to prove the unity of the human race, the physical and mental equivalence of all races and peoples, to substantiate the idea that all differences between peoples are caused by natural and social conditions. The study of the Papuans of New Guinea and other peoples of Oceania, their material and spiritual culture, psychology and social relations allowed the scientist to reasonably reject racist theories. And although his writings do not explore the actual theoretical problems of ethnology, they nevertheless contain rich observations and materials for such generalizations. At the turn of the XIX XX centuries. a significant contribution to the development of national ethnology was made by the works of the famous philosopher G.G. Shpet. In his book "Introduction to Ethnic Psychology" Shpet proposes to explore national psychology through understanding the meaning of objective cultural phenomena, in which the typical subjective feelings of the people are imprinted. In accordance with this, the key to understanding the psychology of a people is its culture, history, concrete social reality, which together determine the content of the collective spirit of the nation. The “spirit of peoples”, according to Shpet, symbolizes the meaning and idea of the “people”, which are revealed in the typological images of its composition and changes over time. "Spirit" in this sense is a collection of characteristic features of the "behavior" of the people. Together with the constancy of "dispositions" it represents the national character. This subjective character should be understood as the totality of people's reactions to circumstances in which they themselves participate, to relations objectively given to them. ten
11 During the Soviet period, Russian ethnology paid special attention to interethnic relations. As a rule, they were studied on the basis of statistical data on everyday behavior and specific actions of people. Thus, the friendship of peoples was assessed by the number of representatives of various nationalities at large all-Union construction projects or by the number of interethnic marriages. On the whole, studies of the ethnic problems of this period were politically commissioned and did not reveal all the processes of ethnic development. Such cardinal problems as ethnic identity, ethnic consciousness, interethnic conflicts, etc. remained outside the field of view of scientists. However, a galaxy of scientists of that time (V.G. Bogoraz, P.F. Preobrazhensky, S.P. Tolstov, B.A. Kuftin, S. Rudenko, N.N. Cheboksarov, S.A. Tokarev, Yu.V. Bromley, etc. ) theories of economic and cultural types and historical and ethnographic areas have been created, and versatile research has been carried out in the field of regional ethnology. Finally, at the turn of the 19th a notable phenomenon in Russian ethnology was the concept of ethnogenesis by L.N. Gumilyov, explaining the mechanism of the emergence and development of ethnic groups. At present, the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences is the main research center for national ethnology. Ethnology today. Of course, modern ethnological science has been significantly enriched compared to past times. The sphere of her professional interest now includes not only "backward" ethnic groups, but also the peoples of modern industrial societies. At the intersection of ethnology with other sciences, many related disciplines arose: ethnosociology, ethnopsychology, ethnolinguistics, ethnodemography, etc. In ethnology, the features of a new social science, synthesizing various knowledge about man and his culture, are becoming more and more clear. As before, ethnology retains its connection with real social processes, which is direct evidence of the importance of this science today. Even a superficial analysis of the main historical events of the XX century. allows us to conclude that the role of the ethnic factor in the cultural and historical process is growing. Ethnic processes serve as the basis for national movements in politics. The recently past century is rightfully considered the century of national ideologies, national movements, the century of nationalism. The constantly accelerating pace of the cultural and historical development of peoples stimulates interethnic interactions and national liberation movements. The specific results of these processes were embodied in the acquisition of state independence by Norway and Ireland, Poland, Finland, the Baltic republics, in the emergence of national states in Central Europe and the Balkans after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Sultan Turkey. The collapse of the colonial system after the Second World War led to the formation of a whole
12th row of independent states in Southeast Asia, Indochina, Africa. Finally, the centrifugal tendencies of the 1990s, which culminated in the creation of nation-states instead of the former USSR, as well as frictions and conflicts on ethnic grounds and with an ethnic-political tinge, which have been either fading or escalating for decades in the most seemingly prosperous regions and countries of the world, the contradictions between the Flemings and the Walloons in Belgium, between the French and English-speaking residents of Canada, convincingly confirm that the ethnic factor is extremely relevant today. This outburst of ethnicity requires ethnology to answer the question of its causes, to build a theoretical model of ethnic processes. And if in the first half of the century, research was mainly academic in nature and was determined by the desire to preserve information about the “primitive” cultures that are fading into the past, then from the second half the situation changes radically. The current historical situation dictates to ethnology the need to study not only traditional, but also modernized, for the most part, multi-ethnic societies. The solution of ethnic problems becomes the key to the survival of mankind. In addition, the recommendations and knowledge of ethnologists are effectively used in various spheres of public life in politics, economics, the social field, they are necessary in mass communications, international trade, diplomacy, etc. Accordingly, ethnological science itself has become better funded, which contributes to the activation of field, theoretical and methodological research. From the beginning of the formation of ethnology as a science to the present, a cross-cutting theme of its research has been the genesis of ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. Initially, on the basis of extremely limited and scattered information about the early periods of human existence, scientists built (and continue to build, having, of course, a more solid scientific "baggage") generalizing ethnological theories. And although their authors claimed and claim to be an accurate reconstruction of historical reality, the results of the construction should not be identified with "what really happened." Most often, these constructions can be regarded as conceptual models, which at best are simplified idealized schemes that serve as a starting point for ordering empirical material. "Primitive" peoples as a subject of ethnology. Comparison of such theoretical models allows us to conclude that historically 12
The first subject of ethnology as a science was the peoples at a much lower level of cultural development than the Europeans. Therefore, originally ethnology was a science dealing with the study of traditional and "primitive" societies and their cultures. Such a methodological approach in defining the subject of ethnology was due to the fact that by the end of the 19th century. as a result of the modernization processes, almost all European peoples managed to create a qualitatively new type of civilization, significantly superior to all others created on the planet. As a result of rapid technological development and confidence in the limitlessness of human progress, Europeans began to believe that the historical place of culturally backward peoples should not be next to them, but far behind. These peoples were for the Europeans in some way "living ancestors", subject to study and subjugation. To fix this difference, the Europeans began to call the backward peoples the Latin word "primitive", which literally translates as "the first". The new word became widespread in the rapidly developing ethnology, as it fit very well into the classification system of cultures, based on the criterion of the achieved level of technological development. Based on this classification, primitive peoples and their cultures became the main objects of the emerging ethnology, which is most convincingly evidenced by the works of the most famous founders of ethnology in the 19th century. L.G. Morgan ("Ancient Society") and E. Tylor ("Primitive Culture"). The early works of the founders of German ethnology T. Weitz and A. Bastian are also devoted to descriptions of "primitive peoples" that had no past, which were opposed to "cultural peoples" that had their own history. The latter, of course, included the peoples of Europe, who made history by rapidly conquering nature, while the primitive peoples were helpless in front of the world around them because of their laziness, inertia and unbridledness. Changing the subject of ethnology in the XX century. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, ethnology began to be taught at universities. Thanks to this circumstance, a new generation of theoretical scientists came to it, which replaced the generation of founding practitioners. With the change of generations of researchers in ethnology, ideas about the subject of science itself also change. First of all, the ideas about the division of peoples into primitive (primitive) and civilized were criticized. Many scientists began to adhere to the conviction that the so-called primitive peoples, like the Europeans, have their own history and are not at an earlier stage in the development of mankind, being removed from primitiveness, like us. In defining them as primitive, it is only true that in the course of their history they formed a different attitude towards the world around them. This point of view was quite convincingly expressed by the famous German ethnologist Richard Thurnwald. Analyzing the concept of "primitive 13
14 people," he wrote, "One factor seems particularly important: the degree to which nature is conquered by means of tools, devices, skills, and knowledge. "Primitive" is better to call such tribes that use only the simplest tools for obtaining food and arranging life and have meager knowledge about the world around them. If we proceed from the criteria of technical equipment and knowledge of physical laws, then the "primitive peoples" defined by Thurnwald as "people who conquered nature" are indeed more dependent on nature than modern industrial societies. However, it is also undoubtedly true for the latter that their independence from nature has now become a dependence on technology, which has become the “second nature” of modern man. Based on these arguments, the supporters of this point of view proposed to retain the term “primitive peoples” in ethnology, but to understand by it those societies and cultures that have maintained social stability due to a balanced, non-consumer attitude towards nature. Another part of the scientists opposed the retention of the term "primitive peoples", since it implies the use of the term "cultural peoples", and such a contrast gives the first concept a pejorative meaning. Indeed, there is not a single human society that would not have a culture, even if we talk about the people of the Stone Age who created the first stone tools. After all, culture is a generic quality of a person, his essential characteristic, reflecting the unique ability of a person to transform the world around him. This distinguishes man from other living organisms of our planet, adapting to the environment. In the world, there is no human being in his primordial state at all, as it seemed to scientists at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Each person appears at the same time both as a civilized being and as a creator of culture, so talking about “uncivilized” and “cultured” peoples is meaningless. We can only talk about different types of cultures, the study of which should become the main subject of ethnology. In this regard, instead of the term "primitive peoples", scientists proposed other terms and concepts that, in their opinion, are more consistent with the new subject area of ethnology. It was proposed to introduce the names “archaic cultures”, “pre-industrial societies”, “traditional societies”, “unliterate cultures”, “tribal union”, etc. into the conceptual apparatus of ethnology. Each of them sought to express the corresponding features of ethnic cultures, and therefore all of them have been preserved in modern ethnology, without replacing the concept of "primitive peoples". The diversity of points of view and concepts is reflected in the understanding of the subject of ethnological science. In the course of discussions and disputes, the following options emerged. fourteen
15 A descriptive and generalizing science that seeks to investigate the general laws of the social and cultural development of man and humanity. Comparative science that studies different types of cultures and ways to transform them. Branch of sociology, the object of study of which are primitive and traditional social systems. The science of the dynamics of culture as an artificial, extra-natural world of man. A science that, through comparative analysis, is called upon to study the culture of primitive, traditional and modern societies. Historical events and processes of the XX century. led scientists to the conviction that any nation has the right to an independent life, to a distinctive culture, to the right to be equal in the community of peoples. The prevailing among ethnologists was the belief that there are no "backward" and "advanced" peoples, all peoples are equal. The cultures of peoples can only be evaluated functionally, in relation to their community, i.e. from the standpoint of how effectively they provide the life of a particular people. Expansion of the subject of ethnology in our days. The rapidly changing situation in the world in recent decades has again forced scientists to turn to the issue of the subject of ethnology. Numerous diasporas of migrants and refugees in Europe and North America, formed as a result of various kinds of conflicts, have significantly changed the ethnic composition of many developed countries. On the other hand, the integration processes in the countries of Western Europe also gave rise to a whole group of ethnic problems. Of these, the most relevant today are the combination of types of behavior of different peoples, the interaction and coexistence of different types of cultures, the mutual adaptation of psychological characteristics in conditions of stable intercultural contacts, the development of ethnic consciousness in non-traditional conditions, and the peculiarities of the economic behavior of representatives of any ethnic group in another economic culture. To date, ethnological science is a rather complex and branched system of knowledge, consisting of the following sections: ethnic anthropology (explores the problems of ethnogenesis and anthropophysical development of peoples); ethnic sociology (social aspects of the development and functioning of ethnic groups, their identity, forms of self-organization, types of interactions between ethnic groups); ethnic psychology (formation of ethnic stereotypes, ethnic identity and identification); fifteen
16 economic ethnology (economic and economic activities of ethnic groups); ethnodemography (demographic processes and population dynamics); ethnic geography (settlement of peoples, features of their place of development, ethnic territories and ethnic boundaries); ethnopedagogy (features of the upbringing and educational process among various ethnic groups). The process of differentiation of ethnological science is still far from complete, and in the next two decades we should expect the emergence of new directions. Thus, the subject of ethnology is constantly expanding, which does not allow a clear definition of this science. Therefore, both in domestic and foreign ethnology, there are quite a large number of definitions based on various methodological approaches, which, in the opinion of their authors, emphasize the most essential features of ethnological science. The plurality of definitions of the subject of study of ethnology is partly explained by different formulations of questions, partly by the presence of various theories and concepts. Taken together, all these definitions of the subject of science, different ways of posing problems, their explanations and descriptions constitute ethnology as a science as a whole. In such a situation of dynamic changes in the subject field of ethnology, the author does not undertake to give another definition of this science. However, for a more rigorous and systematized presentation of the materials of this textbook and for a thorough study of ethnology by a student audience, it is necessary to introduce at least a working definition. By no means claiming to be a universal and the only true approach, we believe that ethnology is a science that studies the processes of formation and development of ethnic groups, their identity, forms of their cultural self-organization, patterns of collective behavior and interaction, the relationship of the individual and the social environment. Thus, the subject field of modern ethnology is very wide, and its various directions intersect to one degree or another with close, related sciences. This is especially true of ethnography, cultural studies, sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science. Methods of ethnology Each science involves the study of its object with the help of the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by it and the corresponding methods, allowing to obtain a more complete and accurate knowledge of the object under study. Modern science has a fairly large number of methods of cognition. In general, all of them can be divided into general scientific and special, used in various combinations and combinations depending on the specifics of the studied 16
17 objects. Of the general scientific methods, ethnology prefers the historical and sociological, and of the special methods of field research. The method of field research is one of the main ones in the study of ethnic groups and ethnic processes. It has been widely practiced since the middle of the 19th century, when the governments of the colonial powers had an urgent need for detailed knowledge about dependent peoples, their economic activities, customs, beliefs, psychology, etc. The essence of the method lies in the long stay of the researcher in the place of residence of the studied ethnic group, in getting used to the studied ethnic environment. The researcher, as a rule, participates in the life of the studied ethnic group as its full member. Hence the value of the method of field research lies in the fact that the ethnologist becomes a witness and accomplice of the life of an ethnos. It is natural that the fruitfulness and effectiveness of this method are directly proportional to the amount of time the researcher spent in the studied ethnic group. Along with the advantages, this method also has disadvantages, the main of which is the conduct of field research at a convenient and favorable time for the researcher, while observations and research stop during the off-season. The historical method, in turn, is based on such methods of collecting information as the study of archaeological materials and written sources. The study of archaeological materials makes it possible to restore and reconstruct the ethnic and cultural history of peoples. This method is the most reliable and reliable way to obtain primary information: thanks to modern methods of studying and dating archaeological materials, it allows you to fairly accurately determine the time of historical events or the age of cultural objects. The study of written sources is also a very reliable way of obtaining information, since various kinds of written sources have received a preliminary assessment of their credibility by their own compilers. As written sources, historical biographies of peoples, compiled by themselves or representatives of other peoples, are usually used. There are other types of written sources that are of interest to ethnologists: reports and descriptions of participants in geographical expeditions, reports of diplomats and missionaries, reports of ship captains, merchants, travelers, etc. Currently, in the church, museum and historical archives of the leading European countries, numerous unexplored written materials are waiting in the wings, which probably contain a lot of useful and valuable information about the life and cultures of the peoples of different countries and historical eras. 17
18 Among other methods of ethnological research, of no small importance is given to comparative linguistics, the essence of which is to compare certain words and terms from different languages and establish the relationship of close languages and the degree of their relationship. It has long been no secret to linguists that languages develop at different rates. At the same time, in some of them, many new words appear or are borrowed in a short time under the influence of other languages, which, on the contrary, remain static and do not change over many centuries. If we proceed from the axiom that in any culture words and deeds are inextricably linked with each other, then systematized comparisons of words from several languages make it possible to trace the development of culture and cultural relations between different peoples. The disappearance of some words or their replacement by synonyms from other languages are also important indicators of the interaction of cultures. Of course, the method of comparative linguistics requires the scientist to have a good knowledge of the relevant languages, and, above all, the laws of their word formation. The sociological method is a set of research methods, techniques and procedures for collecting, processing and analyzing information and data of interest to ethnological science. It includes a group of private methods for obtaining ethno-sociological information, among which the most common are surveys (questionnaires and interviews), sample surveys, and observation. The sociological method is used to collect information on certain issues or in connection with certain events in the life of ethnic groups (interethnic conflicts, changes in ethnic boundaries, problems of ethnic identity, interethnic contacts, etc.). With the help of a survey, most of the ethnological information is collected in the world. Researchers consider this method to be an almost universal method of cognition, since it allows obtaining information about the feelings, motives, attitudes, motivations of people that guide them in their daily behavior. In addition to studying subjective states, using the survey method, one can also obtain information about the objective phenomena of the life of ethnic groups that are not recorded in documentary sources. In ethnic sociology, two types of survey are distinguished: continuous and selective. In turn, within the framework of a continuous survey, a special type of census is singled out, in which the entire population of a country, ethnic community or group is surveyed. For ethnologists, the census is of great importance, as it contains information on a wide range of issues, including ethnicity (nationality), language, socio-economic, socio-cultural and demographic indicators. Moreover, this information is already presented in a systematized, ordered form. eighteen
19 An important feature of censuses is that during their conduct, people themselves determine their ethnicity by self-awareness, which makes it possible to more accurately identify not only the ethnic composition of the country, but also the hierarchy of many ethnic groups, the presence of ethnographic, ethnocultural and territorial groups in them. At the same time, the collected information is tied to a very specific period of time and concerns every inhabitant of the country or a member of an ethnic community. An equally important and reliable method is a selective study. Its essence lies in making a judgment about unknown phenomena or processes of the general population according to its sample statistics. The popularity of this method is largely due to the fact that ethnologists often do not have the opportunity to conduct continuous comprehensive surveys of ethnic processes or ethnic groups of individual regions. Therefore, as a rule, research is carried out selectively on a limited range of problems or objects of research, or on individual ethnic groups. The data obtained on a limited scale reflect the totality of the studied processes and serve as representative indicators for it. The method of observation is a purposeful, systematic, direct visual perception and registration of ethnic phenomena, processes that are significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study, as well as individual features and properties of the studied ethnic groups and communities. Its essence lies in the observation of the image. life, interactions, customs, mores and traditions of tribes, ethnic groups and communities. The method of observation has narrow limits, since the observer, while selecting impressions, cannot be completely distracted from their own assessment. For this reason, this method is most often used in the initial acquaintance with the object of study, as well as in the study of ethnic groups and national minorities. The methodological base of modern ethnology is not limited to the mentioned methods of scientific knowledge. Modern processes of mutual integration of various spheres of scientific knowledge increasingly lead to the use of scientific methods of various related disciplines in ethnology. The methods of ethnography, demography, semiotics, psychology, and applied sociology are especially useful and fruitful here. Relationship of ethnology with other sciences every aspect of human life activity is studied by the corresponding science. Ethnology directly interacts with these sciences, among which anthropology, sociology, cultural studies, ethnography, political science, and geography are closest to it in terms of the subject of their research. 19
20 Ethnology and anthropology. Anthropology is especially close to ethnology, since both sciences have a common subject of research: the origin of races, their distribution across regions and continents, changes in the physical appearance of people as a result of the cultural and historical process, and the anthropological composition of ethnic groups. At the same time, each of the sciences retains its independence due to its own methodological foundations and research aspects. Thus, anthropology was and remains the science of the biological and physical nature of man. Ethnology is focused on the study of social changes and changes in ethnic communities. Currently, there is some uncertainty in the relationship between ethnology and anthropology, caused by the development of such scientific areas as social anthropology and cultural anthropology. The emergence of these two directions was determined by different points of view on the subject of anthropology in British and American sciences. Without going into an analysis of a lengthy discussion about the subject and specifics of each of the areas, we note that social and cultural anthropology should be considered as "two sides of the same coin", i.e. as two scientific directions studying the same object in different aspects. Social anthropology studies, first of all, group relations and social processes. Its subject is the social organization of human life and its life world in traditional and modern societies. Communities of people united by similar living conditions, such as a single place of residence, political organization, a common culture and language, act as specific objects of research. The subject area of cultural anthropology is limited to the relationship between man and culture, questions of the origin (genesis), structure (morphology) and development (dynamics and diversity) of culture within a specific historical social organization. At the same time, society is considered as a natural or artificial environment for the existence of a person and culture. At the same time, in modern Western and Russian scientific literature, the point of view is widespread that ethnology, cultural anthropology and social anthropology are different names for the same science. However, a careful analysis of each of these three scientific areas reveals that this kind of identification is very conditional and not always legitimate. In fact, the term "ethnology" also exists in Western science and means approximately the same thing as in Russia. Cultural anthropology from the very beginning of its inception acted as a discipline that studies the processes of culture formation, in contrast to physical anthropology as a science about the variability of the physical type of a person. Its relationship with ethnology is that it uses its descriptive, field materials to prove and test its concepts.
21 tsy. For its part, ethnology uses the data of cultural anthropology for its theoretical generalizations. The relationship of ethnology with social anthropology is somewhat different. Since its inception, social anthropology has been aimed at studying the features of the social organization of the peoples of the world. The very term "social anthropology" was introduced into scientific circulation by the founder of English ethnography, George Fraser, who opposed this direction of human research to physical anthropology. Social anthropology is rather closer to sociology than to ethnology, since it does not include ethnic communities in the subject of its research. Ethnology and sociology. Ethnic groups as an object of study of ethnology are the result of the development of not only natural, but also socio-cultural processes. Therefore, ethnology includes the sociological and cultural aspects of the study of ethnic processes and thus intersects with sociology and cultural studies. At the same time, it should be noted that sociology and ethnology have a common history and common roots. Initially, sociology developed as a science about the forms of joint life and activity of people, and therefore the forms of human sociality became the subject of its study: social groups and strata, social structure, social institutions, etc. The central category of sociology, society, denotes the forms of ties between people, as a rule, living together and acting on a common territory. Thus, sociology focuses on the study of forms of human sociality or forms of social interaction. These elements of social relations are also of scientific interest for ethnology, since its subject field includes issues of sustainable forms, patterns of human behavior in society. But ethnology studies them in other ways. Sociology strives to study large and complex communities, the whole society as a system, socio-structural ties, the dynamics of socio-cultural systems at the macro level. For ethnology, the social structures of ethnic communities, the social dynamics of ethnic cultures, the social differentiation of ethnic groups, ethnic self-awareness, the ethnic characteristics of the psyche of different peoples, etc., are of the greatest interest. In other words, ethnology studies social processes and phenomena in different ethnic environments and ethnic processes in social groups. In addition, the discrepancy between sociology and ethnology is found in methodology. Although both sciences rely on common research methods (observation, questioning, document analysis, etc.) ), but they use them differently. A sociologist, as a rule, works with written sources and documents, and an ethnologist with oral and non-verbal ones (colloquial speech, images, drawings, gestures, facial expressions, etc.). When studying documentary sources, a sociologist turns to typical, standardized documents, and 21
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